flt'i

8.18 Highway, Railway, Airport and Harbour Engineering

(ii) /Vorr-p recision approach runways:

iul conica\surface;.
(b) inner horizohtal surface;
(c) approach surface; and
(d) transitional surface.

The approach surface shall be horizonthl beyond a point at which 2.5% slope
intersects.
o a horizontal plane 150 m above the threshold elevation, qr
. the horizontal plane passing through the top of any object that governs an
obstaile clearance altitude.
Precision approach runway category I, II, and III.

(n) Precision approach runways category'.

(a) conica! surface;
(b) inner horizontal surface;
(c) approach surface;
(d) transition surface.
(iv) Precision approach runway category II, III:
(a) conical surface;
(b) innerhorizontal surface;
(c) transitional surface;
(d) inner transitional surface and balked bending surface.

8.5.3 Airpoft zones

Zoneis a defined and demarcated area, with cenain commbn qualities. During landing
and take off operations, aircrafts loose or gain altitude at a very slow pace. Therefore,
it requires large clearance on both sides of climb out / lpnding Paft: This runs to about
l5 km from edges of runways. It is practically impossible for airport authorities to
own such vast track of land. Therefore, airport authorities enforce certain restrictions
in terms of height of structures and types of land uses in airport zones. Different types
of zones e (i) Approach zone (ii) Clear zone (iii) Turning zone.

(i) Apprgach zonez An approach zone is an area through which aircrafts approach
or leaves airports.It is tlre climb out and landing path. In this zone, aircrafts loose or
gain altitudg at a very slow pace as compared to forward speed. In view of this,
wider clearance on both sides of the runways is required in the approach zones of the
airport. In the approach zones, developments are consider-ed objectionable, if they
exceed permissible heights. Fig.8.4 shows approach zone profile of Instrumental
I ,,1,,'i
'it:' ,i, Lanling System.(ILS) Runway. Following are height restriclions:
I ' ,;i:

'l l,

iiiir , i.t

: ,iij
| ."r 1!
 Airport Planning and Design 8.19

I Controlling surface

clnicar F ^rA
'i""'"J
; slope -f^^ffi,
60om -4[
Runway I

)rns an Airport 10.6 km

reference
point
,
Fig.8.4 Approach zone profile for ILS runway
(a) Developments up to 30 m heights are permitted up to a distance of 4.5 km from
locations, 60 m away from edges of runways.
(b) Beyond 4.5 km and up to 10.5 km, an increase in height of 7.5m for every 1.5 km
- is permitted.
(c) Within 15 km from edges of runways, any development exceeding a height of
150m is considered as an obstruction.

Therefore, sites in accordance with the desirable pattern of developments are

chosen.

(ii\ Clear zoneiClear zone iS iheinflermost portion of an approach zone. It is the

most critical part of an approach zone from obstructions points of view. As name
itself indicates, the portion should be clear and no developments of any (Xpe are
nnding
refore,
Location. Origin of a clearzone should be at the end of the take-off run available.
r about kngth: It should not exceed'half the length of take-off run availablg.
.ties to Width:Width should be atleast 75.0 m on either side on the extended center line of
icticrns runways.
t types Stope o.n clearways: An upward slope of 1.25!o.

Fig.8.5 shows a profile of the clear zbne. However, roads and railways are not
rroach objectionable in clear zones subject to conditions that they comply with clearance
ose or standards and vehicles within azone are always in motion. Fig.8.6 shows minimum
rf this, clearance over a highway or a railway located in an apploach area.
of the (a) For a distance up to 4.5 km from airport reference points. heights of any
if they development should be less than 51 m abqve airport elevations or a bare ground
nental ' level, whichever is higher.
(b) Beyond 4.5 km, and up to a distance of 10.5'!m, an increase in height of 30m for
.urry 1.5m is perrnitted. Maximum heightol.an)'development, within adistance
of 15 km fiom airport reference pofnt shouldbe less than 150m,
 8.20 Highway, Rdilway, Airport and Harbour Engineering

Approach area
-+{

w1 w2 'L
'Type of runway
Instrument runway 300m 525m 750m

Non-insturment 150m 270m 600m

runway 75m 135rn 300m
(a) Large airport
(b) Smallairport

Fig.8.5 Runway clear zone

Fig.8.6 Clearances over highway anO railrvay

(iii) Turning zone2Area of airports used for turning operations of aircrafts is termed
as turning zones. In the event of any emergency like engine failure, if pilots opt for
landing immediately after taking over, aircrafts have to come in line with runways
before landing. Normally, area of an airport other than an approach zone is used for
ri
turning. Aircrafts turn consiclerably a! low heights. Therefore, the turning zone has to
bsfree from obstructions. Fig.8.7 shoWs aturning zone. Heightrestrictions atturning
.:l
zones are as indicated below.
r. r, l,

I I -':l'
dJ'rl
 if
F
I
Airport Planning and Design 8.2!

