1

CALCULUS – GR 12

Mathematical Calculus can be roughly described as the study of rates of change (differentiation) and area
(integration).

Gradient of a function: y

Consider the function f(x) and the gradient Q

f(x+h)
between the two points x and x + h.

Determine the average gradient between

P and Q in terms of x and x + h.
P h
f(x)
y y 2  y1
∆m   x x+h x
x x2  x1

Exercise:

1. If f(x) = 2x2, determine the average gradient between x = 1 and x = 2.

2. Let g(x) = x2 + x, find the average gradient of the graph g between:

a) (1; 2) and (3; 12)

b) (2; g(2)) and (0; g(0))
c) (-2; g(-2)) and (2; g(2))

3. Determine the average gradient of the following curves:(in terms of x and h)

a) y = 5x2 b) f(x) = 2x2 + 1

4. If f(x) = – x2

a) Determine the average gradient between x = a and x = a + h.

b) What happens to the average gradient of f if h gets closer and closer to zero?

THE LIMIT CONCEPT

The limit concept is used to indicate that the values of a variable move nearer and nearer to a certain number
until a point is reached after which the difference between the values of the variable and the number are so
small that for all practical purposes these values can be regarded as equal to that number.
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Example 1:

Consider the function f(x) = x + 1

Complete:
y x x+1
1
3 o 1,3
1,5
2 1,9
1,99
1 1,999
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x Thus as x approaches (tends to) 2 “from the left”
–1 (i.e. considering values of x < 2),
f(x) approaches (tends to) _____.
–2
x  f(x) = x + 1
–3 3  f(3) =
2,5  f(2,5) =
2,2  f(2,2) =
2,1  f(2,1) =
Because f(x) tends to 3 from the left and 2,01  f(2,01) =
the right, we say: 2,001  f(2,001) =
“The limit of f(x) as x tends to 2 is 3.
Thus as x approaches (tends to) 2 “from the right”
(i.e. considering values of x > 2),
We write: lim
x 2
f ( x)  3
f(x) approaches (tends to) _____.

Example 2:
 x2  4 
Determine lim  
x 2  x  2 

 x2  4 
We should simplify: lim  
x 2  x  2 

 ( x  2)( x  2) 
 lim  
x2  x2 
 lim ( x  2)
x2
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= 4

EXERCISE: Determine the following limits:

1. lim ( x  4) 2. lim (2 x  1)
x 3 x2

lim (2 x  4)  x  1 2
3. 4. lim
x 0 x 1 x 1
2 2
4x x  x6
5. lim 6. lim
x 0 x x  3 x  3
x2  1 x2  5x  6
7. lim x  1 8. lim x  3
x 1 x 2
x2  x  2 1
9. lim x  1 10. lim x 2  9
x 1 x 3

A VERY SPECIAL LIMIT

The aim of Differential Calculus is to find the instantaneous gradient at a point. As Q gets closer to P,
h  0,  the gradient at point P becomes

Instantaneous gradient of f(x) = lim f(x + h) – f(x)

h0
h

So this limit is just the limit of the average gradient (if it exists).

This instantaneous gradient is known as the derivative of f and denoted f (x). This method of finding the
instantaneous gradient of a function is known as the method of first principles.

f (x) = lim f(x + h) – f(x)

h 0
h

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Examples: Determine lim or the derivative from 1st principles if:
h 0 h
a) f(x) = 3
b) f(x) = x + 2
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c) f(x) = 3x2
d) f(x) = 3x2 + 2x

Solution:
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) f ( x  h)  f ( x )
a) f ( x)  lim b) f ( x)  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
Brackets!!
33 ( x  h)  2  ( x  2) Signs involved!!
= lim = lim h
h 0 h h 0
0 xh2 x2 The constant must
= lim = lim fall away!
h 0 h h 0 h
h
=0 = lim h
h 0
= 1

f ( x  h)  f ( x ) f ( x  h)  f ( x )
c) f ( x)  lim d) f ( x)  lim
h 0 h h 0 h
3( x  h) 2  3x 2 3( x  h) 2  2( x  h)  (3x 2  2 x)
= lim = lim
h 0 h h 0 h

