Mabe, Calkins, Butler - Boeing's Variable Geometry Chevron Morphing Aerostructure For Jet Noise Reduction - 2006

47th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Confere AIAA 2006-2142
1 - 4 May 2006, Newport, Rhode Island
Boeing’s Variable Geometry Chevron,

Morphing Aerostructure for Jet Noise Reduction
James H. Mabe1, Frederick T. Calkins2, and George W. Butler3

The Boeing Company, PO Box 3707, Seattle WA 98124
Variable Geometry Chevrons were successfully flight tested on a Boeing 777-300ER with
GE-115B engines, demonstrating full-scale aerostructure morphing using shape memory alloy
actuators. Chevrons, serrated aerodynamic devices along the trailing edge of a jet nozzle, have
been shown to greatly reduce jet noise by encouraging advantageous mixing of the free, fan, and
primary streams. The Variable Geometry Chevrons utilized compact, light weight, and robust
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA on May 18, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.2006-2142
shape memory alloy actuators to morph the chevron’s shape to meet the required acoustic tests
objectives at takeoff, approach, and cruise. This program not only successfully demonstrated
the use of smart materials to provide in-flight aerostructure morphing capabilities, but also
greatly enhanced the acoustic test program by providing multiple full scale nozzle configurations
on a single test article. This allowed for a significant increase in available test configurations
without the added expense of fabricating and installing separate hardware for each. The
program went from concept to flight test in three-and-a-half years. This paper details the
material testing, actuator development and fabrication, airplane integration, in-flight data
acquisition and control methods, and flight test results.
I. Introduction
ONE source of noise from commercial high-bypass ratio turbofan engines is the turbulent mixing of the hot jet
exhaust, fan stream, and ambient air.1 Serrated aerodynamic devices, or Chevrons, immersed into the flow at
the nacelle trailing edge have been shown to significantly lower jet noise at take-off and reduce shock cell noise
during cruise.2 The practical use of these devices requires a compromise between noise reduction and engine
performance. While the immersed chevrons reduce noise, the immersion also results in drag or thrust loss. These
losses result in a considerable penalty for flights with long cruise times. The Variable Geometry Chevron (VGC)
was developed to provide a means to morph the chevron between a shape optimized for noise reduction at takeoff
and a shape at cruise that reduces shock cell
noise without compromising engine
Cruise performance.3-5 Unfortunately ground test
Variable facilities are not yet available to firmly establish
Immersion
Take-off the optimal design for shock-cell noise
reduction. For this reason Boeing developed a
Free Stream full-scale controllable powered VGC for the fan
exhaust to be used on flight tests in the summer
of 2005. Microphones on the aircraft fuselage,
Fan Stream
in the aircraft cabin, and on the ground were
used to measure noise as a function of the
Primary Flow chevron’s immersion into the bypass flow during
takeoff, approach, and cruise. Fig. 1 shows a
schematic of a jet engine with chevrons on the
trailing edge of the fan nozzle (thrust reverser
translating). The take-off and cruise conditions
are shown as the two limits of the VGC tip
Figure 1. Jet Engine Schematic with Chevrons. motion.
1
Engineer/Scientist, Phantom Works, P.O. Box 3707, The Boeing Company, MS 4A-51, AIAA Member
2
Engineer/Scientist, Aeroacoustics, P.O. Box 3707, The Boeing Company, MS 67-ML, AIAA Member
3
Principal Engineer, Aeroacoustics , P.O. Box 3707, The Boeing Company, MS 67-ML, Senior Member AIAA
1
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Copyright © 2006 by The Boeing Company. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission.
While in the past a majority of the shape memory alloy (SMA) based concepts and designs for large morphing
structures have used wire actuators, the simplicity of the VGC’s monolithic flexure actuator is a great advantage. It
has a very small part count and provides a simple, low-profile method of connecting to and deforming the substrate
structure. It avoids the difficulties of wire based designs that often rely on a complex set of mechanisms and clamps
to heat the wire and then transfer the large forces to the structure. The basic design of the VGC was to embed low
profile SMA actuators within a conventionally shaped chevron that has the same form factor as current fixed
chevrons of interest. The SMA actuators are mated with the stiff chevron-shaped substrate forming the functional
VGC as shown in Fig. 2. The chevrons could be individually controlled and were able to change their immersion to
produce a variety of configurations.
Actuator Spring
Cover plate 60-Nitinol Actuator
with heater
Attach Fasteners
+ Assembly Composite Base
NiTinol Composite
SMA substrate
Free
Stream Fan
Stream
Figure 2. Variable Geometry Chevron Design Concept.
The full flight design included 14 chevrons integrated into the trailing edge of a GE115B thrust reverser’s
acoustic panel as shown in Fig. 3. The powered VGC system was conceived of as having two modes of operation:
powered and autonomous. In both modes the SMA actuators are activated by thermal changes, driving a chevron
shape change. In autonomous operation the chevron transitions from a takeoff profile to a cruise profile without
active control or applied power. The autonomous activation is effected using the takeoff-to-cruise variation in the
ambient temperature. At takeoff, the fan flow (e.g., ~75°C) heats the SMA above its transition temperature to the
Austenitic form. When the cooler cruise conditions (e.g., ~ -40°C free stream flow) are reached, the SMA
transforms into the more compliant (lower modulus) Martensitic form and the substrate behaves as a return spring,
Covers Removed Thrust Reversers Installed

