Stabilizing Sand Roads with
Wood Products and Byproducts
Mark L. Russell
Significant regions of the United States are covered with unstable sands
that present traction and maintenance problems on unsurfaced, low-
volume roads. Gravel for road surfacing is often unavailable or expen-
sive because of the lack of local gravel deposits. The majority of these
sandy areas occur in forested lands with thriving timber and paper
industries. The objectives of this study were to review the various wood
products and byproducts that are available and carry out a qualita-
tive evaluation of their potential for stabilizing low-volume roads in
unstable sands. Wood-related materials may provide cost-effective and
environmentally beneficial alternatives for road stabilization materials
in areas where gravel is not available or economical for use. The results
of a literature search and market survey of wood products, byproducts,
and paper mill byproducts are presented along with grain-size distri-
bution test results for unstable sands and some materials. The perfor-
mance of U.S. Forest Service roads previously stabilized with wood
chips, chunkwood, and paper mill sludge was evaluated by site observa-
tion. Most of the materials were found to be at least marginally effective
in some environments. Paper mill boiler ash shows particular promise
as a recycled material for road stabilization and is recommended for
further study.
There are hundreds of thousands of miles of low-volume roads in the
United States. The U.S. Forest Service (USFS) alone maintains more
than 380,000 mi (611,550 km) of forest roads, the majority of which
are not paved or surfaced with gravel. Many of these unsurfaced
roads are located in areas of sandy soils that are naturally unstable
and where vehicle traction and road maintenance are problematic
(Figure 1).
Unstable sands occur locally in many places, such as stream
beds and washes, but wide regions of the United States are cov-
ered predominantly by unstable sands. Because of the wide extent
of the geologic sand deposits, these areas tend to be lacking in
gravel, the most typical road stabilization material. Thus, alter-
native road stabilization materials and techniques are needed for
such roads.
In addition to containing some of the most widespread deposits
of unstable sand, three of the areas of widespread unstable sand
deposits (the northern Great Lakes region, the Southeast, and central
Oregon) are also home to significant timber and paper industries.
Wood products and byproducts are often more readily available than
gravel in these areas. The objectives of this study were to review the
San Dimas Technology and Development Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service, 444 East Bonita Avenue, San Dimas, CA 91773. mlrussell@
fs.fed.us.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 2473, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2015, pp. 164–171.
DOI: 10.3141/2473-19
164
various wood products and byproducts that are available, evaluate
their potential for stabilizing low-volume roads in unstable sands,
and provide possible cost-effective and environmentally beneficial
alternatives for road stabilization materials where gravel is not
available for economical for use.
Nature and Geographic Extent
of Unstable Sands
Unstable sands are generally poorly graded, clean, cohesionless,
permeable, and have grains that are generally rounded. Unstable
sandy soils are sometimes referred to as sugar sands (because they
can resemble granulated sugar) or beach sands (even when not found
on a beach).
A nationwide soil database (STATSGO) from the National
Resources Conservation Service was queried with geographic infor-
mation system software to find areas of the country where unstable
sands are the predominant near-surface soil type (where sandy soils
comprise more than 50% of a soil unit). Although predominantly
sandy soils occur in many areas of the country, as shown on the map
(Figure 2), four particularly large areas show a predominance of
unstable sands: (a) the northern Great Lakes region, (b) portions of
the Southeast, particularly northern Florida, (c) the Sand Hills area
of Nebraska, and (d) south central Oregon.
Because this study was conducted for USFS, the query data were
crossed with National Forest boundaries to assess the magnitude
of this issue for USFS. The results indicated that approximately
9,018 square mi (23,356 square km) of the unstable sandy soils
occur on National Forest land and that a total of 22,247 mi (35,803 km)
of National Forest roads traverse unstable sands. Of the four large
regions of sandy soils, three (northern Great Lakes, northern Florida,
and central Oregon) include significant National Forest land and so
were studied in depth.
Road Maintenance Practices
Maintenance practices for most low-volume roads usually involve
periodic blading with a motor grader, cleaning ditches and cul-
verts, repairing damaged culverts and other drainage devices,
and periodically replacing road surfacing aggregate or gravel (if
used). In areas with widespread unstable sands, cost-effective
gravel sources are often unavailable. And road maintenance in
such areas can be difficult because of inadequate traction. When
gravel is installed on such materials, it is often lost as a result of
vertical migration into the sand column, which makes such surfacing
strategies costly, since gravel installation must be repeated relatively
frequently.
Russell165
FIGURE 1   Truck stuck in an unstable sand road in the Carson
National Forest.
Northern Great Lakes Region
In the sandy areas of the northern Great Lakes region, USFS crews
often pull leaf litter and other surface vegetative matter from the
road shoulder onto the road surface to improve traction and stabil-
ity. The effectiveness of this surfacing strategy is limited and often
results in the loss of base material in addition to the surfacing material
in less than one season. Consequently, roads on which this surfac-
ing strategy is employed tend to become more and more deeply
FIGURE 2   Areas of unstable sands in the continental United States.
incised and progressively wider. Chunkwood, paper mill sludge,