3 x 2  6 xh  3h 2  3 x 2 3 x 2  6 xh  3h 2  2 x  2h  3 x 2  2 x
= lim = lim
h 0 h h 0 h
h(6 x  3h) h(6 x  3h  2)
= lim = lim
h 0 h h 0 h
= lim (6 x  3h) = lim (6 x  3h  2)
h 0 h 0
= 6x = 6x + 2

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
EXERCISE: Determine lim h
or the derivative from first principles for each of the
h 0
following:

1. f(x) = 2 2. f(x) = – x2 3. f(x) = – 3

1 1
4. f(x) = 5. f(x) = x 6. f(x) = x2
x 3

3
7. f(x) = 2x 8. f(x) = 9. f(x) = 3x + 1
x
10. f(x) = x2 – x + 1 11. f(x) = x – x2 12. f(x) = x3
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DIFFERENTIATION

You should have noticed that each time you obtain the gradient at a point x, it is also a function (the x of the
gradient is one degree lower). This function is known as the derived function. The process of obtaining this
derived function is known as differentiation.

The derived function is also known in short as the derivative.

There are various notations to reflect the derivative of a function.

FUNCTION DERIVATIVE NOTATION

f(x) f (x)
dy
y
dx
f(x) Dx[f(x)]

RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION:

To obtain the derivative by means of first principles is rather tedious, so short cuts were developed. The
rules developed enable you to determine the derivative by inspection.

Definitions
* derivative is the gradient of a function at a point.
* differentiation is the method of finding the gradient of a function at a point (i.e. the derivative)
* average gradient is the gradient of a function between two points.

Rules
1. The derivative of a constant is zero
i.e. If f(x) = k, k is a constant, then f ( x)  0
eg. If f(x) = 5, then f ( x)  0

2. The derivative of xn is nxn-1

i.e. If f(x) = xn , then f ( x)  nx n 1

eg. If f(x) = x3, then f (x)  3x2

3. The derivative of a constant times a function is the constant times the derivati
i.e. If f(x) = kg(x), then f (x)  k g (x)
eg. If f(x) = 5x4, then f (x)  5 x 4x3 = 20x3
4. The derivative of the sum/difference is the sum/difference of the derivatives

i.e. If f(x) = g(x)  h(x), then f (x)  g ( x)  h( x)

eg. If f(x) = 3x2 – 7x + 5, then f (x)  6x – 7
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Before differentiating remove the following:

 brackets
 fractions, where the variable is in the denominator
 surds, by changing to exponential form
d 1
Example Find d
dx
(x  1) 2 Example Find dx ( x) Example Find d 3
dx
x5
d d 5
Solution dx (x – 1)2 Solution dx (x– 1) Solution d
x3
dx
d 2
= dx (x2 – 2x + 1) = – x– 2 = 5
x3
3
1 3 2
= 2x – 2 =  = 5 x
x2 3

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE: Determine f (x) for each of the following functions:

3 xx
x
1. f(x) = – 3 2. y 3. y = (2x3 + x – 1)(x2 – 1) 4. y
x x
x3  1
5. y = x(x2 + 6x)(– 2 + 5x) 6. y 2 7. y  2 x 4
x  x 1

8. y  3 x  ( x  3) 2 9. If f(x) = 3x7 – 4x5 + 3x, find f (1) .

x 2  x3
10. If f ( x)  , find f (2) . 11. If f(x) = x2 + 2x – 3, find the value(s) of x for which
x4
f ( x)  0 .

12. If f(x) = x3 – 4x2 + 6x + 8, find the value(s) of x for which f ( x)  2 .

13. Given that f(x) = 4x2 + c2x and g(x) = 8x + 6

a) Find f (x ) and b) Calculate the values of c if f (x) = g(x) + 3.

The gradient or slope of a curve at a certain point

Example: What is the gradient of the curve f(x) = x2 , at the point where x = 2.