Figure 3. VGCs Integrated onto Thrust Reversers Trailing Edge.
2
pushing the VGC into its retracted position. The autonomous mode would be very advantageous for production
applications as it requires no internal heaters, wiring, control system, or sensors, it has a low weight, and a very
small part count.
During powered mode, a control system individually manages the heaters on each chevron to control the SMA
actuator’s temperature and corresponding VGC shape.6 The control system is used to position each chevron’s shape
at any point between the actuation limits. This provides the ability to set and hold a chevron configuration of
interest, facilitating a parametric study of the effect of chevron configurations on noise measurements. The
controlled mode of operation highlights a useful feature of the powered VGC technology. It can assist conventional
component design by allowing for multiple hardware configurations to be tested during a single flight test. This is a
significant advantage for chevron design since testing multiple fixed-chevron configurations can be extremely
expensive.
The program goals were to raise the technology readiness level of the VGC technology and validate the VGC
system concept for noise reduction through a flight test. Boeing employed a multi-disciplinary team to rapidly move
a smart material based morphing structure application from concept to flight test in three-and-a-half years.5-9
NiTinol testing and actuator development led to a wind tunnel test in 2002, which provided proof-of-concept
validation. The program then focused on reaching a technical readiness level (TRL) 7 with a flight test as part of
Boeing led Quiet Technology Demonstrator 2 program. Key components of the program included testing and
development of a new Nickel-Titanium alloy, smart material and composite modeling and design, composite
integration, actuator design and integration, actuator fabrication and processing, control system development, shape
sensing, and system qualification for flight test. A second wind tunnel test in 2004 validated the VGC design and
control system, paving the way for a flight test in August 2005.
II. SMA Alloy Selection and Material Characterization

Previous studies have demonstrated that shape memory alloys are an ideal choice of an actuation mechanism for
the VGC. They are a natural fit given their considerable dynamic strain capability and high energy density. NiTinol,
a nickel-titanium alloy, is particularly well suited for this application. NiTinol is an active material that converts
thermal energy into mechanical energy. Heating the NiTinol above its Austenitic transition temperature activates a
crystalline structural phase change causing the material to revert to a previously “remembered” shape. When cooled
below the transition temperature the NiTinol transforms into its more compliant (lower modulus) Martensitic form.
It can be easily deformed when a load is applied during transition from Austenite to Martensite or when in the final
Martensite state.
This program pioneered the use of the nickel-rich NiTinol alloy, 60-Nitinol (60% Ni, 40% Ti by weight), a
little-used alloy with several noteworthy properties.10-11 The 60-NiTinol alloy has excellent thermo-mechanical
stability, its transition temperature can be set by a heat treat process, and it does not require cold-work which allows
for hot forming of complex shapes.
The Boeing Phantom Works Flight Sciences organization has done extensive testing of NiTinol properties
for actuator development.12,13 In general we have found that NiTinol properties are repeatable and predictable and
useful actuators can be designed with this material if caution is exercised and acceptable design practices are
followed. NiTinol is an inherently complex material where every process or test operation has a cascading effect on
downstream behavior and performance. While sample-to-sample variations can be significant; consistent,
repeatable, and predictable trends have been identified.
Prior to designing the VGC actuators, data on the 60-NiTinol’s material properties and shape memory
characteristics had to be collected, including transition temperatures, mechanical stability, and material strength. The
properties of the 60-NiTinol are compared to more commonly used equi-atomic 55-NiTinol in the sections below..
A. NiTinol Material Properties

