16 Thermoforming
Jim Throne
16.1 Introduction
Thermoforming is a generic term that refers to a
process that begins with an extruded sheet of plastic.
The process involves heating the plastic sheet to a
temperature range where it is soft or malleable. The
sheet is then stretched against a cool single-sided
mold. When the sheet has cooled to the point where
it retains the shape of the mold, it is removed and the
excess plastic is trimmed from the formed product.
Thermoforming represents a group of sheet-form-
ing processes that includes vacuum forming, drape
forming, billow of free bubble forming, mechani-
cal bending, matched-mold forming, billet molding,
pressure forming, and twin-sheet forming.
Thermoforming is one of the oldest methods of
forming useful articles. In the 1870s, thin sheets of
cellulose nitrate were fitted into metal molds and heat-
ed with steam [1]. The molds were quenched in water
and the formed shapes were removed and trimmed to
shape. Products included baby rattles, mirror cases,
and sharps piano keys.
By the 1930s, thermoformed products included
bottles by Fernplas Corporation, relief maps by US
Coast and Geodectic Survey, and cigarette tips us-
ing an automatic thin-sheet thermoformer made
by Klaus B. Strauch Company. World War II saw
a rapid increase in thick-gauge cast acrylic ther-
moformed products for aircraft gun enclosures and
windscreens. After the war, cast acrylic was used
to produce bathtubs by the Troman Brothers of the
UK and cellulose acetate was introduced in rigid
packaging.
16.2 Thermoforming
Characteristics
The thermoforming process is usually segmented
into thin-gauge and thick-gauge markets. Thin-gauge
markets tend toward disposable products, such as
rigid packaging. Thick-gauge markets tend toward
permanent or industrial products.
Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-39040-8.00016-X
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If the beginning sheet is less than about 1.5 mm in
thickness, it is called thin-gauge sheet. It is usually
extruded in roll form, with the rolls being 1–1.5 m in
diameter. The rolls may weigh as much as 1800 kg
and may contain as much as 3000 m of sheet. The
sheet is fed continuously into thermoformers that are
often called roll-fed thermoformers.
If the beginning sheet is greater than about 3 mm
in thickness, it is called thick-gauge sheet. It is usual-
ly extruded and cut or guillotined into discrete pieces
that are stacked on pallets. These pieces are then fed,
either manually or automatically, into thermoformers
that are called cut-sheet machines.
Sheets having a thickness between 1.5 and 3 mm
are often too expensive to be used for disposable
products and too thin to be used in structural applica-
tions. There is a growing market, however, in this
midgauge sheet in certain under-the-hood automo-
tive applications and in large-volume, deep-draw
drink cups.
It is estimated that in 2007, the North American
thermoforming market was about 2700 million kg
with an estimated value of about US$ 13,000 million.
Approximately 20% of this market was “industrial
products,” or products that have structural charac-
teristics [2]. The top five industrial product markets
are transportation, recreation, electrical/electronic,
medical, and storage and dunnage. In 2007, in North
America, there were about 250 thick-gauge compa-
nies, running 2,800 machines, and employing 14,000
people.
Approximately 80% of the North American mar-
ket was thin-gauge “disposable products.” Rigid
packaging represents more than two-thirds of all
thermoformed products and includes blister packs,
point-of-purchase containers, meat and poultry trays,
hot and cold drink cups, convertible-oven food serv-
ing trays, medicinal unit dose containers, egg car-
tons, and rigid RFSS containers for everything from
foodstuffs to hardware supplies. In 2007, in North
America, there were about 500 thin-gauge compa-
nies, operating 700 plants, running 5,000 machines,
and employing 35,000 people [3].
345
346 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook

Therefore, in 2007, there were about 750 compa-

nies, operating about 1,000 plants, and employing
nearly 40,000 people in the North American thermo-
forming industry. It is estimated that the European
thermoforming industry is about 60% of the North
American industry. Recent estimates put the South
American industry at about 20%, China and South-
east Asia at about 40%, India at about 20%, and the
rest of the world at about 20% of the North American
industry. From this, it is estimated that the 2007
worldwide thermoforming market was about 7000
million kg, with a rough estimated market value of
about US$ 30,000 million.

16.3  Thermoformed Product

Characteristics
Thermoforming is a low-temperature, low-pressure
process in which the sheet is handled as a rubbery
solid or elastic liquid. Molds are usually single-
surfaced. Mold materials are relatively inexpensive
and are often fabricated in relatively short times.
Thick-gauge thermoforming produces a limited
number of products at production costs below those
produced by other processes, such as injection mold-
ing. Thin-gauge thermoforming produces millions of
products at production costs below those produced
by other processes. Thin-gauge products tradition-
ally have surface area-to-thickness ratios as large
as 100,000:1. No other process can produce similar
results.
In contrast to these advantages, thermoforming
has several disadvantages. The incoming material is
an extruded sheet, with the extrusion process adding
50% or more to the cost of the formed product. Ther-
moforming generates substantially more trim than
other processes and that trim must be ground and re-
extruded at additional cost.
Thermoforming is a differential stretching pro-
cess, meaning that as the sheet is stretched, only
that portion of the sheet that is free of the mold is
stretched. As a result, the wall thickness of the
formed product is nonuniform (Fig. 16.1) [4]. Al-
though some improvement in wall thickness is
achieved by mechanical or pneumatic stretching of
the hot sheet prior to pulling it against the mold sur-
face, wall thickness tolerance is typically 10–20%.
As local areas of formed products are designed to
minimum critical thickness, many portions of the
formed products contain more plastic than neces-
sary to meet the design criteria. Regarding product
Figure 16.1 Traditional sheet draw-down sequence
into female or negative mold.
surface quality, only one side of the product contacts
and replicates the mold surface. As noted, the ther-
moformed sheet is in a rubbery solid or nearly solid
state when it is stretched at relatively low pressures.
Nearly all applications use unfilled or unreinforced
sheet. As the sheet is usually stretched in its solid,
rubbery elastic state, the thermoformed products are
under substantial residual stress. As a result, substan-
tial distortion can occur if formed products are sub-
sequently heated to near-forming temperatures. This
is discussed later.
16.4  The Thermoforming Concept
As noted, thermoforming begins with an ex-
truded sheet of plastic. If the sheet is discrete, it is
fixtured on all four edges in a clamp frame. If it is
in roll form, it is clamped along its two continu-
ous edges. The clamped sheet is fed into an oven
where it is heated until pliable and at a preselected
forming temperature range. The hot sheet is then
moved to a forming press where it is stretched onto
or into the cool shaping mold. The formed product
and the plastic surrounding it are cooled until re-
moved from the mold without distortion. The prod-
uct is mechanically trimmed from the plastic sur-
rounding it. The product is inspected, and stacked
or crated. The trim is reground and the regrind is
mixed with virgin plastic to be extruded into sheet.
16: Thermoforming 347
Each of these steps is considered in detail in the
next paragraphs.
The forming step is the most complex part of the
process. The earliest and simplest forming operations
are drape forming and vacuum forming. In drape
forming (Fig. 16.2), the hot plastic sheet is draped
over a male or positive mold. Vacuum may be used to
pull the sheet tight against the mold surface. In vacu-
um forming (Fig. 16.3), the plastic sheet is clamped
against the rim of a female or negative mold. Vac-
uum is used to pull the sheet into the mold cavity
(see also Fig. 16.1). Another rather simple forming
operation is billow forming. The hot clamped plas-
tic sheet is inflated with air pressure. The height of
the bubble is controlled by the air pressure and cool-
ing fans that act to rigidify the bubble. The inflation
process is often controlled with photoelectric eyes
(Fig. 16.4).
As noted earlier, thermoformed products have
nonuniform wall thickness. To achieve a more uni-
form product wall thickness, two general prestretch-
ing methods are used in the industry. Pneumatic
prestretching is used with thick-gauge sheet [5]. As
shown in Fig. 16.5, the hot sheet is drawn by vacu-
um into an empty box called a draw box. The male
or positive mold is lowered into the bubble and vac-
uum is applied, pulling the sheet against the mold.
Mechanical prestretching or plug assist is used with
both thin- and thick-gauge sheets. As shown in
Fig. 16.6, a solid element called a plug is pressed
into the hot sheet, stretching it toward the bottom of
the female or the negative mold. When the expected
extent of prestretching has been achieved, vacu-
um is applied between the mold and the stretched
sheet and often air pressure is applied between the
plug and the stretched sheet. This presses the sheet
against the mold surface.
Figure 16.2 Wall thickness variation in draw-down
into female or negative mold.
Figure 16.3 Wall thickness variation in draw-down
onto male or positive mold.
In all forms of thermoforming, hot sheet is
pressed against the mold surface by applying great-
er air pressure on one side of the sheet than on the
other. Vacuum forming, for example, applies up to
1 atm differential pressure or 0.1 MPa across the
sheet. In pressure forming, somewhat of a misno-
mer, differential pressures to 1 MPa are often used
to press the plastic sheet against the mold surface.
Pressure forming is used in thick-gauge sheet form-
ing when the sheet at its forming temperature is too
stiff to replicate the mold surface. This is particular-
ly the case when very sharp radii and highly textured
product surfaces are required. Pressure forming is
used in thin-gauge sheet forming to reduce cooling
cycle times by rapidly pushing the sheet from the
plug and pressing it hard against a cold mold sur-
face. It is also used to fabricate filled or reinforced
plastic products.
Matched molds are used when both surfaces of
the sheet must replicate the mold or when the hot
sheet is too stiff to stretch into the mold (Fig. 16.7).
Low-density foam sheet cannot be heated to the
forming temperature of the unfoamed plastic without
Figure 16.4  Schematic of free-blown sheet method.
348 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook

Figure 16.5  Sheet drawn into vacuum or draw box prior to forming against male or positive mold.