and lignosulfonates have been used successfully for road stabilization
in this region. Lignosulfonate use for road stabilization in this region
has been very common in the past, primarily on private and munici-
pal roads. Chunkwood and paper mill sludge have seen limited use,
primarily on forest roads (1–3).
Northern Florida
Although the Ocala National Forest in northern Florida is mostly
sandy, there are scattered clay deposits that are mined, so that clay is
used in lieu of gravel as a road stabilizing material. The clay is typi-
cally blended with sand and compacted on road surfaces. However,
clay can become soft and unstable when wet, in contrast to sands,
which are unstable when dry.
Central Oregon
USFS crews in central Oregon generally maintain roads in the crush-
able volcanic sands by watering. Without proper moisture, the roads in
these areas tend to develop potholes of very fine sand and dust, which
can get deep and occasionally trap low-clearance vehicles. Mainte-
nance of the potholes generally means excavating the fine material,
moistening and mixing with coarse material, and compacting the
mixture back into the excavation.
These road maintenance practices have helped maintenance crews
with limited budgets to manage roads in unstable, sandy areas, but
do not provide normally expected road surface quality or durability.
166
The study considered wood products and byproducts as alternative
road stabilization materials.
Raw Wood Materials
Wood Chips
Wood chips are particles of wood, typically smaller than about 3 in.
in maximum dimension, that can be made from virtually any wood
species. Wood chips have been used successfully as lightweight
road fill (4–6). According to USFS personnel, wood chips have been
used successfully, at least in short-term application, to stabilize the
surface of unpaved roads in Michigan and Wisconsin.
Chunkwood
Chunkwood refers to wood particles ranging in size from a few
inches to approximately 12 in. (30 cm) in average dimension (see
Figure 3). Similar to wood chips but significantly larger and cut by a
different mechanism, chunkwood is typically block, wedge, or prism
shaped. Chunkwood can be made from a variety of hardwood and
softwood species. The specific gravity of the wood materials typi-
cally ranges from 0.3 to 0.6, and the moisture content ranges from
38% to 57%. The bulk density of chunkwood material commonly
ranges from 19.5 to 24.4 lb/ft3 (312 to 390 lb/m3) (7).
Chunkwood is a product developed by the USFS as a replacement
for granular mineral material (gravel and sand) for use where min-
eral material is not readily available. Chunkwood is produced by a
wood chunker, which is a device that uses a chopping blade to cut
logs as large as 9 in. (23 cm) in diameter into pieces that vary in size
and shape depending on the species and diameter of the trees used.
Chunkwood has been used as a base course covered by soil or
gravel, and as a wearing surface, either mixed with soil or exposed
on the surface. Chunkwood is preferred over wood chips for road
stabilization because chunks tend to be more well-graded and parti-
cle interlock can be obtained more readily than with wood chips (2).
Its high permeability also makes chunkwood a good replacement
for gravel in wet areas. Since the particles are larger, chunkwood
degrades more slowly than wood chips and other wood products.
Some chunkwood roads have been in place and remained stable with
FIGURE 3   Three-year-old chunkwood in a stockpile
in the Chequamegon National Forest.
Transportation Research Record 2473
no maintenance for more than 20 years. Chunkwood road stabili-
zation demonstration projects have been conducted in Wisconsin,
Alaska, Oregon, Canada, and elsewhere (1, 2).
Wood Shreds
Wood shreds are wood particles that are irregularly shaped and can
range from less than 1 in. to more than 12 in. (30 cm) long. Wood
shreds are similar to wood chips but somewhat larger and typically
produced in the field with a tub grinder rather than a wood chipper.
The use of wood shreds to stabilize unpaved roads has not been doc-
umented, but it can reasonably be assumed that performance would
be similar to that of roads stabilized with wood chips.
Wood Straw
Wood straw is a specialty product made from waste material gener-
ated at veneer plants (wood veneer most commonly used to produce
plywood). Wood straw is produced by Forest Concepts, LLC, with
a machine similar to a cutoff shredder. The straw particles are typi-
cally about 6 in. (15 cm) long and made from 1⁄8-in. (3-mm) veneer.
Wood straw has been used as ground cover on trails and occasion-
ally on unpaved roads, but engineering or performance data on such
uses are not available. Because the composition and nature of wood
straw are similar to those of the wood chips and wood shreds,
performance of wood straw in road stabilization may be similar.
Raw Wood Wastes
Raw wood wastes can include wastes from timber harvest operations,
sawmills, paper mills, and other industries that use wood as a raw
material. Timber harvest byproducts include tree limbs, tops, bark and
other slash, as well as sawdust, wood chips, and other excess wood
materials not removed from a forest for commercial use. Raw wood
wastes from sawmills and paper mills may include bark, sawdust,
plane shavings, off-cuts, chippings, and other excess materials.
Sawdust and bark wastes have been shown to be effective as a
lightweight fill material with unit weight as much as 75% lower than
that of compacted soil (8, 9). Sawdust has also been shown to be
useful as a clay stabilizer when combined with lime (10). Although
no instances of road stabilization that uses raw wood wastes were
found as part of this study, it is reasonable to assume that their
performance may be similar to leaf litter and other naturally occurring
forest materials that are sometimes used by road maintenance crews
for temporary road stabilization. Sawdust and bark break down
quickly when exposed to air and moisture (11), so it is probably
reasonable to assume that the durability of such materials on road
surfaces is limited.
Durability of Raw Wood Materials
and Wastes for Road Stabilization
The wood species used and the climate where the raw wood products