The modulus of the 60-NiTinol was measured in two ways.12 The first method designated the Static Modulus,
measures the Young’s modulus by varying the applied stress and measuring the strain while maintaining a constant
temperature. For these characterization tests the stress was applied at the tip of a cantilever beam. The Young’s
modulus is calculated from the slope of the maximum beam stress vs. maximum beam strain. The second method,
designated the Dynamic Modulus, described in Fig. 4, involves thermal cycling the flexure under varying tip loads
and plotting the fully Austenite and the fully Martensite applied stress vs. strains for that particular cycle. The two
methods return different values, particularly for the Martensite state. A typical variation between Dynamic and
Static Modulus measurements is shown in Fig. 5, where the slope of the Martensite stress vs. strain varies
considerably between the Static and Dynamic measurements. The Static Modulus is 22 GPa, while the Dynamic
3
Modulus is 11 GPa. This particular data is from a 60-Nitinol beam after approximately 350 thermo-mechanical
cycles at loads ranging between 125 and 250 MPa.
3.5
2.5 Each loads fully Austenite

Strain (%)
and Martensite strains are

2
plotted vs. the applied load
1.5
254 MPa
1 190 MPa
127 MPa
0.5 63 MPa
300
14 MPa
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
250
NiTinol (Deg C)
Applied Stress (MPa)
200
150
Material thermal cycled under
a range of applied loads.
100
50
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
60-05-02, 450C Aging for 30 Min
Maximum Strain (%) 3-28-06_1713
Figure 4. Dynamic Modulus Test Method.

While both the Static and Dynamic Modulus are important properties, for actuator design the NiTinol’s
Dynamic Modulus is used because it is a better predictor of the actuators performance while doing work under load.
The Dynamic Modulus captures not only the change in static modulus between the Austenite and Martensite forms,
but also the shape memory effect, the significant reduction in the SMA’s modulus that occurs during transition, and
any 2-way shape memory effect (SME).13 The 2-way SME gives the actuator 2 trained positions, one in the
Austenite state and one in the Martensite state. Thermally transitioning from one state to the other causes
displacement in the actuator. No applied stress is required to deform the actuator to its Martensite position. While a
2-way SME is not required for the VGC, for many actuator applications a strong 2-way effect eliminates the need
for applied return forces (i.e. springs or antagonistic designs) saving considerably on actuator weight and
complexity.
The Dynamic Modulus of 55-NiTinol compared to 60-NiTinol after approximately 350 thermo-mechanical
cycles is shown in Fig. 6. The 60-NiTinol Austenite modulus is significantly higher than the 55-NiTinol, 36 GPa
compared to 24GPa, while the Martensite modulus is nearly the same for both alloys, about 10 GPa. The amount of
2-way SME is significantly higher for the 55-NiTinol, and previous tests have shown that is will increase even more
with additionally cycling. The higher Austenitic strength of the 60-NiTinol is useful when morphing rigid
aerostructures.
B. Stability and Creep

In the past the successful implementation of high force and large displacement SMA actuators has been
hindered by the plastic deformation, or creep, that often occurs over repeated thermo-mechanical cycles. Creep is
defined as unrecovered strain per thermal cycle (dstrain / dcycle). The creep rate for NiTinol is initially very high but
decreases significantly with cycling. The creep rate is sensitive to the stress level and the stress history of the
4
actuator. For example decreasing the stress significantly after extended high stress cycling tends to yield very low
creep rates.13
300 Austenite
Static and Dynamic Martensite Martensite
Static Dynamic
250
200
150
100
60-NiTinol
Dynamic Austenite: 36 GPa
50 Static Austenite: 41 GPa
Dynamic Martensite: 11 GPa
Static Martensite: 22 GPa
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
60-05-02, 450C Aging for 30 Min
Figure 5. Dynamic vs. Static Modulus for 60-NiTinol.
300
36 GPa 11 GPa
250
24 GPa 10 GPa
200
60
60
150
55
55
100
60-NiTi Austenite
50 55-NiTi Austenite
60-NiTi Martensite
55-NiTi Martensite
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
60-05-02, 450C Aging for 30 Min
55-NiTinol 2-way SME

Figure 6. Dynamic Modulus of 60-Nitinol and 55-NiTinol after 350 Cycles.
5
The nickel rich alloys have been shown to be much more stable than the more commonly available equi-atomic
NiTinol, or 55-NiTinol. To evaluate the creep rate of 60-NiTinol compared to 55-NiTinol rectangle beams of similar
dimensions were fabricated and thermal cycled with a constant load applied at the tip as shown in Fig. 7. The
beam’s tip position was measured over hundreds of cycles. For this test the 55-NiTinol beam was processed in a
manner intended to minimize creep. It was wire EDMed from wrought bar with 30% cold-work and then aged in air
for 30 minutes at 375°C and water quenched. The 60-NiTinol was processed in a manner suitable for the VGC. It
was initially homogenized at 850°C for 2 hours and furnace cooled and then aged for 30 minutes at 450°C and water
quenched. The Martensite and Austenite maximum beam strain vs. cycle count is shown for each beam in Figs. 8a
and 8b. The Austenite strain is shown in red, the Martensite strain is shown in blue, and the maximum beam stress
is shown in green and is referenced to the right axis. While the different loading schedules for each beam makes a
direct comparison difficult, it is clearly evident that even though the maximum applied load is greater for the 60-
NiTinol it had a much lower creep rate than the 55-NiTinol. Also the 60-NiTinol was stable after a few hundred
cycles, while the 55-NiTinol continued to have a significant creep rate.
Pulley with Load Cable Beam Under