Solution:
Gradient at a point = f (x) =2x
Gradient where x = 2: f (2)= 2(2) = 4
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Tangents to a curve:

Remember: The derivative of a function is the gradient of the function at any point on the curve.
The derivative is also the gradient of the tangent to the curve at any particular point.
y y
l4

l1
0 x
l2
l3
0 x

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

(A) In fig. 1, l1 is a secant, (cuts through the curve at 2 points). We speak of an AVERAGE GRADIENT
of the curve OR the gradient of the secant through the curve.
(B) In fig.2, l2, l3 and l4 are tangents, (touch the curve at one point). We speak of the gradient of the
tangent.
NB: l2 has a positive gradient
l3 has a negative gradient
l4 has no gradient

Example 1: Example 2:
Determine the equation of the tangent to Determine the equation of the tangent to
the curve f(x) = 2x2 + 5x at the point (1; 7) the curve f(x) = x2 – 7x – 3, when x = 1
Solution Solution
Gradient of tangent: f(1) = (1)2 – 7(1) – 3 = – 9  point is (1; – 9)
f (x) = 4x + 5 f (x) = 2x – 7
f (1) = 4(1) + 5 = 9 f (1) = 2(1) – 7 = – 5  gradient is –5
y = mx + c  y = – 5x + c
substitute: subst (1; – 9):
(7) = (9)(1) + c – 9 = – 5(1) + c
c = -2 –4=c
equation of tangent: y = 9x – 2  the equation of the tangent at x = 1 is y = -5x – 4

Example: Find the value of x at which the gradient of the curve y = – x2 + 2x + 3 is 2.

dy
Solution = – 2x + 2 = 2
dx
– 2x = 0
x=0
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Additional Exercise on Applications of tangents to curves:

1. A tangent to the curve of the graph of y = 2x2 – 3x + 1 is parallel to the graph of y = x.

Determine the co-ordinates of the point of contact.

2. Determine the gradient of the tangent to the curve of f at the point (– 1 ; – 8) and
f : x  5x2 + 7x – 6

3. The equation of a tangent to the curve f(x) = ax3 + bx is y – x – 4 = 0.

If the point of contact is (– 1 ; 3), determine the value of a and b.

4. If f(x) = x2 + x, determine

4.1 the co-ordinates of the point on the curve where the gradient of the curve is 11;
4.2 the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (3 ; f(3)).

EXERCISE:

1. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x2 + 2x – 1 at x = 0.

2
2. Show that the curves y = (x – 1)2 and y  cut orthogonally.
x

Application of differential calculus:

Curve sketching

When sketching any curve, certain information must be shown:

 x – intercepts
 y – intercept
 maximum turning point
 minimum stationary point
 points(s) of inflection

The determination of the local maximum or minimum values is obtained from your knowledge of
differentiation and the knowledge that the gradient at a turning point is ZERO!!

If you considered a continuous curve and determined the gradient for each point, you would notice
that the gradient changes as x increases.
y

+
+
0 – +
+ – +
+ –
+ – 0 + +
+
+ 0 x
+
+
+
+
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When the gradient is zero, the curve is “flat” at that particular value of x. This can be either a

 local maximum point

 local minimum point
 point of inflection

The local maximum or minimum values are therefore turning points on your graph and should be
determined, if they exist, for the curve that you are sketching.

The Cubic Function

Calculus Sketch y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

A=0

>0
C
>0
<0
b
D a G E x

B=0
1. A and B are stationary (turning) points.

1.1 At these points f (x ) = 0.

1.2 To find these points:
dy
(a) Find the derivative, i.e. or f (x) .
dx
(b) Let f (x ) = 0 and solve for x to find the x-values.
(c) Substitute these x-values into f(x) to find the corresponding y-values.
1.3 A is known as a local maximum stationary point.
1.4 B is known as a local minimum stationary point.

2. C is the y-intercept and is found by letting x = 0 or taking the value of “d”.

3. D, G and E are the x-intercepts and are found by letting y = 0.

Solve for x by taking out a common factor if any and then solve by factorising or using the
quadratic formula.
Use the factor theorem if there are no common factors.
Use grouping is possible.

4. f(x) increases at …………………………………… i.e. f (x ) > 0.

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f(x) decreases at …………………………………… i.e. f (x ) < 0.