Figure 16.6  Sequence showing prestretching with draw box prior to sheet contact with plug prior to vacuum
drawing of prestretched sheet against wall of female or negative mold.
16: Thermoforming 349
Figure 16.7  Schematic of matched mold forming for stiff, sheet such as thermoplastic foam.
extensive cell collapse. As a result, foam is matched-
mold formed at pressures of about 0.3 MPa. As
mentioned, thick-gauge filled and reinforced plas-
tics are often matched-mold formed. Filled plastics
and short-glass fiber-reinforced plastics are formed
at pressures of about 1 MPa. Long- and continuous-
glass fiber-reinforced plastics and carbon-fiber-rein-
forced plastics are often formed at near-compression
molding pressures of up to about 10 MPa.
Thick-gauge twin-sheet forming is being developed
to compete with products that are manufactured using
rotational and blow molding. Typical applications in-
clude pallets and recreational products. Depending on
the nature of the plastic, the two halves of the product
can be separately thermoformed and welded together
with heat or solvents. In Europe, twin-sheet-formed
products are formed by simultaneously heating two
sheets of plastic in a single clamp frame (Fig. 16.8).
When the sheets are at forming temperature, air is
forced between the sheets, pressing them against molds
and the press is closed to form the peripheral pinch-off.
In North America, thick-gauge twin-sheet-formed
products are formed in sequential fashion on rotary
thermoforming presses. The first sheet is heated and
formed into the lower mold. The second sheet is heat-
ed and formed into the upper mold. Then the press
closes to form the peripheral pinch-off (Fig. 16.9).
Thin-gauge twin-sheet forming has been used to pro-
duce lightweight bottles, medical room devices, and
air bladders in running shoes.
Contact forming is restricted to roll-fed thin sheet.
The sheet to be heated is brought in contact with a
heated plate by vacuum. When the sheet reaches its
forming temperature, which is the same temperature
as the heated plate, the plate and sheet are pressed
against the female or negative mold. A combination
of vacuum and air pressure pushes the sheet from
the plate to the cool mold cavity (Fig. 16.10). When
the sheet is cool, the mold drops away and the sheet
moves to a trimming fixture.
Often, contact forming is used as the first part of
a process known as rigid RFFS (Fig. 16.11). The
formed products are conveyed with the trim-in-place
through a filling operation, a sealing operation, and
a trimming operation, where the products are re-
moved from the trim. RFFS is used extensively in the
350 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook

Figure 16.8  Twin-sheet thermoforming with both sheets held in a single clamp frame then heated and formed
simultaneously.

Figure 16.9  Sequential heating and forming in twin-sheet thermoforming.

16: Thermoforming 351

Figure 16.10  Contact thermoforming whereby the sheet is heated by contacting a heated plate then drawn or
blown off the heated plate onto a mold.

Figure 16.11  Thermoforming as the initial portion of a rigid form-fill-seal operation.

manufacture of pharmaceutical unit dose packages 16.5  Thermoforming Machinery

and foodstuff unit servings.
Mechanical heating and bending of plastic sheet Nearly all thermoforming machines have the fol-
is also a thermoforming process. It was used exten- lowing elements:
sively by crafters in the 1920s to produce household
products from picture frames to bud vases. Today it • sheet-handling system,
is used in combination with computer-aided high- • method of rigidly clamping sheet,
speed multiaxis routers. The routers cut the flat sheet • oven(s),
into several pieces, some of which are line-bent into • forming press,
angles. The pieces are then solvent-welded or glued
into functional products that may represent early • pneumatic or mechanical prestretching (op-
design prototypes of the final product. Often, this tional),
method is used to produce a few to perhaps a dozen • load/unload elements,
finished products to meet the customer’s needs. • vacuum box,
352 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
• pressurization system (optional),
• condition monitors and process control,
• safety elements, and
• method of trimming the product from the web.
As noted, there are two general categories of ma-
chinery: thin-gauge or roll-fed thermoformers and
thick-gauge or cut sheet thermoformers.
16.6  Thin-Gauge Thermoforming
16.6.1 Machinery
A typical thin-gauge thermoformer is shown in
Fig. 16.12. The roll is placed on a roll stand that
usually has passive breaking or a roll speed gover-
nor to prevent uncontrolled unspooling. It may also
be equipped with an end-of-roll alarm and rapid roll
changeover capabilities.
The sheet is fed into the machine where it engages
pins that are spaced along the lengths of parallel or
near-parallel, continuous cycle-link chains. The pin-
chains convey the impaled sheet through the machine.
The pin-chains are usually shielded from oven heat
and are outside the edges of the mold in the forming
press. The pin-chains may be lubricated but are of-
ten designed to run dry for medical and food-product
applications. The pins are held vertically by guides.
For certain plastics, such as polystyrene (PS), brittle
chips may be vacuumed prior to the sheet reaching
Figure 16.12  Schematic of a small thin-gauge thermoforming machine with major forming elements identified.
the oven and forming stations. In-feed nonstick or
nonscratch engagement shoes are used to position
the sheet prior to engaging the pin-chains. Many
machines are equipped with automatic chain adjust-
ment, allowing the pin-chains to diverge slightly in
the heating and forming portions of the machine. The
sheet is advanced through the machine in a start–stop
fashion with the total time of each advance being
seconds. The pin-chains are servo-driven so that the
sheet moves smoothly through acceleration, decel-
eration, and constant speed during indexing.
16.6.2 Oven
In thin-gauge thermoforming, many products are
molded at once. Forming cycles are determined by
the time a “shot” or portion of the continuous sheet
resides in the forming press. One important criterion
is temperature uniformity across the sheet. To achieve
this, most thin-gauge thermoforming machines have
modular sandwich ovens that allow more than one
shot to reside in the oven. For many plastics, such as
polypropylene (PP), a preheating oven that consists
of a series of up-and-down roller-driven loops is rec-
ommended. The preheating oven is placed between
the takeoff-stand and the in-feed pin-chain rail to the
thermoformer. Energy consumption is a major ex-
pense in all forms of thermoforming. As a result, all
oven modules are often thoroughly insulated and the
sides usually come to within 25 mm of the machine
16: Thermoforming 353
framework that holds the pin-chain rails. Baffles are
often used between oven modules and usually be-
tween the last oven module and the press frame. The
types of heaters used in thin-gauge thermoforming
ovens are discussed in the next section.
Modern ovens have means of changing both the
top and bottom sheet-to-heater gaps. Whenever the
chain travel is interrupted, the ovens are quickly and
automatically retracted, either horizontally or by fly-
ing open in a clamshell fashion. Rapid disconnects
are used for individual or bank-heater elements and
for thermocouples. Insulated infrared temperature
measuring devices are usually inserted through top
and bottom oven wall surfaces. Sag bands are either
low-friction coated rods or continuous wires that in-
dex with the pin-chains. They are parallel to and be-
tween the pin-chain rails and minimize sag on very
wide sheet. As all shots in the oven and forming press
are contiguous, each shot is exited from the oven to
the forming press based on clock time rather than
sheet temperature. Some sheet temperature control is
achieved by adding highly responsive heaters at the
oven segment closest to the forming press.
16.6.3  Forming Press
The heated sheet temperature may fall by 10°C or
more between the time it exits the last oven section
and the time the forming press closes on it. The form-
ing press is a machine with many functions. The press
can be closed and clamped pneumatically, with ser-
vo-mechanical linkages, or electrically. Platen lock-
ing devices and pneumatic bladders are used when
high-forming air pressure is needed. Platen screws
are usually self-lubricating, continuously lubricated,
or unlubricated if the press is used to produce medi-
cal, pharmaceutical, or food containers. Clean-room
thermoforming requires that thermoforming ma-
chines be all electrical with unlubricated sliding el-
Figure 16.13  In-place or in situ forming and trimming for thin-gauge products with trim knives first acting as cavity
clamps then as methods for cutting the formed part from the skeleton or web.
ements and self-leveling platens. If products are to
be trimmed while on the mold face, provisions must
be made for protecting, sliding, and locking elements
from trim detritus.
In addition to providing sufficient space for the
mold, the press must include space for a pressure
box and other elements, such as plug assist plates,
cavity isolator plates, trim-in-place die plates, and
ejector-ring plates. Water and vacuum lines should
be properly located and should be easy to disconnect.
­Programmable logic controls are needed for adjust-
ment of all rate-dependent ancillary features, such as
plug assist, cavity isolator, pressure box, and trim-in-
place sequence. Many newer machines are equipped
with computer controls that provide for rapid setup
after mold changeover. The press platens must allow
easy mold removal and installation.
As noted, thin-gauge thermoformed products, par-
ticularly deeply drawn products, often require cav-
ity isolators, plug assist, and pressure forming [6].
Plug travel is usually adjustable and each plug is
often easily adjusted and replaced. For certain plas-
tics, the plugs may need to be internally heated. As
a result, the electrical leads must be easily connected
and disconnected. Plug shape and plug material are
discussed in the next section.
16.6.4 Trimming
There are three general methods for trimming
products from the sheet.
1. In-place trimming, where the trim die resides
on the mold and is activated once the products
have been formed (Fig. 16.13).
2. In-machine trimming, where the sheet con-
taining the formed products is indexed to a
trimming press located on the machine frame
(Fig. 16.12).
354 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.14  Sequence for off-machine but in-line thin-gauge canopy trimming machine often called punch-and-
die trimmer.
3. In-line trimming, where the sheet containing
the formed products is indexed completely
from the trim machine to a separate trim press
(Fig. 16.14).
With the first two methods, the trim die is notched
to allow the products to remain attached to the sheet
until it is moved to the product removal station. Prod-
ucts are usually directly punched from the sheet to a
collection table in in-line trimming.
In-place trimming is most effective with thin sheet
(<1 mm) and narrow sheet. The advantages of in-
place trimming are that the trim die acts as a cavity
isolator; the formed products remain in the mold cav-
ity and are therefore in perfect registry; the plastic
is soft and, as a result, the trim forces are low; and
there is often less trim dust. The trim die is usually a
hardened steel rule that is rigidly mounted in a plate
that is integral to the mold structure.
The disadvantages of in-place trimming include:
• higher mold cost,
• difficulties in determining the quality of the
trim die edge,
• problems in aligning the trim die with the mold,
• increased on-mold time to allow for the trim-
ming to complete, and
• the real possibility that a product may separate
from the trim, remain in the mold cavity, and
interfere with forming the next product.
In-machine trimming is also most effective with
thin, narrow sheet. As with in-place trimming, sheet
thickness is ∼1 mm or less and the trim die is usu-
ally hardened steel rule. Often the sheet containing
the products is usually fixtured and trimmed down-
stream of the forming press. Although the prod-
ucts may be tabbed or notched before moving to a
stacking operation, the stacker may be part of the
entire in-machine trimming station. As the form-
ing and trimming stations are separate, the mold
cost is lower than that for in-place trimming and
there is greater versatility in adjusting the trim to
achieve registry. In-machine trim presses are easier
to inspect and maintain and trim dies are easier to
inspect than in in-place trimming. However, in-
machine trim presses may take longer to set up and
align than in-place trimmers. Product warp-and-
shrink can lead to inaccuracy in trim lines. If the
product trim line is critical, the products are often
fixtured during trim press action.
There are two general types of in-line trim ­presses
[7]. The canopy trim press (Fig. 16.14) is more com-
mon. The sheet containing the formed products is
directed from the pin-chain rails of the forming ma-
chine into the trim press via locating and registering
elements. The sheet is indexed vertically between
the punch and die, with the products seated in the
punch pockets. The horizontal reciprocating die en-
gages the sheet, squeezing the trim area between it
and the punch rim. The products are completely cut
from the trim and are pressed through the punch cav-
ity onto a nearly horizontal collection table. The col-
lected products are nested, automatically counted,
and packed.
Typically, products are collected on the press side
away from the reciprocating die. To locate, seat, and
trim deeply drawn products, such as drink cups, the
products must be presented to the press with the
16: Thermoforming 355
Figure 16.15  Two-step thin-gauge trimming sequence for parts that require punched sequences prior to having
the part trimmed from the web or skeleton.
products pointing up. This means that either the
products are formed in the up position in the form-
ing press or the sheet containing the formed products
must be rotated 180 degree between the thermoform-
er and the trim station.
Canopy machines are difficult to set up. Typically,
only a single row of products is cut at a time. As a
result, the trim press cycles are far shorter than those
of the thermoformer, meaning that frequent mainte-
nance and punch and die interference alignment are
often required.
Flatbed presses horizontally accept the sheet con-
taining the products. The products nest in the punch-
es on the lower platen. The dies vertically reciprocate
into the punch, completely trimming the products
from the trim. The products are collected from below
the lower platen. The vertical flatbed press is easier
to set up and maintain than the horizontal canopy
press. It can also trim more than one row of prod-
ucts, although stacking and collection can be more
complicated.
Products, such as point-of-purchase and berry
box rigid containers often require multiple punch
steps. The first punch forms holes or slots in the
product. The second punch separates the product
from the trim. Although multiple punches can be
accomplished on a single trim press, there is always
a concern about the first punch trim-out causing
problems with the second punch. As a result, tan-
dem trim presses are usually used (Fig. 16.15). Set
up and alignment of two presses often take substan-
tially more time than the set-up time of the thermo-
forming forming press.
Fig. 16.15 shows one method of web take-up.
The roll is replaced when the spool has reached a
specific diameter. For longer production runs, the
web or trim is guillotined either at the end of the
thermoformer or at the end of the in-line trim press.
The trim strips are either collected and baled or are
fed directly to a grinder/chipper for shipment to the
extruder.
16.7  Thick-Gauge Thermoforming
16.7.1 Machinery
As noted, both thin-gauge and thick-gauge thermo-
forming machines have essentially the same functional
elements. There are two general types of thick-gauge
machines—shuttle presses and rotary presses. Shuttle
machines are very versatile and are capable of form-
ing very large products (Fig. 16.16). As a result, they
represent about 70% of the total number of machines.
Shuttle presses are economically inefficient because
one set of products is fabricated for every two cycles
of the machines. Rotary presses, such as the three-
station (Fig. 16.17), are quite energy efficient; but are
more expensive than equivalently dimensioned shut-
tle presses, require more care in setting up, and are
typically limited in the size of the product that can be
handled in the rotary clamp frame.
As with thin-gauge thermoformers, machine cri-
teria include:
• platen dimensions,
• depth of draw,
• general nature of the forming process, such as
vacuum, pressure, matched mold, plug assist,
and twin-sheet capability,
• nature of the motive power for moving the plat-
en and for indexing the clamp frame,
• types of heaters and methods of temperature
control, and
• the overall type of process control.
Other features may include automatic heater-to-
oven adjustment, drop-side ovens, vacuum draw box,
automatic sheet loading, through-oven temperature
monitoring, sag monitoring, and automatic fire sup-
pression.
The shuttle press is the simplest commercial
thermoforming machine. The sheet is loaded in a
356 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook

Figure 16.16  Schematic of typical thick-gauge shuttle thermoforming press detailing major components.

Figure 16.17 Schematic of three-station thick-gauge rotary thermoforming press detailing major components
(Note: Four-station heavy-gauge rotary thermoforming presses have a preheating station prior to the primary
oven).

four-sided clamp frame that is shuttled from the
load/unload station into the oven (Fig. 16.16).
When the sheet has reached its forming tempera-
ture, it and the clamp frame are shuttled out of the
oven to the forming station that also serves as the
load/unload station. Depending on the complexity
of the process, the sheet may be mechanically or
pneumatically prestretched prior to contacting the
mold. The mold is usually, but not always, located
beneath the heated sheet and the sheet is either low-
ered onto the mold or the mold is raised onto the
sheet. The formed sheet is held against the mold
surface until it is sufficiently cooled. The sheet and
its formed products are then separated from the
16: Thermoforming 357
Figure 16.18  Schematic of thick-gauge thermoforming machine with two ovens thereby allowing one sheet to be
heated for each forming cycle thus doubling the throughput rate of a single oven machine. (Note: this machine,
often called a “double-ender,” can be equipped with a second mold to produce twin-sheet thick-gauge products).
mold, the clamp frame is opened, and the sheet is
removed to an off-line trim station.
As noted, when a sheet is being heated, there is
no sheet being formed, and when a sheet is being
formed, no sheet is being heated. As a result, prod-
ucts are produced only every other cycle. One way to
increase shuttle press efficiency is to use two ovens
with the load/unload/forming station between them
(Fig. 16.18). When one sheet is being formed, an-
other is being heated. This technology is also used to
produce twin-sheet thermoformed products.
Cabinet shuttle machines are common outside of
North America. Instead of the sheet moving into and
out of the oven, the sandwich heaters horizontally
move across the sheet while the sheet remains poised
over the mold. When the sheet is at forming tempera-
ture, heaters are retracted and the mold is raised onto
the sheet to form the product. This technique also al-
lows for plug assist and pressure forming.
The rotary machine is used for long production
runs. The heart of the machine is the carrousel and
turret that transports the sheet from station-to-station.
The three-station machine (Fig. 16.16) consists of a
sandwich oven, a forming station, and a load/unload
station. For many materials, such as high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), the heating station often con-
trols the overall cycle time. As a result, four-station
machines are used, with the fourth station being a
preheating oven. A second oven is often recommend-
ed while heating and forming hygroscopic plastics,
such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and
polymethyl methacrylates. As with the shuttle ma-
chines, the sheet is clamped on all edges at the load/
unload station. It is indexed into the oven by rotation
of the turret. When the sheet has reached its forming
temperature, it is indexed to the forming press. When
the product is formed and sufficiently cooled, it and
its trim are rotated to the load/unload station, where
it is removed to the off-line trimmer.
The four-station rotary thermoforming machine is
used in North America to produce twin-sheet prod-
ucts. This is accomplished by having two molds in the
forming station—one on the lower platen and one on
the upper platen. The first sheet is loaded in the rota-
ry clamp frame and indexed into the first oven. When
it has reached a predetermined temperature, the sec-
ond sheet is loaded in the next clamp frame and the
two sheets are indexed. The first sheet moves into the
second oven and the second into the first oven. When
the first sheet has reached forming temperature, it is
indexed to the forming press, while the second sheet
is indexed into the second oven. The first sheet is
vacuum formed into the lower mold where it is held
until sufficiently cooled. At that point, the clamp
frame is opened and the first sheet is released where
it resides on the lower mold. The second sheet at its
forming temperature is then indexed into the form-
ing press, where it is vacuum formed into the upper
mold. The upper and lower platens are then mated.
Air pressure is introduced between the two product
halves to ensure their continuing contact with their
respective mold surfaces. Often, auxiliary forming
bars in the molds are activated, applying pressure to
produce a peripheral seal on the two halves of the
product. When the product halves are sufficiently
cool, the platens separate and the twin-sheet product,
still held in the upper sheet clamp frame, is rotated to
the load/unload station for removal.
The cut sheet may be manually inserted into the
clamp frame of the thick-gauge thermoformer, but
vacuum pick-up and placement devices are more
common for long production runs. Pneumatic or
mechanical tables are used to lift very heavy or large
sheets. Pneumatic clamp frame closures are usually
358 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
used. The closure edges are often toothed or barbed
to ensure that the sheet does not extrude from the
grips during heating or forming. Of course, all
clamp frame elements are designed to withstand
high oven temperatures (up to 450°C) for long cycle
times (several minutes) and many cycles (more than
10,000) without sticking, binding, or leaking air or
fluids.
The clamp frame must be robust enough to sup-
port the largest and heaviest sheet without oscil-
lating or bouncing. The indexing acceleration,
constant speed, and deceleration must be smooth
without vibration or banging. Most turrets are
equipped with a positive stop arrangement to en-
sure positive positioning of the carrousel at every
operating station.
16.7.2 Oven
Energy costs are usually very important economic
considerations in thick-gauge thermoforming. Mod-
ern ovens are provided with appropriate side baffles
or curtains to minimize drafts and optimize energy
usage. Heaters are equipped with rapid electrical dis-
connects and thermocouples. Ovens have provisions
for in-oven infrared temperature measuring, and are
equipped with photoelectric devices to detect exces-
sive sheet sag. For very large sheets and high sheet
sag, oven sidewalls should pneumatically drop when
the sheet is ready to be transported out of the oven.
Modern machines have provisions for rapid emer-
gency shutdown. Baffles between the sheet and the
heaters, high-velocity air blown across the sheet, and
carbon dioxide fire suppression means are recom-
mended. More advanced thermoformers may include
intermittent vacuum or airlift of the sheet to mini-
mize sag. Heater characteristics are discussed later.
Until very recently, sheet exited the oven on time.
With advances in process control and infrared tem-
perature monitoring, sheet is frequently exited on
temperature.
16.7.3  Forming Press
The modern thick-gauge forming press is robust
enough to adequately accommodate the weight of
molds on both upper and lower platens. In addition,
the machine must be capable of supporting a steel-
reinforced pressure box, plug assist plates, and on
some machines, trim-in-place, and forged trim dies.
Modern machines have two-stage closing sequences
that allow smooth acceleration and deceleration of
the platens to minimize banging and chatter of molds
as they enter the hot sheet. Overhead air and oil lines
should be enclosed or self-sealing to minimize oil va-
por contamination of the hot sheet. Platen cogs and
screws should be enclosed to minimize dirt collec-
tion in the flights. The platens should be self-leveling
or have easy means for leveling. All vacuum, air
pressure, and coolant lines should be equipped with
over-sized rapid disconnects. When a pressure box
is used, the press should have pneumatic interlocks
to prevent premature depressurization when the box
is pressurized. As the platen size increases, locking
bayonet toggles and air bladders are often used dur-
ing pressure forming.
Mold changeover is often labor intensive. For
very large machines, process adjustments may be
far above or below floor level. Permanently mounted
caged ladders are used for overhead access. Special
breathing apparatus is needed for set up of controls
that are more than a meter below grade. If the carrou-
sel is far above the operators’ reach, automatic load
and unload features are used.
Two prestretching methods are commonly used in
thick-gauge thermoforming. Mechanical prestretch-
ing uses solid plugs that are driven into the sheet
prior to the sheet touching the mold surface. The rate
and extent of travel of the plugs are part of the auto-
matic process sequence. The thick-gauge plug shapes
and materials are discussed later.
In pneumatic prestretching or bubble stretching,
the hot sheet is clamped over a hollow shape that
acts as a blow box. The sheet is then inflated with
air pressure of up to 70 KPa with the height of the
bubble monitored and controlled with a photoelec-
tric eye or a microswitch. For male or positive molds,
the sheet is drawn with vacuum into a draw box. The
mold is then immersed into the prestretched sheet.
Again, the extent of prestretching is monitored and
controlled. The shape of the prestretched bubble is
determined by the variation in temperature across the
sheet surface.
Improvements in thick-gauge process control
include advanced programmed logic control and
computer-aided control systems that monitor energy
usage, index sheet on temperature, and sense sheet
sag, pressure box pressure, brownout, power surge,
and a myriad of other tasks. In addition to single-
point infrared temperature measurement through the
oven wall, newer optical devices scan the entire sheet
as it exits the oven. The two-dimensional thermal
image that is produced is used to adjust individual
heater temperatures.
16: Thermoforming 359
16.7.4 Trimming
Very few thick-gauge products are trimmed from
the web in the thermoforming machine. Off-line
trimming methods include:
• guillotines of the type used to cut extruded
sheet,
• band saws,
• rotary or table saws,
• handheld manual trimmers or routers,
• milling machines or three-axis machines,
• multiaxis routers or five-axis machines, and
• robotic trimmers.
Guillotines, band saws, table saws, and handheld
routers are only used if a few number of products
need to be trimmed. Numerically controlled trim-
mers are used when hundreds or thousands of prod-
ucts need to be trimmed.
In addition to simply removing the product from
its trim or web, it is often necessary to drill holes or
machine slots, vents, or cutouts in the product. Com-
puter-controlled multiaxis routers, developed first
for the metalworking and woodworking industries,
have become the workhorses of thick-gauge trim-
ming. The milling machine, standard in metalwork-
ing, is a three-axis or XYZ machine. The product is
held in a fixture that is moved on a horizontal or XY
plane. The milling head is moved vertically on the Z
plane. Drilling and milling sequences and tool paths
are programmed into the machine computer for each
product. As the milling head is constricted to a single
direction, complex trim lines are difficult to achieve
without frequent repositioning of the product on the