potentiometer beam Jacket Heater
load Rigid base

Rigid Base With
Guard Heater
Figure 7. Test Fixture for Evaluating NiTinol Creep.
The creep rate for 60-NiTinol is small, but it is still significant, particularly during the initial cycles. To
maintain consistent chevron performance over the duration of the calibration and flight tests we developed methods
to further minimize and control actuator creep. Thermo-mechanical conditioning can improve the stability of SMA
actuators. To minimize the initial high creep rate once the actuators were installed each one was first conditioned
for 100 thermal mechanical cycles while attached to a substrate nominally approximating the chevron substrate
loads. Fig. 9 shows the test set up used for conditioning the actuators; the graph shows strain of the aluminum
substrate vs. time. The creep rate is very low at the end of the 100 conditioning cycles.
In addition to the thermo-mechanical training proprietary methods of creep control were developed which
6 300 6 300
5 60-NiTinol 250 5 55-NiTinol 250

4 200 4 200
Strain (%)
Strain (%)
3 150 3 150
2 100 2 100
1 50 1 50
0 0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
60-NiTinol 450C Aging for 30 Minutes NiTi-55, 30% Cold-work, 375C Aging
Thermal Cycles 3-24-06_0930 Thermal Cycles 1-24-06_0815
Figure 8a and 8b. Creep Rates for 60-NiTinol and 55-NiTinol.
6
essentially reduced the long term actuator creep to very near zero. The stable actuator performance is shown in
Fig.10 where a VGC prototype test fixture is cycled following the 100 conditioning cycles described above. Using
the proprietary methods the maximum tip immersion is very stable over many cycles.
2100
1850
Max. Substrate Strain (microstrain)

Austenite
1600
1350
1100
850
Martensite
600
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Hours
Figure 9. 60-NiTinol Actuator Conditioning.
2
C. Transition Temperature
The ability to adjust the
transition temperature of 60-
1.5 NiTinol with thermal processing
(cm)
makes it an ideal SMA for rapid

prototyping projects where design
Position
1 and developmental time is limited

(in)
or where the anticipated thermal

TipTip
environment is not well known or

VGC
0.5
defined. For conventional equi-
Chevron
atomic NiTinol the transition

temperatures are set by the
0
stoichiometry during billet
production requiring that the
-0.5 actuators thermal specifications be
0 5 10 15 20 25 set very early in a program. The
Time (hrs) ability to adjust the transition
Flexure Set #A123 After 100 Conditioning Cycles
March 30, 2005
Figure 10. Stable Chevron Performance with Creep Control Methods temperature of a single billet of 60-
after Conditioning. NiTinol significantly reduces the
lead time required for finalizing
thermal designs. This enabled the rapid development of the VGC for flight test by maintaining a great deal of
flexibility in all aspects of the VGC thermal design.
Three chevron tip displacement vs. temperature hysteresis loops are presented in Fig. 11. In this case the
hysteresis loops are from a prototype chevron with 60-Nitinol actuators that were fabricated from the same billet,
but under three different thermal processing methods. The Austenite start temperatures, defined as the temperature
at which the material begins transitioning from Martensite to the Austenite phase, are seen to shift from less than -
10°C to more than 40°C due to the variation in thermal processing methods (heat treatments). After the overall
VGC design was complete and the flight test requirements established we were able to tailor the transition
temperature of the SMA actuators to meet those requirements.
7
1.2
D. Hot Forming
Typically an SMA actuator’s
1 Austenite shape is set by forcing the
part into a fixture or tool that holds the
Normalized Chevron Tip Position
0.8 desired shape during high temperature

aging. For large monolithic actuators
0.6 this can pose a problem as deforming
the raw parts to a particular shape may
0.4 require large deflections and large
forces. Unlike 55-NiTinol, which
0.2 requires cold work for mechanical
Process #1
stability, 60-NiTinol can be hot formed
0 Process #2 into complex shapes using very low
Process #3 forces without fear of annealing away
any cold work.
-0.2
-20 0 20 40 60 80
The VGC actuators were flat
NiTi (Deg C)
following the final machining
Figure 11. Chevron Tip Position vs. Temperature for Various 60- procedure. To set the Austenite radius
NiTinol Thermal Process Methods. of curvature the flat actuators were
placed between two matching halves of
a heavy tool that had the proper radius as shown in Fig. 12. The actuators and tool were then heated to 850°C and as
the 60-NiTinol softened the weight of the upper half of the tool forced the actuator to bend and conform to the radius
of the tool. The ability to hot form 60-NiTinol without compromising stability characteristics would be even more
advantageous for fabricating more complex 3D shapes.
Cold Hot
Flat Actuators Prior to Heating Actuators Formed After Heating