Controlling surface
Horizontal surface
radius'

Airport
refeience f?h
point 4.skm #10.5km#)t,
' Established
airport
elevation

Fig'8.7 Turning zone profile for ILS runway

8.6 Runrvay De.sign

8.6.1 Introduction
Runway design is planning for a patdern and anangement
of runways' Components
Orientation is the
of runways design ur, *n*uy orientation, and wind coverage'
pOsition or direction of a.runway. Couetage is the percentage
of time in.a year, during
drawing wind rose
which a runway could be put into use. Runway is designed by
duration and intensity.of
diagrams. Wind rose diagram is one in which the direction,
diagram resembles
wind at a sclected airport site is representgd to scale. Since the -

pefals of a rose, it is. named as Wind Rose Diagram

Elements of Geometric Design.of Runways:

(i) RunwaY Length
(ii) Runway Width
(iii) Width and Length of Safety Area
(iv) Transverse Gradient
(v) Longitudinal and Effective Gradient
(vi) Rate of change of Longitudinal Gradient
(vii) Sight Distance
different countries,
In order to have uniformity in landing facilities at airports in
ICAO has recommended comm:n design standards'

8.6.2 Orientation of runway

is usually along prevailing
Orientation is positioning of runways. Orientation of arunway
termed wind direction. This facilitates landing and takes off operations
in 'head wind'' In
place in directions opposite to the
opt for other words, landing and take Off operations take
wind direction, ihe head
unways ffiil;", -ina.wnro landing operations takeplace againqt
in a smaller length
rsed for wind p.rrid., a,braking effeci to alrcraft and they come to a stop
on
re hasto of runway. Similarly, oitt.n aircrafts take off, the head w.inil. gr.ovidetl eleater fift
$rning wings of'aircraft'and enabtes it to rise above the ground
within a shorter length of
runway.Therefore'arunwayisorientedinhead,winds.
 li l

ml
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iii
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i
8.22 Highway, Railway, Airport and Harbour Engineering
ii,
l' i

Wind data in terms of direction, duration and intensity for the selected site is
i:i: I
i!il
collected for 5 to 10 years. These factors impact Orientation of runways.
lli I
i,li
:, 8.6.3 Cross wind aomponent
a,i;

1
Centre line of a runway is oriented along prevailing wind direction. However, it is not I
i
possible to obtain the direction of wind along the'centre line of a runway throughout a I
year. On some days of a year and few hours of a day, wind may blow making certain
angle with a centre line of the runway. If an angle between the centre line of the I
runway and direction of wind is 0, the component along the direction of a runway is t
V cosfl and the component normal to the runway is V sin4 where tV' is the wind
velocity. The normal component of the wind is termed as a cross wind component.
The cross wind component is very dangerous and may intemrpt safe landing and take
off operations. As per ICAO, following are permissible cross wind comoonents.
Table 8.2 Permissible cross wind'components

Airport/Aircraft TYpe Cross wind components Field length

(velocity)

Small aircrafts l4-24kmlh < 1200 m

Mixed traffic 25-37 km/h 1200 to 1500 m

Big aircrafts > 37 km/h 2 1500 m

Source: ICAO sandards, 1995.

Fig.8.8 shows a cross wind component.

who
/
vf
Centre{ine
of runway
7'

Fig.8.8 Cross wind comPonent

'

8.6.4 Wind covcrage

Coverage is the percentage of time in a year during which, a cross wind component
remains within permissible limit. A runway can be safely operated only when the
cros ryind component is within permissible limits. Fol pqrpose of cal3ulating coverage,

,l
 Y
\

f Airport planning and Design g.23

,
I
site is an assumption is made to the effect that a deviation in direction up to *ZZ.5o
I + I1.25.
'degrees from directions of landing and take off is permissible.
For example, if .NS,
I
I
is the best orientation, the coverage for orientation is obtained by summing
I up durations
in the directions of N,-NNE, NNW, S, SSE, and sSW. Fig.8.9 shows wind directions
is not ,
and their coverage.
hout a I
:ertatn
I u+
of the I or't
way is 'o6r,
, wind %
Onent. El€
d take
ts.

Fig.8.9 Wind directions and coverage

8.6.5 Calm period
Percentage of time in ayearduring which wind intensity is less than minimumintensity
is termed as calm period. It is assumed that during calm period, intensity of wind is
negligible and do not interfere with landing and take off operations. Therefore, the
calm period is added to the calculated wind coverage.
'
8.6.6 Wind rosediagram-Type I
(i) Determination of 'Orientation of Runw.ay': Past wind data for a selected
site of
an airport is collected for as many years as possible. Data should be collected
at least
for 5 years and preferably for l0 years. Average data is obtained with sufficie.nt
accuracy: Since wind data may vary considerably from site to site, observations should
have been taken at or near a site selected as far as possible.