XY plane. Linear cutting speeds are about 2.5 m/min
with cutting head speeds of 3000 rpm.
Five-axis machines were developed by the wood-
working industry. Again, the product is held in a
fixture that moves on the XY plane. The machining
head moves in the Z direction but it can also gim-
bal in two other directions (U and V). [If it gimbals
in three other directions (U, V, and W), the machine
is called a six-axis machine.] This operation can be
demonstrated by rotating one’s wrist. These addi-
tional degrees of freedom allow the milling cutter
to move diagonally or horizontally into the product
and even the machine underneath an overhanging
portion of the product while the product remains
affixed to the XY platform. The movement of the
multiaxis router is carefully controlled to minimize
overshoot and vibration. Five-axis linear cutting
speeds are up to 25 m/min and router tip speeds are
up to 40,000 rpm.
There are two keys to successful multiaxis rout-
ing. The first lies in the fixture holding the product
during trimming. Vacuum used to secure the prod-
uct to the fixture must hold the product rigidly even
when holes, slots, and other intrusions are routed and
the product is released from the surrounding trim.
The second is in cutter design. The cutter surface
should separate a small portion of plastic from its
surroundings without melting, generating fine dust
or fibers, or causing microcracks, and it must clear
the cut portion of plastic from the kerf before sepa-
rating the second piece from its surroundings. Cut-
ters are selected based on the speed of routing and
the fracture or softening behavior of the plastic being
routed.
Robotic trimmers are similar to the robots used
in the transportation industry. They were initially
recommended when very heavy, very rigid products
needed to be trimmed. The advantage of a robot is its
very long arm that extends from a capstan or spindle.
The arm has a nearly 360-degree rotation, as well as,
movements above and below the horizontal plane. A
very small, high-speed motor is positioned at the end
of the arm, with its motion similar to that of the six-
axis router. The product is mounted on a turntable
and the entire assembly is computer-controlled. As
the product is rotated, the arm moves horizontally
in-and-out and vertically up-and-down. A robotic
trimmer usually occupies less floor space and indi-
cations are that it requires less maintenance than an
equivalent sized multiaxis router. The robot trim-
ming accuracy is not quite as good as that of multi-
axis routers.
16.8  Other Thermoforming
Technologies
16.8.1  Rigid Form-Fill-and-Seal
As noted earlier, thermoforming is used extensively
in rigid RFFS packaging for pharmaceuticals and unit
servings of foodstuffs. A traditional RFFS operation
is shown in Fig. 16.18. Typically, sheet in the 0.25–
0.5-mm thickness range is continuously pulled from
a roll through the entire system from the outfeed end.
The sheet is usually heated by direct contact with the
heater. It is formed into nesting cavities into which
the appropriate products are placed. A film is heat-
sealed across the cavities and the sheet containing the
filled cavities is trimmed from the web. The film is not
360 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
adhered to the web and is stripped from it prior to the
web being chipped for recycling.
For wide or thicker sheet, a conventional thermo-
former is used, with the formed products being car-
ried on the web into the filling, sealing, and trimming
stations. Many RFFS machines are built for specific
applications. For medical and pharmaceutical dose
packaging, the machines are usually constructed
of stainless steel with oilless and greaseless slides.
These machines are frequently steam-sterilized. In
many RFFS operations, thermoforming is usually a
minor part of the process, with the major operational
efforts focusing on controlling the dosing and sealing
operations.
16.8.2  Wheel Machines
Wheel machines are designed specifically for ded-
icated products, such as picnic plates, dual-ovenable
food trays, and takeaway coffee lids [8]. The wheel
is a horizontal cylinder that contains dozens to hun-
dreds of female or negative molds. The sheet is conti­
nuously extruded through the sheet die directly onto
the slowly turning wheel. Vacuum pulls the sheet into
the cool molds. As the wheel turns, the formed prod-
ucts are cooled. When the products are sufficiently
cooled, the sheet containing the products is stripped
from the wheel and fed to a conventional in-line
trimmer.
16.8.3  Coupled Extrusion and
Thermoforming
For dedicated products, the sheet extruder can be
directly coupled to the thermoformer (Fig. 16.19).
Although this extruder-thermoformer combination
Figure 16.19  In-line extrusion-thermoforming line that can be used for both thin-gauge and thick-gauge products.
is used for both thin- and thick-gauge products, its
greatest advantage is with the thick-gauge sheet
where the sheet does not need to be cooled to room
temperature and then reheated to its forming tem-
perature in the thermoformer. Unfortunately, there
are major disadvantages with this combination. The
cycle time of the thermoformer controls the rate of
extrusion. If the thermoformer cycle is interrupted,
either the extruder must be stopped or the extruded
sheet must be cooled and collected in some fashion.
The major issue is usually mismatched capacities.
Typically, the throughput of the thermoformer is
small and the sheet is wide, meaning that the extruder
is usually small and the ideal width of the extrusion
die too narrow.
16.8.4  Matched-Mold Forming
There are two types of matched-mold forming. The
high rigidity of filled- or fiber-reinforced plastic sheet
at the plastic forming temperature often precludes
even the use of pressure forming into single-surface
molds. Special purpose shuttle machines with forg-
ing presses, dual platens, and positive mold lockups
are designed to squeeze the sheet between matched
steel tooling at pressures exceeding 1.4 MPa.
Low-density thermoplastic foam cannot be heated
to a forming temperature appropriate for the plas-
tic without excessive cell collapse and poor product
quality. Inadequate heating yields low secondary ex-
pansion and products that do not replicate the mold
cavities with just vacuum. Pressure forming will col-
lapse the foam cell structure. As a result, foam sheet
is usually heated in roll-fed machines on traditional
pin-chain rails. The ovens are usually extended in
length and have heaters that gradually heat the sheet
to temperatures where the increasing internal gas
16: Thermoforming 361
pressure in the cells expands the foam to as much as
twice its original thickness. The sheet is then fed into
matched tooling in the forming press. Forming pres-
sures rarely exceed 0.34 MPa.
16.9 Heaters
There are three modes of heat transfer in ther-
moforming. Energy is conducted from the sheet
surface to its interior, from the sheet to the mold,
and for very thin sheet, by direct contact of the
sheet with a heated plate, prior to vacuum forming.
Convection is air movement across a solid surface.
Very thick sheet is often heated in a large forced
hot air convection oven. Thin-gauge preheaters are
often forced hot air ovens. Radiant heat is the most
common and usually the most efficient way of heat-
ing sheets of nearly all thicknesses [9]. As air sur-
rounds the sheet while it is being radiantly heated
and because air is in contact with one sheet surface
while the other is contacting plug or mold surface,
all three energy transfer modes occur in nearly all
forms of thermoforming.
16.9.1  Electric Rod Heaters
In the early days of thermoforming, the primary
heating element was the rod or linear heater, being
a solid wire embedded in compacted powdered in-
organic oxide, which was centered on a carbon steel
sheath. Rod heaters are still used in thermoforming.
As energy is emitted uniformly around the rod, reflec-
tors are used to redirect the energy toward the sheet.
Heater technologies continue to evolve. Newer lin-
ear heaters include quartz and halogen heaters. The
quartz tube heater is a nichrome metal tape or wire
that is centered on an evacuated quartz glass tube.
Quartz glass is essentially transparent to infrared ra-
diation. When the wire is energized, it emits radiant
energy that passes through the glass. The halogen
heater is a tungsten tape or wire that is centered on a
quartz glass tube that has been filled with a halogen
gas. The gas prevents rapid deterioration of tungsten.
Quartz tube and halogen heaters must have reflectors
to redirect the radiant energy toward the sheet. Met-
al-rod heaters respond very slowly to power input
changes. Quartz tube and halogen heaters respond
very quickly and are often on–off temperature-con-
trolled. Quartz and halogen heaters are quite fragile
and the glass is easily etched by off-gassing from the
plastic.
16.9.2  Electric Plate Heaters
Flat heaters direct the radiant energy primarily in
the sheet direction. The simplest flat plate heater is
a metal plate that is backed with a serpentined ni-
chrome wire that is embedded in magnesium oxide.
Temperature control is usually by rheostat or other
proportional controller. Ceramic heaters are essen-
tially firebricks or tiles with embedded nichrome
wire. The surface is usually a chemically resistant,
nonporous glaze. As these heaters tend to be small in
size, they are often clustered or ganged, with one or
more of the heaters containing an embedded thermo-
couple for temperature control. Metal plate heaters
use nichrome wire partially embedded in porous ce-
ramic material. The heated wire radiates to the metal
plate that is carbon steel, stainless steel, or even alu-
minum. The plate, that may have a low-friction coat-
ing, reradiates to the sheet surface. The quartz cloth
heater is similar in structure, except that the quartz
cloth contacts the heated wire surface. Again, quartz
is essentially transparent to radiant energy. Metal
plate- and quartz cloth heaters tend to be large. Flat
panel and ceramic heaters are slow to respond to the
changes in energy input.
16.9.3  Gas Combustion Heaters
Gas combustion heaters are often used as preheat-
ers in thick-gauge thermoformers. Natural gas and
propane are the preferred gases. There are two general
types of combustion heaters. In the direct combustion
unit, the radiant energy from a direct flame impinges
on the sheet. As the energy output is great, the burners
are placed at some distance from the sheet or a series
of nickel screens are placed between the burners and
the sheet. The nickel screens act as reradiators.
Catalytic gas combustion radiant heaters have
generated substantial interest. The combustible air–
gas mixture is introduced to the heater directly below
a porous bed of catalyst that is similar to the catalyst
used in automotive exhaust systems or camper heat-
ers. Combustion and radiation occur at the catalyst
surface. Catalytic gas systems are desired for their
uniform surface temperature and low operating cost.
Lack of temperature modulation is the major prob-
lem with gas combustion heaters. The catalytic gas
system needs many gas lines and controls, as well as,
an electric heater that must preheat the catalyst bed
prior to initiating combustion. As a result, the initial
installation cost is very high compared to the all-
electric heating systems.
362 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook

In thermoforming, energy cost is second only to
the cost of plastic sheet. The economic factors that
are important in selecting the appropriate heater
combinations are mentioned.
• Day-to-day running cost. In North America,
natural gas costs are about one-fourth of those
of electricity.
• Maintenance cost. Heater efficiencies, re-
placement of reflectors, required cleaning, re-
placement of broken quartz glass heaters, and
incomplete gas combustion are some major is-
sues. Ease of identification of burned-out heat-
ers is also important.
• Initial installation cost. Large panel heaters re-
quire fewer connections than ceramic heaters.
Catalytic gas combustion heaters require elec-
trical and natural gas installations and exten-
sive gas control and monitoring.
• Heater versatility. A wide temperature range is
important if many types of plastics are to be
formed. Rapid temperature response is needed
if the process requires frequent interruptions.
Ease in zoning or patterning the heater output
is important if many sizes of sheet are heated
or if the product is very complex. Reliability
and constant energy output are needed for long
production runs.
• Level of control. Smaller heaters allow for
greater versatility in energy input into the sheet.
Very small heaters, such as ceramic elements
are often ganged together. With advanced
computer controls, energy input to individual
heaters is feasible. This is particularly useful
when dealing with thick-gauge products that
are very complex and require very careful lo-
cal temperature control. However, burned-out
heaters can only be detected if each heater has
a monitored thermocouple. Slowly-responding
heaters are usually proportional-controlled.
Rapidly responding heaters are controlled with
either simple on-off relays or traditional PID
controllers. As thin-gauge thermoformers form
many products at once, local temperature con-
trol is quite limited. Often auxiliary heaters are
located along and inside the pin-chain rails to
ensure that the sheet nearest to these elements
is heated to the same level as the rest of the
sheet. Auxiliary heaters are used at the exit of
the last oven as a fine adjustment of the sheet
temperature just before the sheet enters the
forming press.
Table 16.1 gives comparative ratings of the infra-
red heaters that are most commonly used in thermo-
forming.