Figure 12. Hot Forming VGC 60-NiTinol Actuators.
III. Variable Geometry Chevron Design

From a morphing structures perspective the VGC system was designed to meet two flight test objectives. The
first was to validate the VGC concept by demonstrating autonomous operation. The second objective was to
provide a controllable VGC shape in order to examine configurations of interest.
The acoustic tests specifications for the VGCs required a dynamic tip motion of more than 2.3 cm (0.9”), ranging
from 0.8 cm (0.3”) into the free stream to more than 1.5 cm (0.6”) into the fan stream. The basic design of the VGC
was shown in Fig. 2. The SMA actuators are mated with the stiff chevron-shaped substrate to form the functional
VGC shape. The actuator’s trained shape, temperature, and the substrate’s properties determine the shape of the
assembled VGC. The design challenge was to choose the properties and shapes of the SMA actuators and substrate
to produce the desired profiles and dynamic deflection. A simple proportional-integral (PI) controller provided
stable and robust control of each chevrons tip position by varying power to the heaters attached to the actuators. The
8
feedback to the controller was chevron tip position, which was determined from a correlation of the substrate surface
strains measured at three locations to the chevron’s shape.
A. System Components
60-NiTinol An individual chevron contained
Compliant Cover Seal
with Heaters actuators, heaters, temperature and strain
sensors, a cover, and associated wiring.
Each VGC included three SMA actuators
fastened to a stiff carbon fiber composite
substrate integral to and extending from the
production thrust reverser. The SMA
actuators were attached to the substrate with
bolts through two threaded holes along the
centerline of the length. Thin film heaters
were mounted on each actuator to control

the temperature and hence the shape of the
chevron. A flexible cover protected the
actuators and wiring on the free stream side.
The cover was free to move in-plane
relative to the substrate via sliding
connectors and a conformable rubber seal.
The substrate’s surface strain was measured
at 3 locations. The strain measurements
were correlated with the chevron’s shape
Strain Gages
(potted for protection) and provided real time tip position data
during flight. Three thermocouples
Figure 13. Individual Chevron Components. monitored the temperature of the actuators
and substrate. A single chevron with the
cover off is shown in Fig. 13.
B. Design Methodology
While SMA models are available, and useful for interpolation, such as for minor loop and control applications,
great care must be taken when extrapolation is required.14 For this reason we have opted to rely on testing of SMA
material in an actuator-like configuration to gather the necessary material characteristics and properties to develop
detailed actuator designs. For the VGCs the 60-NiTinol characteristics were evaluated using the cantilever beam
testing described above. The tip loaded cantilever beam models ½ of a single VGC actuator including the variations
in the stress, strain and temperature distribution
that occurs in the VGC actuators during typical
Austenite
operation and it is a good first order Martensite
approximation of the actuators anticipated
Force
thermal and mechanical performance.