The Remainder and Factor Theorems:

The Remainder Theorem states that:

If a polynomial f (x) is divided by (ax + b) until the remainder does not contain x,
Examples: then this remainder is f (  ba ) .

1. Find the remainder when 2x3 + 3x – 8 is divided by x – 2.

Solution: Let f (x) = 2x3 + 3x – 8
R = f(2)
= 2(2)3 + 3(2) – 8
= 14

2. Find the remainder if 2x³ – 3x² + 2x + 1 is divided by 2x + 1.

Solution : Let f (x) = 2x³ – 3x² + 2x + 1
R = f (  12 )

= 2(  12 )³ - 3(  12 )² + 2(  12 ) + 1

= 2( 18 )  3( 14 )  1  1
=–1

3. When f(x) is divided by x + 1, the remainder is 10. Find a if f(x) = x3 + ax2 – 5x + 4.

Solution: R = f(– 1) = 10
 (– 1)3 + a(– 1)2 – 5(– 1) + 4 = 10
–1 + a + 5 + 4 = 10
a=2

The Factor Theorem states that:

If a polynomial, f (x), is divided by (ax + b) until the remainder is 0, then (ax + b) is

a factor of f (x), i.e. ax + b is only of factor of f(x) if R = f (  ba ) = 0.

Why is 4 a factor of 12?

___________________________________________________________________________
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Examples:
1. Which of the following: (x + 1) and (x - 3) are factors of x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6?
Solution:
a) R = f(-1) = (-1)3 + 2(-1)2 – 5(-1) – 6 = 0
 x + 1 is a factor …the remainder is 0
b) R = f (3) = (3)3 + 2(3)2 – 5(3) – 6 = 24
 x - 3 is not a factor
2. Prove that (x – 2) is a factor of g(x) = 2x³ + 3x² – 11x – 6 and hence factorise completely.
Solution : g(2) = 2(2)³ + 3(2)² – 11(2) – 6
= 16 + 12 – 22 – 6
=0
 (x – 2) is a factor of g(x)

2 2 3 – 11 –6 … Using Synthetic Division to

4 14 6 factorise our polynomial
2 7 3 0
 g(x) = (x – 2)(2x² + 7x + 3)
 g(x) = (x – 2)(2x + 1)(x + 3)

3. Solve for x 2x³ – x² – 5x – 2 = 0

Solution : Let f(x) = 2x³ – x² – 5x – 2
f (–1) = 2(–1)3 – (–1)2 – 5(–1) – 2
= –2 –1 + 5 – 2
=0
 (x + 1) is a factor of f(x)

–1 2 –1 –5 –2
–2 3 2
2 –3 –2 0
 f (x) = (x + 1)(2x² – 3x – 2) = 0
 (x + 1)(2x + 1)(x – 2) = 0
 x = –1 or x = – ½ or x = 2
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Curve sketching:
Remember: The turning points (or stationary points) or a curve have gradients of 0  f (x) = 0 at the
turning points.

Example 1 Sketch the graph of y = x3 – 4x2 + 4x, clearly showing all necessary working details.

Solution y-int y = 03 – 4(0)2 + 4(0) = 0 (0; 0)

x-int (y = 0) 0 = x3 – 4x2 + 4x
0 = x(x2 – 4x + 4)
0 = x(x – 2)2
x = 0 or x = 2
(0; 0) and (2; 0)
5
T.P.(dy/dx = 0) dy
/dx = 3x2 – 8x + 4 = 0 At x = 2/3, y = (2/3)3 – 4(2/3)2 + 4(2/3) = 1
27
(3x – 2)(x – 2) = 0
x = 2/3 or x = 2 At x = 2, y = (2)3 – 4(2)2 + 4(2) = 0
5
(2/3; 1 ) and (2; 0)
27

Shape x 0 2
/3 1 2 3
dy
/dx + 0 – 0 +
Sketch y

2
0 /3 1 2 x
As x  , y   and as x  – , y  – 
Domain: {x / x } Range: {y / y }

Example 2 Sketch the graph of y = x3 – 2x2 – 4x + 8.