(ii) Direction und Duratiort: Radial lines indicate wind directions. Average wind
data are obtained for 16 directions as indicated in Fig. 8.9. Each direction covers
an
angle of 22.5'.It is assumed that wind may blow from any
iroinr within iz.s".g^"i
---:'
circle in Fig. 8.10 represents duration of rvind.
(iii) Best orientation of the ruiway:Values.of durations from wind data are marked
in respective directioni. All plotted points are joined in straight lines as shown in
Fig. 8.10. The best orientation of a runway is usually along the direction of the longest
Iine in'wind rose diagram.
)onent
ren the
tetage,
 8.24 Highway, Railway, Airport and Harbour Engineering

(iv) wind covelrggeilt is assumed that deviation of direction permissible is upto

a runway can be used for
33'J5" (/2.50. *",!1,2S1. Perqentage of time during which
landing and take ;ff in example is obtained by summing percentages of time
$is g.10 depicts the method to draw wind
along NNW N, NNE, SSb, S and'ssw. Fig.
rose diagram - tYPe I.

' - Type I
,: ,Figr8'10 Wind rose diagram
8.6.7 Wind rosediagnm-TYPeit
used for type I is used
Wind Rose diagram ryp; II is illus-trated in Fig.8.11. Wind daia
Radial tt":t^,li1t:-1':
for rype II alsol Ebictr.itit"'t presents wind intensity to sclle'
wini direcfions':VAltie:entbied in each segmentrepresent percentage ot
ttme tn a
year during which WinUtravlirg a particular intensity blows
from the respective direction'

i.i
t'-
I

I
i.

Fis.8:ii Wind rose diagram Type II

 Airport planning and Design 8.25

pto Frocedure to determine the ' orientation

for (i) Draw three parallel lines on a transparent paper at an equal distance apart. The
rme
distance between parallel lines is equal to permissible cross wind component. It
'ind
is drawn to the same scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn. Cross
wind component in the example is 25 km/ h.
(ii) Place a transparent paper over the wind rose diagram in such a way that its
centre lies over the central line of the Wind Rose diagrarn. ,

(iii) With the centre cif wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a
position that the sum of all values of duration of wind, bound by two outerparallel
lines has a maximum value. Thus, the direction indicated by the central line is the
orientation of the runway. Wind coverage is calc-ulatediby adding up all percentages
of duration shown in segments. The percentage of duration is aSsumed to be
equally distributed over the entire area of segment. If outer parallel lines of
transparent strip cross a segment, proportional value is assessed and added.

8.6.8 Second runways

As perguidelines of the FederalAviationAgency (FAA), runways handling mixed air
traffic should be so planned that the coverage is more thari'95Vo.In other words, the
airports should be operational at least for 9.5%o of the time,lp,ay'ear, For busy airports,
rsed the wind coverage may be increased up to 1007o. However, this may be possible only
cate by planning for second and more runways. O.rientation of.the,second runway is the
ina second longest direction in the wind rose diagram. While calculatingadditional covenge
:ion. for the second.runway, duration of any direction, already ad{ed for the first runway
should not be added for second time.

8.6.9 Worked out examples

Example 1

Table below shows a 'typical wind data''for an airporq:site. Determine the best
orientation of the U4nwal and percentage of time during which the runway can
b.e used. Does it require a second runway? If so determine. total coverage.

Percentage of Time
Wind direction
6-25km/h 25-50 km/h 50-80 km/h
N 4.ffi , 1.40"' 0.10
NNE 3.40 0.75 0.00
NE l.80 0.03 0.1.0
ENE .2.80 .9.02 0.03
E 2.t0 2.20 0.00
ESE 5.40 '' -i:40
4.75 0.00
SE 6.40 :' 0.00
SSE ?.s0 \,,, pp2. 0.00
 :w
8.26 Highway, Railway, Airport and Harbour Engineering

Percentage of Time
Wind direction

4.60 1.40 0.10

S
2.40 0.75 0.00
SSW
1,.20 0.03 0.10
SW
0.02 0.03
wsw 3.60
0.00
w 1.80 2.20
4.75 0.00
wNw 6.00
5.90 1.40 0.00
NW
6.80 4.90 0.30
NNW