The primary property derived from these
tests for mechanical actuator design is the
Dynamic Modulus. The 60-NiTinol Dynamic
Modulus provides a practical measure of the Load
force and displacement capabilities for a given
flexure size which can then be evaluated when
combined with a given load. This is shown
graphically in Fig. 14 for a simple 1D
configuration. The Austenite and Martensite
dynamic characteristics for a given flexure size Displacement
are shown as a pair of force vs. displacement Figure 14. Shape Memory Alloy Actuator Design Methodology
curves. The load line of the substrate is then
overlaid on the two curves, also as a force vs. displacement curve. The intersection of the actuator and load lines
predicts the displacement for the Austenite and Martensite conditions. Varying the SMA size and shape modifies
their force and displacement curves. Modifying the material properties of the substrate and its shape modifies the
9
load line. The desired Austenite and Martensite chevron shapes can be produced by combining the appropriate
flexure and substrate designs.
For the VGC design this simple 1D design approach was expanded to incorporate the complex 3D surface of the
substrate and the interaction of all 3 flexures. A Finite Element Model (FEM) of the substrate was created and point
forces were applied to simulate the 60-NiTiol’s Austenite and Martensite forces. The applied forces were estimated
from the 60-NiTinol characterization study described above, and the loads were determined from the composite
substrate material properties and baseline shape. With the aide of the FEM model and the 60-NiTInol
characterization data a preliminary actuator and composite substrate design was developed to meet the chevron’s
required take-off and cruise shapes, including the placement of the actuators on the substrate.
C. Substrate
The shape of the chevron is complex in that the plan form is triangular with curvature in the circumferential and
radial directions. The substrate has a 35.5 cm (14”) chord length and a 59.7 cm (23.5”) width at the base. It provides
a three dimensional shape with a circumferential curvature at the base corresponding to the thrust reverser’s trailing
edge diameter of approximately 3 meters (10ft). Additionally, the curvature transitions at an inflection point and
forms a “saddle” contour towards the tip as is shown in Fig. 15. The NiTinol flexures contact the substrate at three
locations, and these locations greatly influence the final, three-dimensional shape of the chevron. The flexures are
fastened to the substrate at
Carbon Composite Substrate their center point. This
imparts a positive normal
reaction to the substrate
surface, while the ends of the
flexures impart negative
normal reactions. The
combination of positive and
negative vertical loads on the
35.5 cm
substrate influences the
chevron shape. These local
changes lead to a complex,
three-dimensional behavior
that was first analyzed with a
Finite Element Model prior to
1.5 cm prototype evaluation.
Figure 15. Chevron Carbon Composite Substrate. The material system used
for the composite substrate
was the same as that used for the production thrust reversers: a standard modulus carbon fiber with a non-toughened
epoxy resin pre-impregnated into the carbon fiber. Both bi-directional fabric and uni-directional tape forms of the
prepreg were used. A basic, quasi-isotropic 15-ply lay up of fabric was augmented with local areas of
reinforcement. A photo of this substrate prototype is also shown in Fig. 15.
D. Actuators
The 60-NiTinol characterization, design methodology, and FEM analysis generated a preliminary design for the
VGC actuators. A final actuator design was arrived at iteratively using a single chevron prototype in thermal
chambers to simulate the variations in temperature between takeoff and cruise. The actuator parameters that were
evaluated included thickness, width, and radius of curvature. The finished actuators were 25.4 cm (10”) long by 3.8
cm (1.5”) wide with smoothly varying thickness from 0.44 cm (0.175”) at the middle to 0.15 cm (0.06”) at both
ends. The tapering of the thickness was nominally a constant stress profile, this minimized the actuator’s weight and
also accommodated the chevron’s decreasing thickness towards its tip. All 3 actuators were the same design and
were symmetrical about the center. While the design may have benefited from optimizing the actuators for either a
center or side position or having a top and bottom orientation, it was decided early in the program to simplify the
fabrication process and make all of the actuators identical and symmetrical.
The principal method for varying the force applied by the actuators and therefore the maximum tip immersion
was to vary the radius of the actuator’s Austenite set shape. Increasing the thickness would also increase the
available force; however the chevron thickness limited the allowable thickness of the actuators. The flight
performance specifications called for a maximum tip immersion of at least 1.5cm (0.6”), but to not exceed 2.3cm
(0.9”). The chevron tip immersion vs. the actuator’s Austenite radius is shown in Fig. 16. It is clear from this data
10
2.6 that the actuator could be formed to provide a great
deal more authority than was required. The final
2.4
design radius after conditioning was 62.7cm
Maximum Tip Immersion (cm)
2.2
(24.7”) +/- 3.4cm (1.4”).
2 E. Instrumentation and Control

One of the system requirements was individual
1.8
control of the VGC tip immersions (or shape). As
1.6
described previously, the hysteresis loop (Fig. 10)
shows a complex relationship between SMA strain
1.4 (chevron shape) and SMA temperature. By closing
the feedback control loop on tip displacement
1.2
57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73
rather than temperature the position-temperature
hysteretic non-linearities are avoided. Data from
Actuator's Austenite Radius (cm)
A123-3-25-05_1521
the validation tests described below was used to
Figure 16. Chevron Tip Immersion vs Actuator Radius correlate three surface strain measurements to the
tip immersion using a linear regression model. To
provide thermal compensation the strain was measured using a full bridge configuration with 4 gages; 2 gages
oriented in the base-to-tip direction and 2 gages oriented in the axial direction. The nearly linear relationship
between the full bridge bending moment signal and the
chevron tip position is shown in Fig. 17. Bridge 8
position one is near the centerline about 5 inches below 7 bridge location #1
the tip and position 2 is just below the center actuator. bridge location #2
6
Detailed calibration tests demonstrated that by
Full Bridge Sense (mV)
measuring strain in 3 carefully selected locations that 5
the tip could be accurately estimated regardless of the 4

source of the deforming forces; i.e. aeroloading, uneven
actuation, or normal uniform actuation. A proportional- 3
integral (PI) feedback control system controlled the tip