are used can have a pronounced effect on their durability. Softwoods
contain more pitch than hardwoods and thus tend to be more dura-
ble. Wood chips and chunkwood in the northern Great Lakes region
have lasted for decades on forest roads but have been ineffective,
except for very short-term applications, in the warmer southeast.
Russell167
Buried wood chips and chunkwood in road applications have been
shown to last more than 20 years (4–6). It is likely that the anaerobic
environment experienced by buried wood materials results in less
rot and, thus, longer-lasting materials.
Environmental Concerns About the Use
of Raw Wood Materials for Road Stabilization
Raw wood materials have little environmental impact, much less
than most road-stabilizing materials used on forest roads, since they
are derived directly from forests and are naturally occurring materi-
als. No restrictions on land application of raw wood materials were
found during this study.
Paper Mill Byproducts and Wastes
Like most industrial processes, paper manufacturing generates liquid
and solid byproducts and wastes as well as commercial paper products.
The primary byproducts or wastes generated by paper mills are (12)
• Wastewater residuals (sludge) and deinking residuals (deinking
sludge),
• Boiler ash,
• Lignosulfonate,
• Causticizing agents, and
• Paper mill rejects.
Some of these byproducts have commercial applications and can be
sold; lignosulfonates are a good example and are sold commercially
for a variety of uses. Paper mill sludge is sometimes sold as an agricul-
tural amendment, but much more often it is given away at no charge.
Most solid wastes from paper mills are disposed of in solid waste land-
fills. Beneficial reuse of these materials, rather than landfill disposal,
can be a significant cost savings to the mill and a general benefit to
the environment in waste minimization, so there is an incentive to use
these materials as road stabilizers where possible. Approximately 60%
of all the paper mill solid wastes (sludge, ash, and other materials)
is generally landfilled and 40% is beneficially used in some manner.
Paper Mill Sludge
Paper mill sludge refers to solids resulting from treatment of mill
process wastewater. (Deinking sludge is not as common and poses
environmental issues and so is not considered here.) Wastewater
sludge is typically lightweight, wet, and contains a high fraction of
wood fibers. It may also contain considerable amounts of mineral
matter, such as calcium carbonate and kaolin clay, depending on
the type of mill. Mechanical (geotechnical) properties of paper mill
sludge include specific gravity between 1.8 and 2.0, liquid limits
between 200 and 300, plasticity index between 90 and 200 (13, 14),
Proctor optimum moisture contents between 50% and 100%, and
permeability ranging from 10−4 cm/s to less than 10−8 cm/s (15, 16).
Paper mill sludge, in its fresh (unbiodegraded) state, behaves gener-
ally like very soft, compressible clay (13, 17). Figure 4 shows paper
mill sludge applied to the ground surface at a site in Wisconsin.
Paper mill sludge has been used successfully to stabilize sandy roads
in the northern Great Lakes region (3) as well as on roads in Asia (12)
and Finland (18). Experience with paper mill sludge applied directly
to a sandy road surface (without mixing) in the Ocala National Forest
FIGURE 4   Paper mill sludge land application in Wisconsin.
in northern Florida was largely unsuccessful. The poor performance of
sludge in that case may have been caused largely by poor application
practice or inferior properties of the sludge, but its poor performance
in comparison with sites in the northern Great Lakes region may also
have been caused by the warmer climate, which is more conducive to
biodegradation or a difference in soil chemistry, or both.
Boiler Ash Residuals
The waste materials from energy production at paper mills are known
as boiler ash residuals. The dry ash solids resulting from combus-
tion of wood chips, chunks, sawdust, and bark for energy generation
are known as wood ash, which is typically high in unburned carbon,
magnesium, and calcium and has a high pH (12). Coal and other fuels
are also sometimes used to supplement the woody waste materials for
energy generation. Boiler ash may consist of bottom ash, fly ash, or
both. Paper mill sludge is also sometimes burned and the resulting
calcined paper sludge ash may be a mill waste or byproduct that
may be disposed of or used as a cementitious material (19). Ash
from wood fuel from energy generation has been shown to be effec-
tive for soil stabilization on low-volume roads in Europe (20–22).
Paper mill ash has also been used as a base or subgrade amendment
for pavements outside the United States (12). Detailed chemical
and geotechnical field and lab testing on demonstration projects in
Sweden and Austria have been conducted with wood ash as a road
stabilizer and have shown favorable results (23, 24).
Boiler ash from combustion of a combination of petroleum coke
and coal for electric power generation is used extensively for road
stabilization in northern Florida. Specific performance data for use of
paper mill ash as a stabilizer for unpaved roads in the United States
were not found. However, the mostly granular and mineral nature
of the material suggests that it would perform as well as or better
than raw wood materials or sludge. Some ash, particularly Type C
flyash, has pozzolanic and cementitious properties that would make
it exceptionally well suited for use as a road stabilizer (13).
Lignosulfonates
Lignosulfonates are the water liquor product of the sulfite paper-
making process. Lignosulfonate is typically a dark, viscous, sticky
liquid with soluble and suspended solids consisting of a complex
168
mix of wood binders and sugars, wood cell contents, and inorganic
cooking chemicals and other compounds possessing an acidic pH
and strong odor (25). The weaker dilute material is commonly called
spent sulfite liquor, while the concentrated form (after evaporation)
is referred to as “sulfonated lignin,” “lignin sulfonate,” “sulfite lig-
nin,” and “lignosulfonate.” These materials are derived from lignin,