Table 16.1  Infrared Heaters

Item Metal Rod Ceramic Quartz Tube Catalytic Gas

Radiant efficiency 55% 85% 60% 80%
Initial efficiency Low Medium High High
Maximum temperature 760°C 760°C 870°C 500°C
Longevity Long Medium Medium/low Medium
Manufacturing cost Low Medium Medium High
Installation cost Low Medium Medium High
Retrofit capability Excel Good Good Poor
Operating cost Low/medium Medium Medium Lowest
Power response Low Medium High Low
Loss of effectiveness High Medium High Medium/high
Pattern/zone capability Poor Excel/good Excel Poor
Chemical attack High Low Medium/high Low
Breakage Low Low/medium Medium/high Low
Temperature control Good/poor Good/excel Excel Poor
16: Thermoforming 363
16.10  Thermoforming Mold
Materials
The thermoforming mold is usually single-sur-
faced. Aluminum is the preferred material for longer
production runs for both thin- and thick-gauge ther-
moformers. The mold serves several purposes and
has several requirements.
• It allows the production of the product that
meets the customer’s all dimensional specifica-
tions.
• It provides a dimensionally stable surface
against which the hot sheet is pressed.
• It removes heat from the hot sheet in a rapid,
reliable, and consistent manner.
• It is a modest pressure vessel.
• As the sheet is pulled against it, it must have
means to remove air from the cavity in a con-
trollable fashion.
• It must be robust enough to withstand repeated
formings at elevated pressures and tempera-
tures.
• It must resist attacks from gases emitted by the
plastics.
• It must resist erosion from filled- or fiber-rein-
forced plastics.
• It must be dimensionally stable during extend-
ed periods of storage.
• It is often a machine with sliding cams and
slides.
• It often includes platens that contain cavity iso-
lators, plugs, ejection rings or bars, and trim-in-
place dies and anvils.
There are two general categories of molds. Pro-
totype molds are used to produce a few to a hundred
products. These molds are generally made of easily
worked materials, such as plaster, wood, and even
paper. Production molds are used for long produc-
tion runs.
16.10.1  Production Mold Materials
Very large thick-gauge molds are usually made
of atmospheric or foundry cast aluminum. A-360 se-
ries aluminum is easy to melt, pour, machine, weld,
and has good corrosion resistance [10]. The mold
is usually foundry sand. Properly cast aluminum is
relatively free of surface and subsurface pores and
locally soft areas. The casting is usually 15–25 mm
in thickness and is nearly uniform in thickness. When
the casting has cooled, it is deflashed, the risers are
machined away, coolant lines are welded or soldered
to the back of the casting, vent holes are drilled in,
and the positive surfaces are finished. Sand or grit
blasting is a common finishing method.
Thin-gauge molds usually contain many cavities.
The development of computer-controlled milling
machines has allowed the machining of many cavi-
ties into a single plate of aluminum. Al 6061 T alu-
minum is preferred although Al 7075 T, a tougher,
higher temperature aluminum, is used for higher
temperature plastics, such as polycarbonate and for
filled and reinforced plastics. Coolant channels are
usually gun-bore drilled into molds that are designed
for deeply drawn products. For shallow products, a
flat cooling plate is mounted between the mold and
the vacuum box.
A list of other mold materials includes the follow-
ing materials.
• Prehardened P20 steel, often used for very
high-temperature plastics, plastics that require
very high-forming pressure, and fiber-rein-
forced plastics.
• Cold electroformed nickel, used for products
that require very high or very fine surface de-
tails [11].
• Stainless steel, particularly 304 stainless steel,
used for thermoforming corrosive plastics.
16.10.2  Prototype Mold Materials
There are many occasions when only a few to a
few dozen products are needed. Traditional vacuum
forming uses low pressures and relatively low sheet
temperatures. As a result, many common materials
often serve as thermoforming molds. There are two
general types of prototype molds.
Deductive mold materials are removed to form the
desired shape. Inductive mold materials are built up
to form the desired shape. Hardwoods, fiberboard,
and industrial plaster are examples of deductive ma-
terials, which under certain circumstances can also
be used inductively. Syntactic foam, thermoset plas-
tics, papier mâché, and sprayed white metals are nor-
mally considered to be inductive materials.
To withstand repeated compression during vac-
uum forming, the prototype mold material should
have a compressive strength of around 25 MPa. Most
364 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
woods [12] and industrial plasters [13] achieve this
strength. Sisal, glass fibers, or hemp is used to rein-
force thin plaster molds. Medium-density fiberboard
is a pressed wood fiber product that is easily sawed,
shaped, and drilled with common woodworking
tools. It is somewhat porous, meaning that vacuum
can be drawn directly through thin sections without
the need of vacuum holes. Syntactic foam is a com-
posite of fly-ash, phenolic, or hollow glass spheres
in polyurethane, phenolic, or epoxy resin that may
be foamed. Syntactic foams are available in plank or
board at densities of 200–800 kg/m3, and are easily
shaped with carbide-tipped cutters and routers. These
foams are more expensive than other prototype mold
materials and so find greater use as plug materials.
Glass-reinforced epoxy and thermosetting poly-
esters are also used. These materials have excellent
compressive strengths but they are usually restricted
to 125°C continuous use temperatures. Papier-mâché
is very inexpensive, uses readily available materi-
als, is easily shaped and worked, and can be used
to produce a few products before deteriorating. An
epoxy coating is recommended to improve its heat
resistance and product surface quality. (There are
many recipes for papier mâché. For prototype molds,
it is recommended that low-viscosity, quick-setting
epoxy be used as the binder between the layers of
paper or Bristol board.) White metals, such as zinc
and zinc alloys are sprayed as molten drops directly
against a pattern as fragile as a paper doily. Sprayed
Figure 16.20  Schematic of mold fabrication where atomized metal, such as zinc or zinc alloy is sprayed against
a pattern that can be non-metallic in nature.
metal molds are often made in a few hours [14]. The
mold surface often replicates the pattern surface with
great detail. Water lines are usually soldered in place
(Fig. 16.20). Thin metal shells are often backed with
high-temperature epoxy.
16.10.3  Mold Design
Cooling, cavity venting, undercuts, and surface
texture are important elements in the design of ther-
moform molds. Thin-gauge coolant aspects were
discussed earlier. Thick-gauge thermoform molds
tend to be thin shells. Coolant lines are soldered or
mechanically affixed to the nonproduct side of these
molds. Metal-filled epoxy is often used around the
coolant line and between the coolant line and the mold
surface to ensure adequate conduction heat transfer.
The key in all coolant-line designs is ­uniformity in
mold surface temperature during operation. Mani-
fold cooling lines are always preferred over serpen-
tine lines. Many coolant lines are preferred over a
few lines. Ideally, coolant temperature rise, inlet-to-
outlet, should not be more than 3°C.
To produce a quality product, air must be quickly
and efficiently removed from between the sheet and
the mold surface. This is accomplished with vacu-
um or vent holes drilled through the primary mold
surface. For thin-gauge molds, these holes are con-
nected to machined vacuum channels, a plenum,
16: Thermoforming 365
Figure 16.21  Schematic of the evacuation route beginning with the mold cavity and proceeding through vacuum
holes to vacuum box, vacuum line and surge tank to the vacuum pump, said schematic valid for both thick-gauge
and thin-gauge mold designs.
and/or a vacuum box beneath the mold structure. For
thick-gauge molds, the void behind the thin-shell
mold acts as an air reservoir. The vacuum box or air
reservoir is connected to the vacuum pump through
vacuum lines, solenoid-actuated rotary valves, and a
vacuum or surge tank (Fig. 16.21). The number of
vacuum holes is determined by the volume of air
trapped between the sheet and the mold surface.
The rate of evacuation must be rapid enough to al-
low the sheet to stretch without riding on a cushion
of exhausting air. As the plastic is stretched last into
two- and three-dimensional corners of the mold,
vacuum holes are always needed in these regions.
However, they are also needed in flat areas to prevent
local air trap and in rim and lip areas to ensure that
the sheet remains tight against the mold surface dur-
ing stretching. Spring-loaded valves, often connected
to a high-velocity low-vacuum source, are placed in
the very bottom of very deep molds to accelerate air
evacuation. To minimize drawdown of the sheet into
a vacuum hole, the vacuum-hole diameter should not
exceed the thickness of the sheet covering it. Porous
sintered metals are used when vacuum hole mark-
off is unacceptable (A list of porous sintered metal
manufacturers is given as Table 32.6.15 in Ref. [15]).
For thin-gauge products, porous aluminum with
micron-sized pores is available in machineable and
castable forms (Metapor and Espor are manufactured
by Portec Ltd., Weiernstrasse 2, CH 8355, Aadorf,
Switzerland).
As thermoforming is a relatively low-pressure,
single-surfaced process, undercuts are commonly
designed into both thin- and thick-gauge products.
Thin-gauge products are often flexible enough to be
pulled from minor undercuts, such as detents. If nec-
essary, ejector pins or rings are used. Moveable mold
elements are used with undercuts of thick products
or for plastics that are stiff at product removal time.
Simple moving elements are hinged to swing away as
the product is withdrawn. For severe undercuts, pneu-
matic cylinders are activated to move elements away
as the product is pulled from the mold cavity. Orphan
mold elements exit with the product are removed and
are reassembled in the mold for the next cycle.
Grit or sand-blasted mold surfaces having rough-
ness dimensions of 200–300 µm are usually accept-
able for nonappearance products. Chemically etched
surfaces yield texture dimensions to 100 µm or less.
Vacuum-formed products usually do not replicate
mold surface details of less than about 50 µm. Mold
surface texture details as fine as 10 µm can be repli-
cated when the sheet is pressure formed.
Whenever a hot sheet touches a cooler mold sur-
face, it deglosses to a matte finish. If the surface must
remain glossy, it can be formed free of the mold.
Freely blown skylights and domes are examples. To
achieve a glossy surface on a product that has touched
a mold surface, the surface is often flame treated or
polished with 2400 grit Crocus cloth.
16.10.4  Plug Materials
Plugs or mechanical prestretching devices are
considered part of the mold. Plugs are made of syn-
tactic foam, solid polyamide, or ultrahigh-molecular
366 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.22  Various methods of sealing edges of thick-gauge twin sheets prior to inflation to achieve desired
air pockets.
weight PE, heated aluminum, or felt-covered wood.
The choice of the material depends on whether:
• the process is production or prototype,
• the final plug design is evolving,
• the plastic sheet is chilled and therefore marked
by certain materials,
• the plug temperature needs careful control,
• the sheet is very thick, and whether
• the sheet is very hot.
Even though plugs are used in both male or posi-
tive and female or negative thermoforming, they find
greatest use is prestretching a sheet into a cavity.
Plugs are usually, but not always, made of materi-
als that have some thermal insulating capacity, such
as syntactic foams and wood. Heated, temperature-
controlled plugs are used for some plastics, such as
crystallizing PE terephthalate and oriented PS. Plugs
usually, but not always, have a shape similar to the
mold. The actual plug shape is usually determined
by the amount and location of the plastic to be redis-
tributed.
16.10.5  Other Mold Features
To ensure that the same amount of plastic is drawn
into or over a mold with each cycle, molds are de-
signed with ridges or grooves that lock the sheet
against the mold edges before sheet prestretching.
Two- and three-dimensional corners of products
should be designed with chamfers rather than ra-
dii. To ensure flat, uniform thickness in local areas
of the formed product, the hot sheet is pressed be-
tween the mold surface and a coining press. Coined
areas are used in thick-gauge products for assembly
purposes and in thin-gauge products for flat, dimen-
sionally accurate sealing areas.
In sequential twin-sheet thermoforming, after the
two product halves have been formed, peripheral and
interior segments of the product are mated under sub-
stantial pressure. Often, secondary heaters are used
to keep the mating surfaces hot. Secondary hydraulic
elements are used to apply force sufficient to extrude
some of the plastic from the welding area, thereby
ensuring an integral seal. Various sealing configura-
tions are shown in Fig. 16.22.
16.11  Plastic Materials
Any plastic that can be manufactured in sheet
form can be thermoformed into useful products. The
plastic sheet is heated and formed as a rubbery solid
or an elastic liquid. Therefore, the solid or elastic liq-
uid properties of the plastics are more important than
their viscous properties.
The majority of thermoformable thermoplastics is
amorphous, meaning that at a specific temperature,
called the glass transition temperature, the plastic
changes from a brittle, glassy state to a ductile, rub-
bery state. PS, ABS, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and
polycarbonate are examples of thermoformable
amorphous plastics.
Some thermoformable thermoplastics are semi-
crystalline. In addition to glass transition tempera-
tures, these plastics melt at specific temperatures.
PEs and PPs are examples of thermoformable semi-
crystalline plastics. Semicrystalline plastics, such as
PEs are normally thermoformed at temperatures just
above their melting temperatures as elastic liquids.
PSs and the family of styrenics—high-impact PS,
ABS, styrene-acrylonitrile, oriented PS, and others—
are workhorses in thermoforming. PVC and other
16: Thermoforming 367
vinyls—flexible PVC, ethylene vinyl acetate, and oth-
ers—are noted for their fire retardancy and ultraviolet
resistance. Other commonly thermoformed plastics
include acrylics, such as polymethyl methacrylate,
polycarbonate, PE terephthalate, and semicrystalline
plastics, such as PE, rubberized thermoplastic olefins,
and PP. There are niche applications for thermoformed
products of fluoropolymers, polyamides, thermoplastic
polyurethanes, polysulfone, PE sulfide, and high-nitrile
resin.
16.11.1  Thermoforming Window
The key to successful heating and stretching a ther-
moplastic is its thermoforming window. The thermo-
forming window is the temperature range over which
the plastic is pliable enough to be stretched and
shaped into the desired product. Amorphous plas-
tics have relatively wide thermoforming windows.
Semicrystalline plastics have very narrow thermo-
forming windows. The forming field is envisioned in
Fig. 16.23, as the interaction of sheet extensibility,
sheet temperature, and applied force. The abscissa
is the extensibility of the plastics, a temperature-
dependent material property. The ordinate is the ap-
plied stress or applied force per unit area. The curved
lines represent the plastic elongation as a function of
temperature and applied stress. The upper horizon-
tal bound is the maximum applied stress. The right
vertical bound is the maximum design elongation of
Figure 16.23  The cross-hatched thermoformable area or “forming window” where sheet elongation is shown as
a function of levels of temperature-dependent applied stress (traditional vacuum forming and pressure forming).
the plastic. The upper curve of the forming window
is the lowest forming temperature of the plastic. The
lower curve is the highest forming temperature of the
plastic. The crosshatched area represents the forming
area.
The thermoforming window is technically iden-
tified as a plateau or near-plateau in the tempera-
ture-dependent elastic modulus of a given plastic.
­Amorphous plastics, such as PVC and cycloolefin
(COC) (Topas, Ticonal Advanced Polymers, Flor-
ence, KY) demonstrate broad plateaus at reasonably
high moduli values (Fig. 16.24), whereas homopoly-
mer polypropylene (homoPP) shows no such plateau.
Time-dependent extensional viscosity is another
measure of the formability of a crystalline plastic. PE
strain-rate hardens as it is elongated (Fig. 16.25). As
a result, it is thermoformed above its melting tem-
perature range as an elastic liquid. HomoPP does not
strain-rate harden (Fig. 16.26) and so cannot be ther-
moformed above its melting temperature range [16].
Branched or copolymerized PP behaves more like PE
(Fig. 16.27), and so is thermoformed above its melt-
ing temperature range.
16.11.2  Semicrystalline Plastics
When a semicrystalline plastic is heated and
formed above its melting temperature range, it
must be recrystallized on the thermoforming mold.
The rate of recrystallization is important when
368 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook

Figure 16.24  Comparison of temperature-dependent elastic moduli for semicrystalline homopolymer polypropyl-
ene, amorphous polyvinyl chloride, and semicrystalline cyclic olefin copolymer (COC) showing that only homo-
polymer polypropylene has no appreciable thermoformable region.

Figure 16.25  The effect of shear or strain rate on the elastic viscosity of semicrystalline high-density polyethyl-
ene. (Note: the upsweep in viscosity is often referred to as strain rate hardening).

determining processing cycle times. PEs recrys-
tallize rapidly at temperatures only a few degrees
below their melting temperatures. PPs recrystallize
slowly and often at temperatures tens of degrees
below their melting temperatures. Product distor-
tion and warping can result when slowly recrys-
tallizing products are removed too early from the
thermoforming mold. PE terephthalate is a very
­
slowly crystallizing plastic. It is amorphous when
extruded into thin sheet. It remains amorphous if it
is heated rapidly and formed on a cool mold. If it is
modified with a crystallizing nucleant and is formed
on a heated mold, the resulting product is semicrys-
talline. As a food container, it will withstand 200°C
oven temperatures for up to 1 h.
16.11.3  Biobased Plastics
There is growing interest in biobased plastics
[17]. Amorphous polylactic acid is thermoformed
into thin-gauge disposable packaging products.
16: Thermoforming 369
Figure 16.26  Time-dependent strain rate behavior of
homopolymer polypropylene showing lack of strain-
rate hardening leading to inability to stretch into deep
cavities.
It extrudes and thermoforms as a stiff PS. It is mois-
ture sensitive and the formed products tend to be
brittle. Its low glass transition temperature of about
60°C restricts its use in hot-fill containers. Semicrys-
talline polylactic acid has the same glass transition
temperature, a melting temperature of about 170°C,
and a temperature-dependent elastic modulus plateau
of 90–140°C. The thin-gauge semicrystalline sheet is
thermoformed using conventional forming pressures
and warm molds. It has a practical hot oil-distortion
temperature of 140°C [18].
Polyhydroxybutyrate, polyhydroxyvalerate, and
blends have melting temperatures of 145–175°C [19].
Early results indicate that these microorganism-based
plastics are processible in traditional thermoforming
equipment. Other biobased plastics include modified
polyesters and older plastics, such as polystarches,
plastics from gluten- and gliadin-based amino ac-
ids, casein, and, of course, cellulosics. Acceptance
of biobased plastics depends on their long-term
Figure 16.27  The effect of adding strain-rate hardening
polymers to homopolymer polypropylene allowing in-
creasing ability to stretch into deep cavities.
competitive price/performance characteristics and on
legislative actions against traditional plastics.
16.11.4  Filled and Reinforced
Plastics
Particulate-filled thermoplastic polyolefins are
used in vehicle applications. Talc, calcium carbonate,
and kaolin are typical fillers. Fillers do not change
the transition characteristics of the plastic. Fillers in-
crease the temperature-dependent elastic moduli of
the plastics, increasing the forces required to form the
plastics in the plateau-temperature regions. Matched-
mold thermoforming is necessary if the product can-
not be formed using a conventional pressure box over
a single-surface mold.
Short-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics also do not
alter the transition characteristics of the plastics but
also increase forces required to form the plastics.
370 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Again, matched-mold thermoforming is recom-
mended. Long- and continuous-fiber-reinforced ther-
moplastics pose an additional processing problem.
Although the reinforced sheet can be drawn into
shallow shapes using matched-mold pressure form-
ing, fibers are inextensible. As a result, products will
exhibit resin-rich and resin-poor areas. Nonuniformi-
ty in reinforcement implies nonuniformity in physi-
cal properties across the product.
16.11.5  Multilayer Products
Thermoforming is used to form products from
multilayer sheets. Thick-gauge products include
PVC–polymethyl methacrylate sanitary structures
and polymethyl methacrylate- and fluoropolymer-
capped ABS exterior transportation components. An
example of a family of thin-gauge products is PS–
ethylene vinyl alcohol–polyolefin barrier packaging.
Heating and stretching of multilayer sheets often re-
quire trial and error to minimize interlayer delamina-
tion, excessive barrier film thinning, and incomplete
replication of the mold cavity.
16.11.6  Foamed Plastics [16]
High-density thermoplastic foam sheet is usually
produced by adding a chemical foaming agent, as ei-
ther a masterbatch or a blended powder, to the plastic
at the extruder hopper. The chemical foaming agent
is a technically pure chemical having a very sharp
decomposition temperature. Sodium bicarbonate is
widely used to foam products that are used in contact
with medicines, pharmaceuticals, and foodstuffs. It
decomposes to produce carbon dioxide and water va-
por. Azodicarbonamide is used to foam plastics used
in industrial applications, such as electrical trays. It
decomposes to produce nitrogen and other volatiles.
The density of high-density foam sheet is typically
80–90% of the density of the unfoamed plastic sheet.
It is heated and thermoformed in a manner similar to
that of the unfoamed plastic sheet.
Low-density thermoplastic foam sheet is ther-
moformed into products that are used primarily for
thermal insulation, as in fast food takeaway contain-
ers, or for shock mitigation, as in egg cartons. The
density of low-density foam sheet is typically 20%
or less of the density of the unfoamed plastic sheet.
Low-density foam sheet is usually produced by me-
tering low-boiling liquids into the molten plastic
through a port in the extruder barrel. Fine cells are
achieved by adding small amounts of chemical foam-
ing agents and other cell nucleants, such as talc to
the plastic at the extruder hopper. Low-density foam
sheet must be carefully heated to achieve secondary
foam expansion and to prevent catastrophic cell col-
lapse. The heated, expanded sheet is formed in match
molds. The sheet is primarily drawn into the mold by
the folding and collapse of cell walls rather than by
stretching of the plastic.
16.11.7  Thermal Characteristics
of Plastics
The amount of energy needed to heat a plastic
from room temperature to its forming temperature
depends on whether the plastic is amorphous or
semicrystalline (Fig. 16.28). More energy is required
to heat semicrystalline plastics than amorphous ones
because crystallites must be melted before the plastic
becomes formable. It takes nearly twice the energy
to heat HDPE to its 180°C forming temperature as
it takes to heat PS to the same forming temperature.
As noted, thermoforming heaters mostly operate
in the far-infrared region, in the wavelength range of
about 3–10 µm. Inbound radiant energy is reflected
by, absorbed by, or transmitted through the sheet.
Nearly all plastics volumetrically absorb radiant
energy. The chemical composition of a given plas-
tic dictates the nature of energy absorption and by
difference, the nature of energy transmission. This
is shown in Fig. 16.29–16.31 for PE, PS, and PVC.
Thick plastic sheets absorb all inbound radiant en-
ergy. Very thin plastic sheets absorb only a fraction
of the inbound radiant energy.
16.12  Product Design
The purpose of every thermoforming operation is
to produce saleable products at a profit. Before a deci-
sion is made to thermoform a product of a specific de-
sign, the following concerns must be addressed [20].
• Will the finished product meet all required and
specified design criteria?
• Can the product be produced at the minimum
cost for the projected market size?
• What are the consequences if the product fails
to meet the minimum requirements?
• Can the product be recycled or disposed of in
an environmentally friendly fashion at the end
of its useful life?
16: Thermoforming 371

Figure 16.28 Thermal energy required to heat thermoformable amorphous and crystalline polymers to their
respective forming temperatures. HDPE, High density polyethylene at 960 kg/m3; MDPE, Medium-density poly-
ethylene at 945 kg/m3; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene at 920 kg/m3; POM,- Polyoxymethylene; PA-6, Polycapro-
lactam or polyamide; PP, Homopolymer polypropylene, PS, General purpose polystyrene; MIPS, Medium-impact
or rubber-modified polystyrene; ABS, Polyacrylonitrile-polybutadiene-polystyrene terpolymer; PMMA, Polymeth-
ylmethacrylate; FPVC, Flexible polyvinyl chloride; RPVC, Rigid polyvinyl chloride.