1
2
immersion of each VGC by minimizing the difference 2
1
between the control set point and the tip immersion
estimate. 0
The control system set the input signal to the heater -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Chevron Tip Position (cm)
power supplies, which regulated the heaters on each of
the SMA actuators. The controller provided a stable, Figure 17. Substrate Strain Linear with Tip Position
robust system and did not require a complicated VGC model. Fig. 18 shows the tip immersion estimated and
commanded (set point) signals for one representative VGC, demonstrating the ability to the control the VGC tip
immersion during changes to the set point and changes in external conditions.
Estimated Command
0.8
Tip Immersion (in)
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)
Figure 18. Chevron Tip Immersion Control
11
IV. Flight Hardware Fabrication and Calibration
To flight test the VGC concept, the VGC system had to be fully integrated into the airplane and approved for
flight. The full flight design included 14 chevrons integrated into the trailing edge of a GE115B thrust reverser’s
acoustic panel as shown in Fig. 19. The sensor wires passed through a conduit in the acoustic panel to the fan case
and were then routed to a data acquisition system mounted inside the fan case. Heater wires were passed down the
same conduit, through the fan case, wing, and into the cabin. A control computer, health monitoring computer, and
heater power supplies were
located in the cabin. The data
acquisition and control
system communicated with
the data acquisition unit on
the engine, the heater power
supplies, and the airplanes
flight data system.
A. Thrust Reverser
Fabrication
The VGC thrust reverser
sleeve was fabricated using
modified production tooling
and processes. The VGCs
were a carbon composite
extension to the standard
production unit and were
manufactured at Boeing’s
Wichita facility (now Spirit
Aerosystems) within the
normal factory schedule and
process flow. Figure 19. Thrust Reverser Sleeves with VGCs Installed on Engine.
The GE-115B thrust reverser consists of two primary structural elements, an inner and outer sleeve. The VGCs
are an extension of the inner sleeve. On the upstream end of the thrust reverser the two sleeves are separated by a
narrow cavity, the outer sleeve tapers towards the inner sleeve as you move downstream and eventually they come
together just upstream of the chevron base. At that point the outer sleeve is attached to the inner sleeve. The inner
sleeve is shown during installation of the instrumentation in Figs. 20a and 20b. In Fig. 20a the routing of
instrumentation and power wiring through a conduit in the inner sleeve core is shown. On the finished thrust
Instrumentation and Inner Sleeve

Power leads routed
through conduit.
Figure 20. Inner Sleeve during Instrumentation Installation.
12
reverser the wiring exits into the cavity
between the inner and outer sleeve.
Instrumentation and power wiring was
routed through the cavity between the
two sleeves and into the engine’s fan
case. The instrumentation wiring was
terminated at a data system mounted in
the fan case, while the power wiring
continued down the wing and into the
airplane cabin. The thrust reverser with
the outer sleeve attached prior to
painting is shown in Fig. 21.
B. 60-NiTinol Actuator Fabrication

All of the flight test actuators were

fabricated from a single billet of 60-
NiTinol which had been hot rolled into
nominally 0.635cm (0.25”) thick plate.
The flexure’s basic shape was formed in
Figure 21. Outer Sleeve Joined to Inner Sleeve. a series of water jet and wire EDM
machining steps. The finished actuators
Remnants
were 25.4 cm (10”) long by 3.8 cm
after EDMing (1.5”) wide with smoothly varying
actuator form thickness from 0.175” (0.44 cm) at the
middle to 0.15 cm (0.06”) at both ends.
Finished
Actuator The tapered shape was a modified
constant stress beam that minimized the
Raw Stock size and weight of the actuators to fit
¼” Flat Plate
into the available space while still
providing the required Austenite forces.
Two holes were cut and tapped at the
midpoint of each actuator for fastening
to the substrate. The raw 60-NiTinol
material, excess material following the
Figure 22. 60-NiTinol Actuator Fabrication.
EDM process, and a finished actuator
are shown in Fig. 22. Two separate heat
treatments were used to set the austenitic
shape and set the actuator’s transition
temperatures. Fig. 23 shows a pair of
SMA flexure actuators before and after
the final heat treat processes. Prior to
installation each actuator was
conditioned for 100 thermal mechanical
cycles as described above.
C. Calibration
System validation and calibration was
Figure 23. Finished 60-NiTinol Actuators
crucial to the flight test success. A full
Before and After Setting Shape.
system test, including the VGC thrust
reverser sleeves, control and health monitoring computers, power supplies, and all cabling, was performed prior to
delivery to the airplane. A four camera photogrammetry system, shown in Fig. 24, was used to measure each
VGC’s shape under simulated aero-loading and thermal conditions. A cable system was used to hang weights from
each VGC to simulate aerodynamic loading while in flight. One thrust reverser at a time was placed inside a chiller
box, exposing the free stream side of the VGCs to temperatures down to -40°C. This simulated the thermal
conditions expected during cruise operations. Data from the strain gages were taken at 70 different thermal and
mechanical loading conditions and used to develop the strain-tip immersion model needed for the control system.
13
Cameras
2 high Illuminated targets
2 low
Photogrammetry Targets Chiller

