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Environmental
Environmental segmentation segmentation
alternatives: buyers’ profiles and alternatives
implications
Tamer A. Awad 55
Department of Management and Marketing, University of Bahrain,
Manama, Bahrain

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study the green marketing consumer in the Kingdom of
Bahrain through using the ecologically conscious consumer behavior (ECCB) model and profiling
green consumers in the kingdom.
Design/methodology/approach – Using questionnaire survey, the influence of demographic
characteristics (gender, age, education, and household monthly income) and ECCB on green
marketing consumers has been tested through factor analysis, regression analysis, ANOVA, and K-
means clustering. The sample consisted of 241 consumers.
Findings – The findings of this study provide some understanding to the service providers and the
government on the effect of demographic profile on online shopping. Of consequence, such
understanding would help them in finding and implementing suitable strategies to enhance online
shopping. Four types of green consumers were identified.
Originality/value – The study described in the paper is the first analysis of the Kingdom of Bahrain
green consumers’ characteristics through providing a comprehensive understanding by combining
the demographic characteristics and the ECCB model and their effect on green shopping.
Furthermore, the study offers a profile of green market consumers.
Keywords Kingdom of Bahrain, Consumer behaviour, Green marketing, Market
segmentation, Cluster analysis, Demographic
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
In the past few decades, there has been a positive evolution in pro-environmental
knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours among consumers (Laroche et al., 2001). In the late
1980s, the National Anxiety Centre reported that environmental issues represented half of
the top-ten worry list. Expressions such as “Decade of the environment” or “the Earth
decade” have been associated to the 1990s. Through this decade, social and environmental
concerns tool on great importance for consumer-purchasing decisions (Prothero, 1996;
Menon et al., 1999). Businesses coped with this new situation in many innovative and
relevant ways, seeking to remain competitive, started to incorporate these newly emerging
concerns in their management and marketing decision making (Straughan and Roberts,
1999; Rivera-Camino, 2007).
Nowadays, green consumers adapted to environmental threats in several ways as they
became more willing to pay extra for ecologically friendly products, considered
environmental issues when shopping (e.g. checking if the product is made from recycled Journal of Islamic Marketing
Vol. 2 No. 1, 2011 pp. 55-73
materials), and bought more ecologically compatible products (Laroche et al., 2001). Such
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
orientation by the consumers increased the attention devoted to the relationship between 1759-0833
consumer behaviour, marketing, and the environment. This attention has been evident DOI 10.1108/17590831111115240
JIMA in two facets: first, there has been an increase in public awareness regarding
2,1 environmental aspects, and second, an increase in the evidence of environmental
responsibilities or green activities (do Pac¸o and Raposo, 2009).
On the other hand, to avoid deceiving claims by producers and advertisers, the UK
watchdogs started cracking down on spurious science. In March 2010, a new BCAP Code
(the Broadcast Code for Advertisers) and the CAP Code (applicable to non-broadcast
56 advertising and sales promotions) stating “Generalized claims for environmental benefit
must be assessed on a ‘cradle to grave’ basis”. Advertising and producers’ claims for a
product are assessed not just on the finished article, but also on the resources used,
manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and disposal.
The present study attempts to offer more insights into the Bahraini green consumer
market. The research objectives are divided in twofold. First, the study examines a
range of demographic (age, gender, income, and education) and psychographic factors
(perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE), environmental concern (EC), and
liberalism) in relation to ecological conscious consumer behavior (ECCB). To address
the future of ecologically conscious consumption in the Kingdom of Bahrain, the
present study will concentrate on younger consumers who represent the future of
green consumption. Second, the research applies the green marketing segmentation
concept in the Kingdom of Bahrain.
This paper starts with a review of green marketing literature evolution through
which, a number of variables are being identified. Next, the importance of market
segmentation is highlighted, together with a presentation of the most relevant criteria
for differentiating individuals in terms of their environmental behaviour. Relevant
facets of the research methodology are afterwards presented, as well as the study
implications, and limitations.