which is the material that naturally binds cellulose fibers together
in wood. Lignosulfonate composition depends on the raw materials
(mainly wood pulp) and chemicals used to extract the cellulose for
use in papermaking (26).
Lignosulfonates have been used extensively on unpaved rural
roads, primarily as a surface dust palliative, but also sometimes as
a soil stabilizer. Lignosulfonates can be used for a variety of soil
types, but are most cost-effective for soils having 8% to 30% fines
and a plasticity index greater than 8. Lignosulfonates have been used
extensively on roads in the United States. Lignosulfonates work
best in arid to moderate precipitation areas; they perform poorly in
extremely wet regions (27).
Causticizing Agents
The primary causticizing byproducts from paper mills are lime grit,
or lime slaker grit, and lime mud. Lime grit is the coarse screenings
waste material generated during the production of lime at a paper
mill and typically consists mostly of calcium carbonate. Lime grit
is alkaline (high pH), high in calcium, low in metals, and not clas-
sified as a hazardous waste (12). Lime mud (calcium carbonate and
water) is burned in a lime kiln to regenerate the material to lime
(calcium oxide). Lime is an important commodity for the pulp and
paper industry, and calcium hypochlorite (a low-cost bleach) from
the interaction of lime and chlorine has been used extensively in the
past as a pulp whitener (28).
Case studies detailing the use of lime grit or lime mud as road
stabilizers were not found during this study, although one study sug-
gested that lime slaker grits can be suitable for earth construction (29).
Lime has long been used as a soil stabilizer with chemical properties
that are particularly effective in clay soils (30). As a granular mineral
material, lime grit has desirable mechanical properties. Since lime grit
and lime mud are often disposed of as waste materials, they can some-
times be obtained free of charge from paper mills if environmental
regulations permit.
Paper Mill Rejects
Paper mill rejects are the unprocessed and partially processed wood
materials not used as pulp for inclusion in the paper product or used
as fuel for energy production. The unprocessed reject material is sim-
ilar to the raw wood wastes (sawdust, bark, etc.) discussed above and
would likely have the same limited road stabilizing benefits as those
materials. This partially processed material, sometimes referred to as
knots, has contact with the mill’s cooking acid and so may involve
more environmental concerns than raw wood materials.
Environmental Concerns and Benefits
of Paper Mill Byproducts and Wastes
Land application of paper mill residuals is regulated primarily at
the state level. Since mill residuals are not defined as hazardous
Transportation Research Record 2473
wastes, they are not regulated under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act. As with other industrial byproducts, the material pH
and the toxicity and leachability of trace constituents (such as cer-
tain organics and heavy metals) in paper mill byproducts must be
assessed prior to any beneficial use application.
Industrial wastes that have a beneficial use, even if they cannot be
sold commercially, are generally considered industrial byproducts
and are regulated differently than wastes that are disposed of in
landfills or otherwise disposed. States often permit and sometimes
encourage reuse of industrial byproducts that are nonhazardous and
can be used safely.
For example, the state of Wisconsin has a policy that addresses
the beneficial use of industrial byproducts (31). The Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources has allowed land application of
each of these materials (sludge, ash, lignofulonates, and lime grit),
subject to certain limitations and monitoring (25).
Florida, another state with significant timber and paper industries,
also has a policy regarding the beneficial use of industrial byprod-
ucts (32). The Florida Department of Environmental Protection
appears to have somewhat tighter restrictions than the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources, but has allowed the use of some
boiler ash (petroleum coke and coal ash) blended with lime for road
stabilization.
Most paper mill sludge typically contains metals in ranges similar
to those in municipal wastewater treatment plant biosolids. Organic
contaminants are generally not detected in paper mill sludge (32).
An evaluation of leachate and groundwater quality conducted on for-
est roads in Wisconsin treated with paper mill sludge concluded that
“none of the concentrations detected . . . pose a threat to contamination
of groundwater” (33, p. 13).
Wood ash from paper mills is generally benign and is essentially
the same as naturally occurring ash resulting from forest fires. When
coal or other fuels are used in combination with wood wastes, prob-
lematic constituents can be present in the ash. Most metal concentra-
tions in wood-fired boiler ash are similar to those of many natural
soils, municipal treatment plant biosolids, and agricultural limes, but
much lower than those from coal fly ashes (34).
Lime grit and lime mud are generally considered nonhazardous
wastes but are alkaline and thus could potentially be of environmental
concern.
Field Investigations
Roads in the Great Lakes Region
The Chequamegon National Forest, in Wisconsin, was selected
as a study site because it has unstable sands, an active paper mill
(Flambeau Papers), a wood chunker, and unstable sand roads that
have been stabilized with many of the treatments described in this
paper. Exploratory test pits were excavated in May 2013 in low-
volume forest roads previously treated with wood chips, chunk-
wood, and paper mill sludge. Samples of local soils and previously
applied wood chips and chunkwood were collected along with
stockpiled chunkwood, paper mill sludge, paper mill boiler ash,
and lignosulfonate material.
Forest road FR431 was treated in 1982 with paper mill sludge
(3), with the sludge blended into the upper few inches of sand road
surface. A layer of apparent sludge-treated soil was observed in
one of several test pits excavated in that road. In 1987, forest road
Russell169

