Nonconsumptive effects of predators may consequently amplify in food webs and cause cascading

effects that exceed effects on direct prey consumption

Mechanisms of nonconsumptive effects are unknown

Copepods imbue water with a chemical signature called copepodamides

Prey senses this and respond by activating their defenses or other traits to avoid predation

algae senses this and produce more toxins which have been found to deter more grazers from feeding
on the algae

copepodamides induce paralytic shellfish toxin production in dinoflagellates

algae ay phytoplankton and zooplankton eats phytoplankton

diatom and dinoflagellate are phytoplankton

copepods are zooplankton

there are dinoflagellates that do and do not photosynthesize, the former is phyto the latter is
microzooplankton

mesozooplankton eat microzooplankton