Literature review
Evolution of green marketing
Studies undertaken by Kassarjian (1971), Fisk (1973) and Kinnear et al. (1974) represent
the early attempts through which authors tired to establish a relationship between
marketing and the environment. These studies were followed by a research stream where
green marketing was the focal point (Schlegelmilch and Bohlen, 1996; Straughan and
Roberts, 1999; Baksi and Bose, 2007; Rivera-Camino, 2007; do Pac¸o and Raposo, 2009).
ECs and the demand by consumer groups for environmentally friendly products have
led to the emergence of a “new marketing philosophy”, known as green marketing. Since
the 1960s, green marketing has evolved through several stages. This evolution has resulted
in an expanded list of issues that fall within the domain of environmental responsibility.
With increased social and political pressure, companies have moved beyond simply
addressing pollution and waste disposal to looking for alternative package composition
and design, alternative product formulations, and cause-related promotion in an effort to
keep in-step with the environmental movement (Straughan and Roberts, 1999). Charter
and Polonsky stated that green marketing is the marketing or promotion of a product based
on its environmental performance or an improvement thereof. The late 1980s marked the
first stage of green marketing, when the concept of “green marketing” was newly
introduced and discussed in the industry. The emergence of the green marketing concept
encouraged marketers to engage in different forms of green marketing at the beginning of
this stage where marketers expected to generate
positive consumer response, that would be translated into higher market shares or Environmental
sales revenues. Despite the great public concerns about environmental problems, the segmentation
market growth rate of green products fell short of marketers’ expectation. Eventually
marketers realized that consumers’ concern for the environment associated with the alternatives
desire for green products was not translated into purchasing behaviour. According to
Peattie and Crane, five major marketing practices led to the failure of green marketing
during this period, that is: 57
(1) Green spinning. Taking a reactive approach by using public relations to deny
or discredit the public’s criticisms against the company’s practices.
(2) Green selling. Taking an opportunistic approach by adding some green
claims to existing products with the intention to boost sales.
(3) Green harvesting. Becoming enthusiastic about the environment only when
greening could result in cost savings.
(4) Entrepreneur marketing. Developing innovative green products to market
without really understanding what the consumers actually want.
(5) Compliance marketing. Using simple compliance with implemented or expected
environmental legislation as an opportunity to promote the company’s green
credentials without taking initiatives to go beyond responding to regulations.

Strong marked the following phase starting mid-1990s where consumers started
becoming more and more environmentally and socially aware. The author defined
green consumers as those who:
[. . .] avoid products that are likely to endanger the health of the consumer or others; cause
significant damage to the environment during manufacture, use of disposal; consume a
disproportionate amount of energy; cause unnecessary waste; use materials derived from
threatened species or environments.

According to Gurau and Ranchhod, critical consumers began to emerge as a new force of
green consumerism whereby they required social responsibility from corporations. Such
force led to the emergence of broader consumption concept namely ethical consumerism.
According to Browne et al., the growing interest in “ethical” consumerism has been both
consumer and trade driven. Consumer theory places ethical consumerism in a “fourth
wave” of green marketing, which seeks to reaffirm the moral dimension of consumer
choice. According to Uusitalo and Oksanen, ethical consumerism refers to buyer
behaviour that reflects a concern with the problems that arise from unethical and unjust
global trades, such as child and low-paid labour, infringement of human rights, animal
testing, labour union suppressions, inequalities in trading relations with the Third World,
and pollution of the environment. Since, the emergence of the green consumerism and
ethical consumerism, which arose in the mid-1990s, consumers have started to demand a
say in the production, processing and resourcing of the products.
According to Lee, since 2000, green marketing evolved in the third phase, with the
implementation of more advanced technology, stricter state enforcement on deceptive
claims, governmental regulations and incentives as well as closer scrutiny from various
environmental organizations and the media. Many green products have greatly improved
and regained consumer confidence. Together, with the continuous rise of growing global
concern about the environmental quality, green marketing has gradually
JIMA picked up momentum again. Some researchers postulate that green marketing is now
2,1 “making a comeback”. There is renewed sensitivity towards the environment and
towards social consciousness.
According to Gurau and Ranchhod although there are numerous studies concerning
the consumer demand and purchase behaviour for ecological products (Martin and
Simintiras, 1995), the international aspects of green marketing have not been fully
58 investigated. On the other hand, the last decade has witnessed many enactments of
various legislation and greater intervention on the part of governments with the aim to
protecting the environment, which was manifested by many countries determined to be
more proactive in tackling their ecological problems (Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995;
Baksi and Bose, 2007). Some comprehensive environmental laws are in place in some
Arab countries such as in the Kingdom of Bahrain. The Government of Bahrain took
more initiative in enlightening the relatively environmentally unconcerned consumers
before the latter can become a vital force in the green movement. Once their ECs have
been raised, consumers will become more environmentally conscious and, in turn,
make demands on the government to step up in conserving ecological well being. The
dynamics of this government-consumer interaction will eventually drive the business
community to act in a more socially responsible manner in order to avoid expensive
legal liabilities and/or to exploit on emerging “green” business opportunities.
Given the climate of ecological interest in the Kingdom of Bahrain, this study aims
to contribute toward furthering knowledge of the potential of green marketing and the
development of an evidence-based understanding of the Bahraini consumers’
environmental consciousness.