FR691B was treated with chunkwood to various depths, some at

the ground surface and some covered by soil (1). During a recent
field investigation, intact chunkwood particles were visible at the
ground surface at many locations along the road and test pits in the
road showed intact chunkwood within shallow depths, indicating
that chunkwood can be durable in that environment. Forest road
FR648C was treated with wood chips in 1984 (9).

Roads in Northern Florida

The Ocala National Forest was included as an investigation site

because of its wide distribution of unstable sands, the presence of an
active paper mill (Georgia-Pacific), and a previous road treatment
that used paper mill sludge. In September 2013, the condition of that
road (FSR57) was investigated by excavating test pits and collect-
ing soil samples (samples of various paper mill residuals were also
collected). According to USFS personnel, the sludge was applied to
the surface of a half-mile-long segment of the road sometime between
1988 and 1992 as a trial project at a thickness between 1 and 2 in.
(2.5 and 5 cm) and was not blended into the soil. The sludge did not
improve traction or maintenance needs on the road for any appre-
ciable time period and so its use was not continued there. Sludge
was not observed in the test pits.
Given the weather and road maintenance practices in the Ocala
National Forest, it is likely that the previously applied sludge was
washed away by rain or removed during blading for road mainte-
nance. Any remaining sludge may also have completely biodegraded
since the date it was applied.