Solution y-int y = 03 – 2(0)2 – 4(0) + 8 = 8 (0; 8)

x-int (y = 0) 0 = x3 – 2x2 – 4x + 8
0 = x2(x – 2) – 4(x – 2)
0 = (x – 2)(x2 – 4)
0 = (x + 2)(x – 2)2
x = – 2 or x = 2  (– 2 ; 0) and (2; 0)
dy 2
T.P /dx = 3x – 4x – 4 = 0 At x = – /3, y = (–2/3)3 – 2(–2/3)2 – 4(–2/3) + 8 = 913/27
2

(3x + 2)(x – 2) = 0
x =– 2/3 or x = 2 At x = 2, y = (2)3 – 2(2)2 – 4(2) + 8 = 0
(– 2/3; 913/27) and (2; 0)
Shape x – 1 –2/3 0 2 3
dy
/dx + 0 – 0 +
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Sketch
y
(–2/3 ; 913/27)

–2 0 2 x

Example 3 Sketch y = – x3 + 14x2 – 49x + 36

Solution y-int (x = 0) (0; 36)

x-int (y = 0) 0 = x3 – 14x2 + 49x – 36 Use the factor theorem to find factors
3 2
f(1) = – (1) + 14(1) – 49(1) + 36 = 0
x – 1 is a factor
1 1 – 14 + 49 – 36
1 – 13 + 36
1 – 13 + 36 0 }
Synthetic Division

0 = (x – 1)(x2 – 13x + 36)

0 = (x- 1)(x – 9)(x – 4)
(1; 0) and (9; 0) and (4; 0)
T.P.( /dx = 0) dy/dx = – 3x2 + 28x – 49 = 0
dy

3x2 – 28x + 49 = 0
(3x – 7)(x – 7) = 0
x = 7/3 or x = 7
1 22
(2 ; –14 ) and (7; 36)Substitute into the original
3 27
Shape x 7
/3 7
dy
/dx – 0 + 0 –
(7; 36)
36

0 1 4 9 x
1 22
(2 ; –14 )
3 27

Example 4 Sketch y = x3 – 6x2 + 12x – 7

Solution y-int (x = 0) (0; –7)

x-int (y = 0) 0 = x3 – 6x2 + 12x – 7
0 = (x – 1)(x2 – 5x + 7)
(1; 0) and no other real roots
 14
dy
T.P. /dx = 3x2 – 12x + 12 = 0
x2 – 4x + 4 = 0
(x – 2)(x – 2) = 0
x=2  (2; 1)
Shape x 2
dy
/dx + 0 +

0 2 x

–7
This turning point is called a point of inflection – it occurs in graphs that are always increasing or
decreasing.

See notes and examples on pp 258-261.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE:

1. Given g(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x

1.1 Determine the intercepts of the curve of g with the axes.

1.2 Determine the co-ordinates of the turning points of the curve of g.
1.3 Draw a neat sketch graph of g, showing the co-ordinates of the turning points
and of the intercepts with the axes clearly on your sketch.

2. Given f(x) = x3 – x2 – 5x – 3.

2.1 Determine
2.1.1 the intercepts on both axes if f(– 1) = 0;
2.1.2 the turning points of the graph

2.2 Sketch the graph showing all key points.

3. Given f(x) = x3 – 4x2 – 11x + 30

3.1 Use the remainder theorem to show that (x – 2) is a factor of f(x).

3.2 Factorise f(x) completely.

3.3 Write down the co-ordinates of the intercepts of the graph of f(x) with the axes.

3.4 Determine the stationary points.

3.5 Sketch the graph of f(x) showing all the key points clearly.
 15

4. Given f(x) = – x3 + 5x2 + 8x – 12

4.1 Use the factor theorem to show that x + 2 is a factor of f. Hence solve for f(x).
4.2 Determine the stationary points for the graph of f.
4.3 Draw a neat sketch graph of f. Clearly show all intercepts and stationary points.
4.4 Determine the equation of the tangent to the graph of f at x = – 2.