Segmentation of the green consumer market

In order to position their green product offerings, companies must first segment the
market according to levels of pro-environmental purchase behaviour and then target
the “greener” consumer segments. The demand for green products has been uneven
across different market segments. Thus, for organizations to position green products
and communicate their environmental efforts, to members of the population, who are
likely to be concerned about environmental issues, green consumer segments need to
be therefore identified (Schlegelmilch and Bohlen, 1996).
Killbourne points out that the research in green marketing field has become more
fragmented, very specific and seems to share common aims. Furthermore, it focuses
on identifying the role of environmental consciousness of consumers developing a
scale for measuring the level of EC.
Peattie and Charter (1997) define green marketing as “the holistic management
process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying the needs of customers
and society, in a profitable and sustainable way”. In this sense, market orientation and
market segmentation appear as aspects to which the marketer must pay special
attention. The growing number of organisations entering in the green market points to
the need for suitable segmentation as well as targeting and positioning strategies (do
Pac¸o and Raposo, 2009).
There have been relatively few attempts to classify consumers specifically
according to levels of green purchasing behaviour. However, there has been a whole
wealth of research, using a variety of segmentation variables, attempting to profile the
environmentally conscious members of the population in general. The measures that
have been used fall into two distinct categories: socio-demographics, such as sex, age, Environmental
education, and social class; and personality measures, such as locus of control, segmentation
alienation, conservatism, and dogmatism (Balderjahn, 1988; Henion and Wilson,
1976; Kinnear et al., 1974). Such studies have been criticized in the literature alternatives
questioning the relevance of segmentation approaches used in these studies.
Straughan and Roberts’ (1999) indicated in their results that despite the amount of
past research attention devoted to demographics variables. This is not a useful 59
profiling mean as psychographic criteria. While other authors doubted its usefulness
as an approach to green marketing, along with questioning its stability.