Roads in Central Oregon

The Deschutes and Winema National Forests were included as inves-
tigation sites because of their fairly wide distribution of unstable
sands, the presence of an active timber industry, and the presence of
a road previously treated with chunkwood.
Forest road FDR 4904 in the Winema National Forest was treated
in 1987 by installation of chunkwood on two segments of road. After
overexcavation of the unstable, sandy roadbed to a depth of approxi-
mately 6 in. (15 cm), a layer of chunkwood that was 6 to 8 in. (15 to
20 cm) thick was placed, compacted, and covered with 6 in. of soil
(35) (see Figure 5). The chunkwood-treated road was severely dam-
aged by heavy truck traffic for a timber harvest within a few months
of construction, so the chunkwood was subsequently bladed off the
road. However, some scattered chunkwood material was still visible
along the road in 2014, indicating that chunkwood can be durable in
that environment.
Samples of shallow, sandy soils were collected from typical roads
in the Deschutes National Forest (FSR 9751-100, 9400-060, and
9758-407) in February 2014 and from the Winema National Forest
(FDR 4904) in March 2014.
Geotechnical Grain Size Testing
Grain size distribution tests were conducted on selected samples of
unstable sands, wood chips, chunkwood, ash, and blends of sand
with some paper mill byproducts (sludge, ash, and lignosulfonates).
Figure 6 compares the relative grain size distributions of the various
materials.
FIGURE 5   Chunkwood placed on a road in Oregon, 1987.
Summary and Conclusions
Unstable sands are widespread in some regions of the United States
where unpaved roads are important and numerous and where timber
and paper industries are active but gravel is not readily available.
However, wood products and paper mill byproducts are readily
available in these regions and can be considered alternatives to
gravel.
Some raw wood products (wood chips and chunkwood) have
been used successfully to stabilize low-volume roads for more than
20 years. Other raw wood products and wastes (wood strands, wood
shreds, sawdust, bark, etc.) have properties similar to wood chips
and so may also be viable alternatives.
Various paper mill byproducts have been used with some success
to stabilize low-volume roads, primarily lignosulfonates and paper
mill sludge. Another paper mill byproduct, boiler ash, has favorable
chemical and mechanical properties and appears to be particularly
promising as a road stabilizer. The use of paper mill byproducts
has environmental benefits, as the materials are recycled rather than
disposed of as wastes in a landfill.
The field observations and testing described in this study sug-
gest that some wood products and byproducts can be effective
road-stabilizing alternatives on low-volume roads in the right
environment.
 170 Transportation Research Record 2473

Gravel Coarse Medium Fine Silt or Clay

Sand Sand Sand
U.S. Standard Sieve

3" 2" 11⁄2" 1" 3⁄4" 3⁄8" 1⁄2" #4 #10 #40 #100 #200
100
A
B
90 C
D

80 E
F
G
70
H
Total Percent Passing

I
60 J
K

50 L
M
N
40
0
P
30 Q
R

20 S
T
U
10
V
W
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Grain Size (mm)

A Chunkwood stockpile, Wisconsin I Chunkwood in sand, Wisconsin Q Native sand, Florida

B Chunkwood stockpile, Wisconsin J Chunkwood in sand, Wisconsin R Native sand, Florida
C Woodchips, Wisconsin K Chunkwood in sand, Wisconsin S Blend sand–5% ash, Florida
D Native sand, Wisconsin L Boiler ash, Wisconsin T Blend sand–10% ash, Florida
E Native sand, Wisconsin M Boiler ash, Wisconsin U Native sand, Oregon
F Native sand, Wisconsin N Blend sand–5% sludge, Wisconsin V Native sand, Oregon
G Sludge in sand, Wisconsin O Blend sand–ligno, Wisconsin W Native sand, Oregon
H Sludge in sand, Wisconsin P Blend sand–5% ash, Wisconsin

FIGURE 6   Grain size analysis summary. All samples tested 2014.

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The Committee for the 11th International Conference on Low-Volume Roads
peer-reviewed this paper.