Figure 16.29  Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) traces for two thicknesses of polyethylene film (0.001 inch and
0.010 inch) with traditional thermoforming wavelength range of about 3 microns to about 8 microns.

Figure 16.30  Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) traces for two thicknesses of general purpose polystyrene film
(0.001 inch and 0.010 inch) with traditional thermoforming wavelength range of about 3 microns to about 8 microns.
372 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.31  Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) traces for two thicknesses of polyvinyl chloride film (0.003 inch
and 0.012 inch) with traditional thermoforming wavelength range of about 3 microns to about 8 microns.
Secondary concerns, such as scrap disposal, reli-
ability, or availability of proper machinery, and re-
liability or availability of a trained labor force may
alter the manufacturing process.
Before thermoforming is selected as the appropri-
ate process to manufacture the product, certain crite-
ria must be met.
• Can the candidate plastic be satisfactorily ex-
truded into quality sheet?
• Can the sheet be heated to its forming tempera-
ture without excessive sag?
• Is the plastic too stiff at its forming temperature
to be formed with conventional thermoforming
equipment?
• Can the sheet be heated to its forming tempera-
ture without discoloration or degradation?
• Can the sheet be stretched into the desired
shape?
• Is the market too large?
• Is the market too small?
• Can the regrind be reused to produce sheet for
the same products?
• Are the product wall thickness variations too
severe or abrupt?
• Are the product wall thickness dimensions too
critical?
• Are there other processes that are better suited
or more competitive economically?
Several general parameters affect thermoformed
product design.
16.12.1 Shrinkage
As noted, thermoforming is a single-surface form-
ing method employing low pressure and low temper-
ature. The formed product is the result of rigidifying
a hot rubbery sheet against a cold mold. There are
two forms of shrinkage in thermoformed products.
The first is thermal shrinkage, being the result of
the formed product cooling from its forming tem-
perature to room temperature. All plastics exhibit
this general temperature-dependent density increase.
Semicrystalline plastics formed above their melting
temperatures exhibit additional density increase as
they recrystallize. The rate at which plastics return
to their stable room temperature density depends
strongly on the rate at which they are cooled. If a
product is pressed against a very cold mold and re-
moved quickly, it will achieve its stable density at
some time after it has been trimmed and even pack-
aged for shipment to the customer.
Orientation shrinkage occurs in addition to ther-
mal shrinkage. Residual stresses have been locked
into the product during cooling against the mold
surface. They relax over time. As the stress field is
not uniform, the product may exhibit distortion,
warp, and dimensional variation. Residual stress
relaxation is a vexation in the trimming operation.
It is often the cause of product rejection by the cus-
tomer.
16.12.2  Draft Angles
Draft angles are very important in thermoforming
product design. If the product is formed onto a fe-
male or negative mold, it shrinks away from the mold
sidewalls. As a result, true female or negative prod-
ucts can be thermoformed with vertical walls hav-
ing zero draft angles. If the product is formed onto a
male or positive mold, it shrinks onto the mold side-
walls. A draft angle of 1–5 degree is recommended
for all male or positive products. The more the plastic
thermally shrinks, the greater the draft angle must be.
On textured male molds, the draft angle should be
increased about 1 degree for every 5 µm of texture
depth.
Many products have both negative and positive el-
ements. During cooling, the positive elements act to
16: Thermoforming 373
pull the plastic toward them and away from the nega-
tive elements. This can change the final dimensions
of the product. Draft angles must be carefully chosen
to minimize this effect. Using a plug to position the
stretching sheet very close to the mold surface helps
mitigate this effect as well.
16.12.3 Corners
As noted, plastic is stretched last into horizontal
two- and three-dimensional corners. The sheet that
is drawn into a three-dimensional corner decreases
in thickness in direct proportion to the corner radius.
In many applications, corners are most vulnerable to
impact. In thermoforming, corners of large radii are
always recommended. Chamfers, being flattened ar-
eas with 45-degree angles to all intersecting walls,
are substantially stronger than radii and are always
preferred for three-dimensional thermoformed cor-
ners [21].
16.12.4  Dimensional Tolerance
Thermoforming, along with blow molding and ro-
tational molding, is a single-surface forming process.
Thermoforming is a differential process. Stretching
takes place only on that portion of sheet that is not
Figure 16.32  Part-to-part and day-to-day variation in wall thickness at one specific place on a thick-gauge equip-
ment housing.
in contact with the mold surface. The thickness of
the plastic on the mold surface decreases as the sheet
stretches. In addition, there are many vagaries in the
forming process, such as:
• sheet thickness variation,
• level and quality of regrind,
• random thermal cycling of heaters,
• sheet sag,
• variation in ambient air temperature in both the
oven and the forming station,
• sheet that exits from the oven on time rather
than on temperature,
• plug temperature variation, and so on.
For thick-gauge sheet, local wall thickness of the
forming product can be manipulated by prestretching
and by changing local heater temperatures. The lat-
ter is called zoned or pattern heating. For thin-gauge
sheet, local wall thickness can be manipulated by
mechanical prestretching.
Wall thickness tolerance for commodity products,
such as thin-gauge drink cups and thick-gauge dun-
nage is typically 20%. Wall thickness tolerance for
high-performance products, such as thing-gauge lid-
ded containers and thick-gauge equipment housings
is typically 10% (Fig. 16.32). A 20% variation in wall
thickness results in a 60% variation in stiffness. If the
374 Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook
Figure 16.33 Rim-rolling sequence for the production of thin-gauge axisymmetric products, such as drinking
cups.
product must meet a minimum sidewall strength, for
example, the median product wall thickness must be
120% or more of the minimum thickness.
Rim rolling is an important method of stiffening
thin-walled thin-gauge thermoformed cups. Cups
are indexed through a device that heats and presses
the trimmed rim of the cut against a curling screw
(Fig. 16.33). The rolled rim dramatically increases
the hoop strength of the cup and provides a smooth
surface for the user.
16.13  Operational Aspects of
Thermoforming [22]
16.13.1  Safety Prior to Machine
Transfer to New Owner
The thermoforming process involves high-temper­
ature, high mechanical forces, high-pressures, many
pinch points, high voltage, combustible plastics, and
electrically and electronically timed start–stop ele-
ments that can maim and kill. Extensive protocols
with detailed safety practices are required for ma-
chine set up, maintenance, and operation. All per-
manent and temporary employees must be trained on
all aspects of the thermoforming process. All plant-
floor personnel must be provided with appropriate
safety equipment, such as earplugs and heat-resistant
gloves. No one should be permitted on the plant floor
without proper protective gear. All operating features
of the equipment must be disabled before anyone
enters the operating theater of the equipment. One
safety program emphasizes “Lock it and Pocket it!”
in which two locks are used to disable all electrical
and mechanical machine functions. One key is held
by the person entering the machine and the other by
a plant supervisor.
16.13.2  Machine Set-Up
The set-up protocol for a new machine is differ-
ent from that for a used machine. When purchasing
a new machine, that the machine builder will offer a
thorough training session that includes hands-on op-
eration. The machine builder will often send an ex-
perienced operator with the new machine to the plant
site, oversee installation and initial start-up, and will
floor-train all machine operators. The purchase of a
used machine requires additional steps. If possible,
the machine should be inspected and run at its cur-
rent location prior to purchase. The original machine
builder should be contacted before the machine is
purchased to obtain operating and safety guides. The
builder may wish to inspect the machine and may
recommend upgrading and refurbishing prior to ma-
chine transfer to the new owner. The machine also
may need to be brought up to current Occupational
Safety and Health Standards standards.
16.13.3  Mold Set-up
A specific protocol is recommended when pur-
chasing a new mold. The completed mold assembly
should be inspected at the mold maker to insure that
the basic design features are in place. Specifically, the
entire mold surface should be inspected for texture
16: Thermoforming 375
uniformity. All vent holes should be open. Coolant
lines should be free of chips. Coolant should be run
through the coolant lines and pressurized. All me-
chanical actions should move effortlessly. In-mold
trim fixtures should work smoothly and be easily ad-
justed. Plugs should be easily adjusted and removed.
Logos and date stamps should be keyed for easy ad-
justment and replacement. Pick and lift points should
be clearly marked on mold edges and the mold should
hang uniformly when lifted. All air and coolant lines
should be equipped with oversized quick disconnects.
A different type of inspection is needed for the re-
installation of a mold that has been in storage for some
time. Even though the mold assembly—the mold, its
vacuum box, plug plate, plugs, air and coolant line
quick disconnects, and its pressure box—may have
been stored as a single unit, often bits and pieces are
scavenged for other molds. Installation may be delayed
until the missing pieces are found or replaced. The
same is true with trim dies, trim fixtures, and elements
of stackers. It is vital that the mold and press set-up
protocols are stored with the mold. If these are stored
electronically on a disk or chip, a paper printout of the
access codes to the protocols is required to ensure that
the appropriate software is available. An example of
the product should also be placed in the mold cavity.
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