Green segmentation criteria

Many studies in the green marketing literature attempted to define the characteristics of
green consumer for segmentation purpose. These researches have not always yielded
robustly indicative results, and the results produced in one study have been frequently
contradicted in another (do Pac¸o and Raposo, 2009). Early attempts to identify green
consumers can be traced back to 1968, when Berkowitz and Lutterman (1968) studied the
profile of socially responsible consumers. The study results portrayed ecological conscious
consumers as “female, pre-middle aged, with high level of education and above average
socio-economic status”. Later studies, however, reported different findings.
The underlying logic for market segmentation is well established. It centers on the
assumption that customers demonstrate heterogeneity in their product preferences and
buying behaviour (Wind, 1978). This variability is generally explained by differences
in product and/or user characteristics. The resulting segments can be easily defined by
reference to such readily observable descriptive characteristics as geographic location
or demographic characteristics.
A number of studies have made attempts to identify demographic variables that
shape the green consumer profile. Such variables, when significant, offer easy and
efficient ways for marketers to segment the market and capitalize on green attitudes
and behaviour (Anderson et al., 1974; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989; Roberts, 1996a,
b; Jain and Kaur, 2006; D’Souza et al., 2007).
The effect of age was investigated through a number of researches on green
marketing. These studies argued that younger individuals are likely to be more
sensitive to green marketing issues. The most common argument is that those who
have grown up in a time period, in which ECs have been a salient issue at some level,
are more likely to be sensitive towards green marketing issues. Surprisingly, this trend
has been reversed over the last two decades and several studies identified the green
consumer as being older than average (Samdahl and Robertson, 1989; Roberts, 1996a,
b; Jain and Kaur, 2006; D’Souza et al., 2007).
In spite of the number of researches investigating the age effect on portraying the
green consumer, the results of age-based investigations are still far from convincing.
Some of the researchers who explore age in relation to green attitudes and behaviour
have found insignificant relationships (Kinnear et al., 1974; McEvoy, 1972). Others
have found the relationship to be significant and negatively correlated with
environmental sensitivity and/or behaviour as predicted (Anderson et al., 1974;
Tognacci et al., 1972; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981; Zimmer et al., 1994). Still others
have found the relationship to be significant, but positively correlated (Roberts,
1996a; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989).
JIMA The development of the roles, skills, and attitudes assumed by each gender has led many
2,1 researchers to argue that women are more likely to present pro-environmental behaviour
(Straughan and Roberts, 1999). Balderjahn’s (1988) study reported the relationship between
environmentally attitude and the use of non-polluting products was more intensive among men
than women. Other studies, on the other hand, investigated gender as a demographic variable in
shaping environmental attitude (Arbuthnot, 1977; Brooker, 1976; Hounshell and Liggett, 1973;
60 MacDonald and Hara, 1994; McEvoy, 1972; Roberts, 1995, 1996a; Roberts and Bacon, 1997;
Samdahl and Robertson, 1989; Stern et al., 1993; Tognacci et al., 1972; Van Liere and
Dunlap, 1981). The development of unique sex roles, skills, and attitudes has led most
researchers to argue that women are more likely to hold attitudes consistent with the green
movement. Theoretical justification argued by Eagly holds that women, as a result of social
development and sex role differences, will carefully consider the impact of their actions on
others (Straughan and Roberts, 1999).
Income has always been perceived to have a positive relationship to environmental
sensitivity based on the prevailing wisdom that consumers with higher income levels can
tolerate the increase in costs associated with supporting green causes and favouring green
products. Several studies have investigated the relationship between income and
environmental attitudes and or related construct (Anderson and Cunningham, 1972;
Anderson et al., 1974; Kassarjian, 1971; Kinnear et al., 1974; McEvoy, 1972; Newell and
Green, 1997; Roberts, 1995, 1996a; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Samdahl and Robertson,
1989; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981; Zimmer et al., 1994).
Paradoxically, other studies have shown negative relationships between income
and ECs (Roberts, 1996a; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989). Roberts (1996a) argues that
differences shown in early studies have been taken over by the overall growth in the
ECs across all income levels. The author was also attentive that although the
relationship income and ECs in his study was significant, the amount of variance
explained was small (Straughan and Roberts, 1999).
The education level in relation to environmental attitudes was also investigated
through a number of studies (Aaker and Bagozzi, 1982; Anderson et al., 1974;
Kinnear et al., 1974; Leonard-Barton, 1981; McEvoy, 1972; Murphy et al., 1978;
Newell and Green, 1997; Roberts, 1995, 1996a; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Samdahl
and Robertson, 1989; Schwartz and Miller, 1991; Tognacci et al., 1972; Van Liere
and Dunlap, 1981; Zimmer et al., 1994). A positive relationship was found between
the two variables almost unanimously across studies. Although the results of studies
examining education and environmental issues are somewhat more consistent than
other demographic variables discussed to this point, a definitive relationship between
the two variables has not been established. The vast majority of these studies have
found a predicted positive relationship (Aaker and Bagozzi, 1982; Anderson et al.,
1974; Leonard-Barton, 1981; McEvoy, 1972; Murphy et al., 1978; Roberts, 1996a;
Schwartz and Miller, 1991; Tognacci et al., 1972; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981;
Zimmer et al., 1994). On the other hand, Samdahl and Robertson (1989) found that
education was negatively correlated with environmental attitudes.
Few studies considered the social class variable as it was criticized of being confusing,
and it ignores the individual’s upward professional mobility (O’Shaughnessy, 1988).
Whatever advantages demographic profiling of green consumers offers over
psychographic profiling in terms of ease of use are more than offset by the relative
strength of the associations between psychographic variables and ecologically
conscious consumption. In other words, psychographic variables provide a stronger and Environmental
therefore more useful profile of green consumption (Straughan and Roberts, 1999).
segmentation
It was in the 1960s that the concept of lifestyle first began to be used more frequently
by marketing managers in research undertaken into the phenomena of buying and alternatives
consumption. This concept is based on the study of people’s activities, interests, and
opinions. Several studies have attempted to clarify the interrelationship between values,
attitudes, and environmental behaviour. These studies have not investigated psychographic 61
variables thoroughly as the research in demographic. Straughan and Roberts (1999)
identified a number of psychographic variables namely: Political orientation
(Liberalism), in relation to the matter of interests and opinions regarding political
questions. The results revealed that environmental themes are part of a “liberal” political
agenda. Some studies suggest that individuals with a liberal political background are more
likely to display a strong commitment to the green movement, in contrast to those with
more conservative political views. As for Altruism, Stern et al. (1993) examined the role
that social-altruism and egoism played in influencing green behaviour. Their findings
suggest that all three of these constructs social-altruism, biospheric-altruism, and egoism
influence willingness to take political action. However, social-altruism and biospheric-
altruism are not significant in predicting willingness to pay higher gasoline taxes. PCE, the
premise that consumers’ attitudes and responses to environmental appeals are a function of
their belief that individuals can positively influence the outcome to such problems. This
attitude or belief is referred to as PCE. Findings have been fairly conclusive that PCE is
positively correlated with ECCB. Roberts (1996a) found that this was the single strongest
predictor of ECCB, surpassing all other demographic and psychographic correlates
examined. EC, the relationship between attitudes and behaviour is one that has been
explored in a variety of contexts. Those studies (Antil, 1984; Kinnear et al., 1974;
Roberts, 1995, 1996a; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981) examining
EC as a correlate of environmentally friendly behaviour have generally found a positive
correlation between the two (Straughan and Roberts, 1999).