FINDING THE EQUATION OF THE CUBIC FUNCTION

 The co-efficient of x3 is + 1 or – 1

y =  x3 + ax2 + bx + c You must find a, b and c.

 Given the x – intercepts

a) Substitute into y =  (x – x1)(x – x2)(x – x3) where x1 ; x2 and x3 represents x – intercepts.

b) Multiply out / Remove the brackets.

 Given the stationary points

i) Differentiate f(x), i.e. f (x) = 3x2 + 2ax + b

ii) Substitute x – values into  (x – x1)(x – x2) = 0.

iii) Equate the equations of (i) and (ii) above and solve simultaneously for a and b.

iv) Substitute back into f(x) and substitute either point to determine c.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE:

1. Determine the equations of f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c if the x – intercepts are

x = 3, x = 0 and x = – 3.

2. Determine the values of a, b and c if m(x) = – x3 + bx2 + cx + d if

the x – intercepts are (– 2 ; 0) ; (– 1 ; 0) and (1 ; 0).

3. Determine the equation of f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c if the turning points

are (2 ; – 1) and (– 1 ; 4).

h
THE CUBIC FUNCTION: GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION
B have to answer questions on it.
The graph will be drawn for you and you
0 D x
A
C
 16

Example 1

The sketch graph represents the curve of h where h(x) = x3 – 5x2 + 7x – 3.

1.1 Write down the co-ordinates of A.
1.2 Determine the co-ordinates of B and D.
1.3 Determine the co-ordinates of the local minimum turning point C.
1.4 For which value(s) of x is h(x) decreasing.
1.5 Determine the x co-ordinates of the points where the gradient of the curve is 4.
1.6 Determine h  (x) and so determine on which interval the graph of h is concave up and
concave down.

Solution 1.1 A(0 ; – 3)

1.2 x3 – 5x2 + 7x – 3 = 0
R = h(1) = 13 – 5(1)2 + 7(1) – 3 = 0
 x – 1 is a factor
1 1 –5 7 -3
1 –4 3
1 –4 3 0
(x – 1)(x2 – 4x + 3) = 0
(x – 1)(x – 1)(x – 3) = 0
x = 1 or x = 3
 B(1 ; 0) and D(3 ; 0)
1.3 h(x) = x3 – 5x2 + 7x – 3
h(x ) = 3x2 – 10x + 7
At point C: h(x ) = 0
2
3x – 10x + 7 = 0 h(7/3) = (7/3)3 – 5(7/3)2 + 7(7/3) – 3
(3x – 7)(x – 1) = 0 = 343/27 – 245/9 + 49/3 – 3
x = 7/3 or x = 1 = – 32/27 or – 1 5/27
invalid
C(21/3 ; – 1 5/27 )
1.4 x  (1 ; 2 1/3)
1.5 h(x ) = 4 = 3x2 – 10x + 7
0 = 3x2 – 10x + 3
0 = (3x – 1)(x – 3)
x = 1/3 or x = 3

1.6. h ´´(x) < 0 (concave down)

6x – 10 < 0
x <
h ´´(x) > 0 (concave up)
 17

6x – 10 >0
x >

Example 2 y
D

f
C

A 0 B x

The sketch shows the curves of f(x) = 2x3 – x2 – 4x + 3 and g(x) = mx + k.

The curves of f and g intersect the x – axis at A and the y – axis at C.

Determine:

2.1 the co-ordinates of B and D, the turning points of the curve of f;

2.2 the co-ordinates of A and C;
2.3 the values of m and k.
2.4 Find any points of inflection.

Solution 2.1 f(x) = 2x3 – x2 – 4x + 3

f (x ) = 6x2 – 2x – 4
T.P. 0 = 6x2 – 2x – 4
0 = 2(3x2 – x – 2)
= (3x + 2)(x – 1)
x = – 2/3 or x = 1

f(– 2/3) = 2(– 2/3)3 – (– 2/3)2 – 4(– 2/3) + 3 f(1) = 2(1)3 – (1)2 – 4(1) + 3
= – 16/27 – 4/9 + 8/3 + 3 =2–1–4+3
125 17
= /27 or 4 /27 =0
 B(1 ; 0) and D(– /3 ; 4 /27)
2 17