Soilution
Percentage of Tirne

N 6.10

NNE 4.15
NE r.93
ENE 2.85
E 3.30
ESE 10.15

SE 7.80
SSE 7.52
:S 6.10
the I

SSW 3.15
side
SW t.33 Des,
Wsw 3.6s for r

w 4.00
wNw 10.75

NW 7.30
NNW 12.00

Percentage of wind blow = 92'08

CalmPeriod = 100 -92'08 =7 '92
I
Refer.theWindRoseDiagraminFig.8.11.Bestorientation=Nw_SE
;ratior + SE + ESE + NW + WNW + NNW + calm period'
=SSE
Exar
Fotla
=7'52+?'80+10'15+7'30+10'75+12'00=55'52 6 ktt,
.
covdrage = 55'52 +7 92 =63'44
.
Adding the ialm period,
-'.t..,
orien
 -J"

Airport planning and Design g.Z7

I

Fig.g.12 Wind Rose Diagram_l

This means, landing and take off operations
in the said airport can take place
the runway only for 63.44,voof time on
in a year.
side' Therefore, there is a need to design
H;;r;;; the percenrage is on a rower
a second runway.
Design of second runway: Refer the
wind Rose Diagram (Fig.g.l2). Best orientation
for a second runway is rhe second longest
rin.;ifi. wna Rose Diagram.
.'. Orientation for the second runway is
WNW _ ESE
Coverage for II runway WNW * wW
= * W + gsni E + SE
Important point to be taken note is that
coverag. oiany direction should
added for second time. not be
coverages for sE, ESE, Nw, wNw have
already been added.
.'. The coverage for E and W alone can
be added. , r

1.e., ,' t
30 + 4.00 =7.30
Therefore, total coverage with the second
"

runway = 63.44 + 7 .30

However, the runway has not reached the = 70.74
minimu* ."".ia;; gr;",
rcriod Example 2
"i i

Fotlowing is the average wind data t.

,.

6 lcni/h. An airport i,s t1 be

for I0 years, when wind int;ensirs,n is above
(esigned (r two-runwayr:t_
-u;i-'=
parrm,tn, th, bisi"r;;;; '{.
orientation and calculate iotoi wird corrrage. I

{ t,,

t,:
lli'
ltl
t:t

lii
iil
I

Y
i'l
Engineering
8.28 Highway, Rpilwqy, Airpo!'t and Harbour

6.5
10.4
8.0
4.2
t;l
0.6
0.7
3.9
s 7.5

SSW 14.5

SW 10.2

wsw 5.9
w 4.2
wNw 0.3
NW 0.2
NNW 4.8

Sot ution I
Fig.8.13 shows the wind rose diagram'
N

5W- "-', S

Fig.8.13 Wind Rose Diagram-2

 Airpoft Planning'.and Design 8.29

Total percentage of wind blow within given intensity= 83.6Vo

FromFig.8.l3,thebestorientationisSSW_NNE
Totalperiodof operation = N + NNE + NE + S + SSW + SW t calmperiod
= 6.5 + 10.4 + 8.0 +7.5 + 14.5 + 10.2 + 16.4
=73.5 Vo
Design of a second runway: Orientation of the second runway is NE - SW.
Therefore, additional coverage due to the second runway is the coverages due to
directions ENE and WSW.
Coverage for ENE = 4.2
Coverage for WSW = 5.9

Total 10.1

.'. Total coverage for two runways = 73.50 +l}Vo = 83.60 Vo

Example3
Following are average wind data for I0 years, when wind intensity is above 6
kmn An airport is lo be designedfor a single runway. Determine the best nmway
orientation and calculate tutal wind coverage.

Wind directipn Percentage of Time

N 10.9
NNE 8.3
NE 4.2
ENE r.3..
E 0.9
ESE 0.3
SE 8.1
SSE 7.9
S 14.6
SSW 9.8
SW 56
wsw 1.8
w 0.3
wNw 0.2
NW 7,5
NNW 5.7
-?

Engineering
8.30 Highway, Railway, Airport and Harbour

8.(
Solution Ba
;";;i*;tage of wind blow = 87 '47o
ai4
.'. Calmperiod = 100 -87'4=l'2'6To (i)
wind rose diagram best orientation is N -
S
From the (ii)
ssF + s + ssw +calmperiod
Totalperiodof operation =NNW +N+NNE+ (ut,

= 5.7 +10.9 + 8.3

+ 7'9 + 14'6 + 9'8 + 12'6 (iv,
(v)
= 69.87o
(vi
place only for 69'87o of the time in a
Landing and take-off operations can take (vi
year. Therefore, a second runway is
required' orientatiop of the second runway is
NNE - SSW.
:5'6 + 4'2=9'8 fol
Extra coverage = SW + NE =
(a)
.:. Total coverage =-69-8 + 9'8 =79'67o (b,
Fig.8.14 shows the wind rose diagram' (c,

8.1
(i)
Id,
elt
atr
air

(ii
tu.
TI
7t
(ii
m
rh

a
at
st
1:
-w

Fig.8.14 Wind Rose Diagrafi-3