Furthermore, some studies investigated the effect of locus of control, personal norms,
or affinity of nature, and the human love of nature – as a motivational mechanism to
protect natural habits and environment and as moderator variables. From a different
perspective, looking at the motivation for environmental behaviour patterns, centred on the
individual cost-benefit analysis inherent in human decision making. As behavioural
choices imply costs but can deliver benefits, the consumer will behave in an
environmentally sound manner if to do so seems likely to deliver sufficient benefit to
make up for the higher price of green products, or the inconveniences involved in
recycling or saving energy (Laroche et al., 2001). As noted by Chan (1999), empirical
evidence regarding the relationship between environmental knowledge, attitudes, and
behaviours is mixed. Studies on green consumers concur that in spite of the large number
of consumers who express their concerns about environmental problems, only a few are
willing to act at personal expense, such as making a sacrifice in their personal lifestyle.
Another of the factors that is recognized as preceding pro-environmental behaviour is
ecological consciousness (Schlegelmilch and Bohlen, 1996; Mostafa, 2007). Many studies
have addressed the characteristics of ecologically conscious consumers. The majority of
these studies have found, demographic variables associated with self-report measures of
environmental commitment, behavioural indicators of environmental commitment,
JIMA or psychometric scales measuring environmental consciousness (Samdahl and
2,1 Robertson, 1989; Zimmer et al., 1994). Some have offered additional attitudinal or
psychographic dimensions associated with green attitudes and behaviour (Roberts,
1996a; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Stern et al., 1993). A review of these studies
suggests several general indicators of an individual’s propensity to engage in ECCB
(Straughan and Roberts, 1999). Table I shows the main criteria and respective
62 segmentation variables that may be used to segment the green consumer market.

Research methodology
Throughout the previous bibliography study of green marketing and its segmentation
criteria, a number of variables were identified that highlighted the fact that various
types of consumers may have different concerns, attitudes towards the environment
with diverse levels of environmental knowledge.
As mentioned previously, the research aims to segment the Bahraini green market
with a focus on psychographic criteria adapted from Straughan and Roberts (1999) in
addition to demographics. To further address the future of green consumption, the
present study will concentrate on younger consumers who represent the future of
green consumption.

Survey instrument
The questionnaire was composed of two main sections. In the first section, data were
collected about the demographic characteristics of respondents (gender, age, income,
educational level, and location). The second section examined the environmental
dimension (PCE, EC, ECCB, and liberalism) used in the Roberts (1996a) and Straughan

Criteria Variables Studies

Demographic Age, gender, family dimension, religion, Anderson et al. (1974), Banerjee and
subculture, education, job or occupation, McKeage (1994), D’Souza et al. (2007), Jain
income, social class, and habitation type and Kaur (2006), Laroche et al. (2001),
Mainieri and Barnett (1997), Roberts
(1996a), Samdahl and Robertson (1989)
and Webster (1975)
Psychographic Lifestyle, personality, motivation, and Cornwell and Schwepker (1995), McCarty
values and Shrum (1994), Straughan and Roberts
(1999) and Vlosky et al. (1999)
Behavioural Knowledge, attitude, product usage, Alwitt and Berger (1993), Balderjahn
purchase behaviour, brand loyalty, and (1988), Cornwell and Schwepker (1995),
benefits Kinnear et al. (1974), Rios et al. (2006) and
Schuhwerk and Lefkokk-Hagius (1995)
Environmental Concern, PBC, knowledge, affect, Antonides and van Raaij (1998), Chan and
commitment, ecological consciousness, Yam (1995), de Pelsmacker et al. (2002),
subjective norms, activism, Maloney and Ward (1973), Maloney et al.
environmentally friendly behaviour, (1975), Martin and Simintiras (1995),
green products buying behaviour, Mostafa (2007) and Schlegelmilch and
information search, willingness to pay, Bohlen (1996)
recycling, and scepticism towards
Table I.
environmental claims
Green marketing
segmentation bases Source: do Pac¸o and Raposo (2009)
and Roberts (1999). The scales used to measure this dimension were Likert scales Environmental
(min. 1; max. 5).
segmentation
According to Roberts (1996a), construct of the ECCB measures the level to which
individuals purchase goods and services that are believed to have un-harmful effect on alternatives
the environment. The construct contained 22 items measuring ECCB. The second part
of the survey consisted of the PCE, consisted of four statements measuring the
customers’ attitude towards the collective effect of purchasing products that may 63
harm the environment. The third set of questions measured the customer EC with ten
statements measuring the respondent about their concern about different aspect of the
environment such as the equilibrium. Those aspects consisted of environmental abuse,
resources, plants, and animals. Finally, the fourth set, namely, liberalism, which
consisted of five statements.
The researcher conducted a pilot study on 30 respondents to ensure that the scale
was understandable by the targeted population. Based on the pilot feedback certain
words were confusing for the respondents and were changed in this stage to clarify
the construct meaning.

Reliability tests and factor analysis

Reliability tests were conducted on the overall instrument. Results (Table II) show
that the Cronbach’s alpha for the overall construct was 0.875, which is satisfactory for
an exploratory study (Hair et al., 1998). Results of the reliability test are presented in
Table II. The factor analysis was used and loading factor was satisfactory (above 0.7)
according to Nunnaly (Tables II and III).