3 2
2.2 C(0 ; 3) 2x – x – 4x + 3 = 0
1 2 –1 –4 3 (x – 1)(2x2 + x – 3) = 0
2 1 –3 (x – 1)(2x + 3)(x – 1) = 0
2 1 –3 0 x = 1 or x = – 3/2
A(– 11/2 ; 0)

2.3 g(x) = mx + k
 18

Substitute A(– 11/2 ; 0): 0 = – 3/2 m + 3

3
/2 m = 3
m = 3/1 x 2/3 = 2
 m = 2 and k = 3

2.4. f ´´(x) = 12 x – 2
To determine point of inflection:
f ´´(x) = 0 (second derivative = 0)
12 x – 2 = 0
x= .

x 0 1/6 1

f´´(x) ------ 0 ++++++++

concave down concave up

f( ) =

point of inflection (

See examples on pages 262-263.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE:
y
1. The graph shows the curve of f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c. A
A is a local maximum and B is a local minimum.
The x – intercepts are – 3, 2 and 5. f
D(1 ; y)
1.1 Show that a = – 4, b = – 11 and c = 30. –3 0 2 5 x
1.2 Hence write down f (x) .
1.3 Find the co-ordinates of the turning point A.
1.4 Find the value of y at point D. B
1.5 Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at D(1 ; y).

2. The sketch represents the curve of y N

f(x) = ax3 + ax2 + bx + 12.
M and N are turning points of f the
graph of f. f
12
Further f(3) = 0 and
the gradient of f at x = 0 is 8.
2.1 Find f(x). M 0 x
2.2 Show that b = 8.
2.3 Hence or otherwise, prove that a = – 1.
 19

2.4 Determine the co-ordinates of M and N.

2.5 Write down the values of x for which the graph of f is decreasing.

3. The figure shows the graph of f, where y

f(x) = – (x + 3)2(x – 6). C
D and B are x and y – intercepts
respectively. f
B
A and C are turning points of f.
Determine:
3.1 the lengths OB and OD; A 0 D x
3.2 f(x)
3.3 the co-ordinates of A and C.

4. The equation defining f is

y
y = – x3 + ax2 + bx + c.
Turning point B has co-
ordinates (2 ; 0).
l is y – 7x – 14 = 0.
F
l
4.1 Find: G B
4.1.1 a, b, and c; –3 0 2 x
4.1.2 E

4.2 Find: E
f
4.2.1 OF
4.2.2 OG A

4.3 Find f (x ) and use it to determine:

4.3.1 the x co-ordinates of turning point A;
4.3.2 the points on the curve which have the same gradient as the line y – 7x – 14 = 0.

4.4 4.4.1 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at E.

4.4.2 Find the point at which this tangent again cuts the curve.
 20

Maxima and Minima Problems

FORMULAE
BASIC SHAPES AREA PERIMETER

Rectangle b
l

Square

Triangle

Circle

Kite

Trapezium

Area of Faces / Total

Volume
Surface Area
PRISMS
2(Area of Base) +
(Area of Base) x ht
(Perimeter of Base) x ht

Rectangular Prism

Cube

Triangular Prism

Cylinder

Cone ----------

Sphere ----------

Maxima and minima problems can be based on the following model

 21

1. Set up variables for the unknowns (using only one variable and writing all unknowns in terms
of one variable (i.e. lengths, heights etc)
2. Find the expression to be maximised or minimised (i.e. the area etc). The formula for the
area, volume or perimeter of geometric figures must be known.
3. Make the derivative of the expression = 0 and solve.
4. Answer the question by substituting the value of the unknown into the formula / expression in
(2).