Sampling and sample size

The questionnaire was administered to a convenience sample of 249 students (only 241
usable response) at the University of Bahrain. The researcher adopted the snowball – or
chain – sampling technique. Although convenience sampling is limited in representing the
whole population, it was the only viable alternative for the research. The respondents
included both traditional and non-traditional (evening program) students. The subjects
were given as much time as needed to complete the questionnaire. Referring to Table IV,
the results indicate that out of the 241 respondents, 40.6 per cent were males and 59.3 per
cent were females. The high percentage of females in the sample is reflecting its quota of
female students in the College of Business Administration at the University of Bahrain.
Over 78 per cent of the respondents were below 30 years, as the sample consisted mostly
of students. About 13.2 per cent were between the age of 30 and 39, with the remaining
9.9 per cent being above 40. The majority of the respondents’ income ranged between BD
750 and BD 1,500. Only 0.05 per cent of the sample fell below than BD 750, while 15.3
per cent of the respondents were above BD 1,500. Over 40 per cent of the respondents
were undergraduates, 24.4 per cent were graduate respondents with 31.5 per cent holding
high school education, 0.03 per cent of the responding were MBA and PhD holders.

Cronbach’s alpha Cronbach’s alpha based on standardized items No. of items

Table II.
0.875 0.880 41 Reliability analysis
JIMA
2,1 Variable Indicator Loading a

ECCB 1. To save energy, I drive my car as little as possible 0.634 0.876

2. I normally make a conscious effort to limit my use of products that 0.619
are made of or use scarce resources
3. I try to buy energy efficient household appliances 0.784
64 4. I will not buy products, which have excessive packaging 0.783
5. When there is a choice, I always choose that product which 0.681
contributes to the least amount of pollution
6. I have tried very hard to reduce the amount of electricity I use 0.761
7. I understand the potential damage to the environment that some 0.867
products can cause; I do not purchase these products
8. I have switched products for ecological reasons 0.823
9. I have purchased a household appliance because it uses less 0.843
electricity than other brands
10. I have convinced members of my family or friends not to buy some 0.789
products, which are harmful to the environment
11. I have replaced light bulbs in my home with those of smaller wattage 0.799
so that I will conserve on the electricity I use
12. I have purchased products because they cause less pollution 0.768
13. Whenever possible, I buy products packaged in reusable containers 0.876
14. When I purchase products, I always make a conscious effort to buy 0.836
those products that are low in pollutants
15. When I have a choice between two equal products, I always purchase 0.832
the one, which is less harmful to other people and the environment
16. I will not buy a product if the company that sells it is ecologically 0.658
irresponsible
17. I have purchased light bulbs that were more expensive but saved 0.586
energy
18. I try only to buy products that can be recycled 0.501
19. To reduce our reliance on oil, I drive my car as little as possible 0.726
20. I usually purchase the lowest priced product, regardless of its impact 0.722
on society
21. I do not buy household products that harm the environment 0.662
22. I buy high efficiency light bulbs to save energy 0.766
PCE 1. It is worthless for the individual consumer to do anything about 0.764 0.812
pollution
2. When I buy products, I try to consider how my use of them will affect 0.762
the environment and other consumers
3. Since one person cannot have any effect upon pollution and natural 0.743
resource problems, it does not make any difference what I do
4. Each consumer’s behaviour can have a positive effect on society by 0.733
purchasing products sold by socially responsible companies
EC 1. Plants and animals exist primarily to be used by humans 0.725 0.835
2. We are approaching the limit of the number of people the earth can 0.698
support
3. To maintain a healthy economy, we will have to develop a steady- 0.669
state economy where industrial growth is controlled
4. The earth is like a spaceship with only limited room and resources 0.766
5. Humans need not adapt to the natural environment because they can 0.756
remake it to suit their needs
Table III. 6. The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset 0.762
Factor analysis (continued)
 Environmental
Variable Indicator Loading a
segmentation
7. When humans interfere with nature, it often produces disastrous 0.743
consequences
alternatives
8. Humans must live in harmony with nature in order to survive 0.733
9. Mankind is severely abusing the environment 0.725
10. Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit 0.698 65
their needs
Liberalism 1. The government should control the profits of the big industries 0.669 0.746
items 2. I am for a health insurance program covering men and women 0.789
of all ages
3. If unemployment is high, the government should spend to create jobs 0.768
4. A government administered health insurance program is necessary 0.765
to insure that everyone receives adequate medical care
5. I am for less government regulation of business 0.802 Table III.

Respondents characteristics Frequency Percentage

Gender
Male 98 40.6
Female 143 59.3
Age of respondents
Less than 20 34 14.1
20-29 155 64.3
30-39 32 13.2
Above 40 24 9.9
Household monthly income
Less than 740 13 0.05
751-1,000 123 51
1,001-1,500 68 28.2
More than 1,500 37 15.3
Education level
High school 76 31.5
Undergraduate 98 40.6
Graduate 59 24.4 Table IV.
Postgraduate 8 0.03 Sample characteristics

Analysis and results

Following the data collection phase, the data were subject to statistical analysis using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 18.0) and included the following sequence
of statistical treatment: factor analysis, regression analysis, cluster analysis (K-means
clustering), and one-way ANOVA. Using correlations, the preliminary analysis results
showed that demographic variables gender, education level, and income were significantly
correlated with the ecological consumer conscious behaviour. Psychographic variables
were also significantly correlated with the ecological consumer conscious behaviour. The
correlations analysis results are shown in Table V.
Three separate regression models were developed. The first model consisted of the
ECCB construct and the four demographic variables (i.e. age, gender, income, and
education). The results showed that only the gender as a demographic variable
JIMA is insignificant ( p . 0.05). Results are shown in Table VI. The three demographic
variables indicate that age, income, and education are significant ( p , 0.05). The
2,1
demographics-only model has an R 2 of 0.055.
The second regression model includes the psychographic-only predictor variables.
This analysis indicates that EC, PCE, and liberalism were significant ( p , 0.05), as
shown in Table VII. The psychographics-only model outperformed the demographics-
66 only model as indicated by an R 2 value of 0.423, meaning that the psychographic
variables explain the ECCB variable more.
The third equation included the entire predictor variables. The results (Table VI)
indicate that gender was insignificant. On the other hand, age, income education,
PCE, economical concern, and liberalism maintained their significance ( p , 0.05).
The total variance explained by the full model (R 2 ¼ 0.464) represents a marginal
(but significant) increase over the psychographics-only model (Table VIII).
A quick clustering approach (SPSS 18, K-means clustering) was selected, with the
options of three, four, and five clusters, given the size of the buyers’ subgroup (Table IX).

Correlation ECCB PCE EC Age Gender Income Education Liberalism

ECCB 1.000
PCE 0.373 * * 1.000
EC 0.340 * * 0.617 * * 1.000
Age 20.235 * * 20.198 * * 20.203 * * 1.000
Gender 0.004 * 0.080 0.123 20.228 * * 1.000
Income 0.070 * 0.167 * * 0.053 0.069 20.047 1.000
Table V. Education 20.037 * * 20.031 20.055 0.278 * * 0.014 0.031 1.000
Correlations of green
Liberalism 0.078 * 0.005 0.100 20.160 * 0.118 20.024 20.008 1.000
consumer profile
variables * **
Note: Correlation is significant at: 0.05 and 0.01 levels (two-tailed)

Variables Regression coefficient Significance

Constant 78.470 0.001

Ages 22.926 0.004
Gender 21.651 0.178
Income 1.351 0.033
Table VI. Education 0.424 0.002
Regression of ECCB on
demographic variables Notes: R 2 ¼ 0.055; F ¼ 4.881; p ¼ 0.001; df ¼ 3.403

Variables Regression coefficient Significance

Constant 52.815 0.000

PCE 1.168 0.001
Table VII. EC 0.395 0.004
Regression of ECCB on EC 0.265 0.003
all psychographic
variables Notes: R 2 ¼ 0.423; F ¼ 39.317; p , 0.001; df ¼ 5.919
The choice of four clusters (32.7, 15.7, 34.8, and 16.5 per cent, respectively) was finally Environmental
preferred, due to the greater number of discrimination between cluster variables and the segmentation
more straightforward profile development. Discriminant analysis established clusters’
accurate selection (Wilks’ lambda 0.005 and F ¼ 0.001), with 100 per cent of the cases alternatives
correctly classified. Table X shows the differences between the four clusters. Bearing in
mind the results obtained previously, through the various statistical procedures, it was
decided that the four segments should be named, as follows. 67
Segment 1 – Green. This segment consisted of 79 respondents representing 32.7 per
cent of the sample, showed high commitment towards the environment. The segment
consisted of young individuals aged between 20 and 39 with the majority having a high
education (undergraduate and postgraduate); a monthly household income of above BD
1,000, living in urban societies. The respondents included in this segment believe that the
purpose of life is to live a life of virtue in agreement with nature. The segment
characteristics showed high orientation towards preserving the environment and natural
resources. Furthermore, respondents carry a high social responsibility towards pollution
and their community, exhibited in their purchasing behaviour and product choices.