Example A firm manufacturing concrete asbestos products wishes to wall 200m2 exhibition space in
the form of a rectangular plot bordering on a road. If the cost of the ornamental walling
along the road is treble that along the other three sides, find the dimensions of the display
area, which will cost the company the least.

x
Solution Let the length be x
2
200 200
 the breadth is 200
x x
200 m
x
Let the cost per metre of inexpensive walling = c x
P  3xc  xc  2( 200
x )c
P = 4xc + 400cx-– 1
dP
= 4c – 400cx–2 = 0
dx
400c
x2  c is a constant  does not affect equation
4c
x2 = 100
x =  10 x is a length  only need to consider the positive value

dimensions are 10m x 20m

Example Find the maximum and minimum values of f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 9x + 1 if x  [½ ; 5]

Solution For maximum values f (x) = 0

3x2 – 12x + 9 = 0
x2 – 4x + 3 = 0
(x – 3)(x – 1) = 0
x = 3 or x = 1
at x= 3, f(3) = 1 at x = 1, f(1) = 5
1
at x = ½, f(½) = 4 /8 at x = 5, f(5) = 21

 maximum value = 21 (at x = 5)

minimum value = 1 (at x = 3)

Calculus of Motion
 22

Example A radar device tells an operator that a motorbike is moving according to the equation s=
1 3 2
/15t – 2t + 20t, where s is the distance covered in m, along the straight road and t is the time
elapsed in seconds from when the motorbike was first picked up.

1. Find how fast the bike was travelling when first detected.

2. Find how long it took the bike to stop.

3. Find the distance covered while the bike was being tracked.

Solution 1. fast refers to speed, which is the gradient of distance with respect to time
i.e. v = ddst
bike first detected: t=0
ds 1 2
v = dt = /5t – 4t + 20
v = 20 m.s-1

2. For the bike to stop: v = 0

v = ddst = 1/5t2 – 4t + 20 = 0
t2 – 20t + 100 = 0
(t – 10)(t – 10) = 0
t = 10 seconds

3. substitute t = 10 seconds into v

s = 1/15(10)3 – 2(10)2 + 20(10)
s = 662/3 m

EXERCISE 17:

1. A stone falls from the top of a tower 180m high and its motion is described by the equation s(t) = 5t2
where s is measured in metres and t in seconds.

1.1 Calculate the speed of the stone after 1 second, 2 seconds and 3 seconds.
1.2 Find the time taken for the stone to reach the ground and the speed with which it hits the
ground.

2. The distance still to be travelled by a runner in t seconds is given by s(t) = 12 – 2t metres.

2.1 Find the speed of the runner after 1, 2 and 3 seconds.

2.2 After how long does he reach his destination and how fast is he travelling when he does so?

3. A ball is thrown into the air and its height above the earth after t seconds is
s(t) = 20t – 5t2 metres.
 23

3.1 Calculate its speed after 1, 2, and 3 seconds.

3.2 How long does it take to reach the earth again? What is its speed as it does so?
3.3 Find its speed after p seconds. Is your result valid for all values of p?

Rates of Change

Rates of change are calculated by finding the gradient of a function at a point (i.e. find the derivative and
substitute the given x-value(s).

Example 1 The volume of a spherical balloon is given by V = 4/3πr3 where r is the radius. If the balloon
is inflated, what is the rate of change with respect to r if r = 15 mm.

dV
Solution = 4πr2
dr
dV
At r = 15 mm, = 4π(15)2 = 900π mm2
dr

Example 2 The volume of water in a tank is governed by v = 5 + 10t – t2. (v = volume in m3 and t
= time in minutes) At what time does the volume start decreasing?

Solution This is asking us to find the t-value of the turning point.

dV
Volume starts decreasing when =0
dt
10 – 2t = 0
t = 5 minutes

EXERCISE 18:

1. A water tank with an inlet and an outlet is used to water a garden. The equation
D  3  12 t 2  14 t 3 gives the depth of the water in metres where t is the time in hours that has elapsed
since 09:00.

1.1 What is the depth of the water at 11:00?

1.2 At what rate does the depth of the water change at 12:00?
1.3 At what time will the inflow of water be the same as the outflow of water?

2. In a metabolic experiment the mass of glucose, M(t), in kg, decreases according to

the formula M(t) = 4,5 – 0,03t2 where t is measured in hours.

2.1 Determine the average rate of reaction in the interval t = 0 hours to t = 3 hours.
2.2 Determine the instantaneous rate of reaction at times t = 0 hours and t = 3 hours.