Variables Regression coefficient Significance

Constant 61.328 0.000

Age 22.014 0.005
Gender 22.337 0.10
Education 0.475 0.020
Income 0.375 0.003
Liberalism 0.149 0.001
PCE 1.066 0.002 Table VIII.
EC 0.360 0.005 Regression of ECCB on
all demographic and
Notes: R 2 ¼ 0.464; F ¼ 16.435; p , 0.001; df ¼ 7.876 psychographic variables

Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4

Variables Mean Mean Mean Mean

ECCB 2.9 2.6 2.1 1.9

PCE 3.01 2.87 2.3 2.2
EC 2.78 2.9 2.2 2.5
Liberalism 3 2.66 1.9 1.9 Table IX.
n 79 (32.7%) 38 (15.7%) 84 (34.8%) 40 (16.5%) Cluster analysis

Cluster 1 2 3 4

1 7.503 4.094 7.512

2 7.503 5.438 6.106 Table X.
3 4.094 5.438 4.582 Distance between
4 7.512 6.106 4.582 final cluster
JIMA Additionally, respondents included in this segment were willing to pay more money to
2,1 preserve the environment and showed knowledge about environmental issues regarding
helping the government to perform its activities in preserving the environment.
Segment 2 – ambiguous. This segment consisted of 38 respondents (15.7 per cent of
the total population), falling in the high age group, with moderate educational and
income levels. Although, the respondents were environmentally knowledgeable, such
68 knowledge was not translated in their purchasing behaviour. This segment views the
government as the sole responsible of performing activities such as monitoring the
market and setting the market tone. This is due to the low level of income individuals
that are not willing to increasing their spending to purchase echo friendly product.
Segment 3 – undevoted. This segment consisted of 84 respondents (34.8 per
cent) from different ages groups, with low income and educational levels. This
segment seemed careless about the environment and consumption of harmful
products, while relying on the government to take the needed action to preserve the
environment. The respondents were also skeptical about businesses claims made
concerning the environment, to which it was not seen as, important among their
worries. The respondents’ environmental knowledge was apparently low and hasty
regarding the environmental issues. They did not consider their contribution towards
improving the environment as important, as this is reflected in their purchases of
products. Most of the respondents included in this segment live in rural areas.
Segment 4 – explorers. This segment consisted of 40 respondents representing
16.5 per cent of the population, dominantly young, with moderate-income level
scattered all over the country. This segment showed high level of knowledge
regarding the ecological environment, had a positive attitude towards environmental
issues. This segment scored high in EC, resources saving, and willingness to pay
more to preserve the environment. However, they take a negative position towards
government intervention in the business environment.

Conclusion and implications

Many studies have highlighted the lack of demographic variables importance (Roberts,
1995, 1996a; Roberts and Bacon, 1997), the study at hand proves that age, income, and
education, although they do marginally variance still helps in defining the green consumer
characteristics. The results also revealed that certain demographic variables are significant
for differentiating between different segments of green consumers. Psychographic
variables have proved to be more accurate and significant for segmenting and explaining
different segment characteristics. The results indicated that psychographic measures are
more accurate in explaining the different levels of environmental conscious consumer. The
results confirm that individuals should be convinced that their behaviour would affect the
environment, and businesses should perhaps link consumer benefit in choosing green
products. This is in line with the results of Roberts (1996a) with respect to the relative
importance of PCE in explaining ECCB.
Although most of the Bahrainis support the government environmental policies, yet this
is not usually reflected in their behaviour. Their participation is often based on protecting
the environment by saving electricity and water. Such concerns may be more closely
related with economic factors rather than with an environmental consciousness.
Overall, most of the Bahraini consumers sampled demonstrated awareness of
environmental problems and resources scarcity even that it is not translated in
environmental friendly behaviour. However, there are consumers who are prepared to Environmental
base their buying decisions on purchasing environmental friendly products. There is a segmentation
segment of “greener” consumers in the sample that differs significantly in some
aspects from the other market segments. alternatives
This study results also revealed business implication should be considered carefully.
Businesses should be assessing these segments’ attractiveness while adopting the right
positioning and tailoring adequate marketing program for each segment. Furthermore, new 69
businesses approaching the Bahrain market should perhaps pay more attention to the value
of delivering process, which will be more than just delivering products’ regular benefits,
or possibly risking loosing their market credibility. Consumers are becoming increasingly
concerned about environmental issues.

Limitations and future research

This study represents and exploratory research of green marketing in the Kingdom of
Bahrain. The objective of the study was to examine profiling opportunities among
those consumers who represent the future of the green marketing movement. The
sample was a convenience sample consisting of university students only from the
same university. Last, the measures used, while validated measures, were self-report
measures. Supporting these self-report measures with observational or behavioural
measures would strengthen the findings. Such limitations give room for further
investigation; besides Hofstede cultural dimensions can be included to shed more
lights on differences among segments.

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Corresponding author
Tamer A. Awad can be contacted at: awad_tamer@hotmail.com

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