Cameras
Figure 24. Four Camera Photogrammetry Figure 25. Final Photogrammetry Calibration
Preflight Calibration. During Ground Testing
Tip immersions from -0.8cm (-0.3”) to 1.5cm (0.6”) relative to a line tangent to the nozzle outlet were measured,
with positive values defined as into the fan stream. The VGCs were exercised from -40°C to 80°C and the
temperatures for each VGC measured with thermocouples. The operating temperature range was Mf of 15º C to Af
of 60º C. This validation test provided the initial system calibration. A four camera photogrammetry system shown
in Fig. 25 provided the final calibration check during the engine ground run up test with the VGC thrust reversers
mounted on the engine. The photogrammetry targets installed for the ground tests show up as bright spots when the
cameras flash.
V. FLIGHT TEST
In August 2005 Boeing tested a number of noise reduction technologies on an All Nippon Airway (ANA) 777-
300ER, including the VGC thrust reverser translating sleeve on a modified commercial GE-115B engine.15-17 The
VGC system was tested on six flights over five days with three different engine configurations, autonomous
operation and individual control of the 14 VGCs was demonstrated. Nine different chevron configurations were
examined in the controlled mode, investigating both community noise and shock cell noise. The system was able to
smoothly and quickly move between immersion configurations at cruise conditions, allowing us to perform a
parametric study on chevron shapes for shock cell noise reduction. Test configurations included both uniform and
azimuthally varying immersion configurations. All instrumentation, power, gages, sensors, and controller hardware
and software worked perfectly throughout the testing.
The VGC performance is evaluated by considering the VGC thermal and mechanical performance, in-flight
photogrammetry of the 3D shape change, and noise measurements at different operating conditions. The VGC
Camera
Targets
Figure 26. In-flight Photogrammetry and Targeted Chevrons.
14
immersions were controlled and the system performance, strain gages and thermocouples, monitored on-board in
real time. The computer system was tied to the flight computers providing access to the flight and engine
conditions.
VGC tip immersions, estimated from a linear regression model using three strain gage measurements, provided a
performance metric. Photogrammetry measurements using a camera mounted on the belly of the airplane were
recorded for three of the VGC’s shape using a separate data acquisition system to validate the tip positions derived
from the strain gauges. VGC thrust reverser mounted on the GE-115B engine and the photogrammetry camera are
shown in Fig. 26, both on the ground and viewed from the cabin during flight. Both community noise and interior
noise measurements were made for various VGC configurations. Noise measurements were taken on the ground
using several different arrays and on the airplane using microphones inside the cabin and externally mounted kulites
as shown in Fig. 27.
Exterior Measurement Interior Measurement

Shockcell Array
83 Kulites
Figure 27. Noise Instrumentation
15
Figure 28. Autonomous Operation.
A. Autonomous Operation
Autonomous operation was demonstrated in two parts. First, during take-off the hot fan flow heated the SMA
actuators resulting in an immersed VGC tip displacement of approximately 0.8cm (0.3”) within 500 seconds of the
engine being turned on, shown on the left side of Fig. 28. While a future commercial system would be designed
such that the VGCs are fully immersed prior to take off, the flight test thermal design enabled control during take-
off. The second part of the autonomous operation was VGC tip retraction during cruise. In this case the cooler
temperatures at high altitude (35,000 feet) cooled the SMA actuators below the Martensitic transformation
temperature resulting in a second VGC shape designed to optimize cruise performance. This transition, as shown on
the right side of Fig. 28, from 2cm (0.8”) to 0.4cm (-0.15”) immersion took approximately 600 seconds.
B. Powered Operation
The ability to test multiple chevron configurations during a single flight was a great benefit to the test program
and provided data for future chevron design efforts. The configuration flexibility, controllability, and ability of the
system to rapidly change chevron configurations are demonstrated in Fig. 29. Both uniform and non-uniform
immersion configurations were considered. During one flight the 777-300ER was flown at various altitudes with a
variety of engine settings while the VGCs were individually controlled to immersion settings of interest. Typical
data for 14 VGC tip immersions from the flight test are shown in Fig. 29. The VGC tip immersions are controlled
to a uniform -0.1”, 0.0”, 0.4”, 0.6” immersion into the fan flow, and then to a prescribed non-uniform distribution.
The data spread shows the VGC tip distribution (with an average standard deviation across all conditions of 0.05”).
This spread was a result of the estimate error, which was corrected during post test processing of the data.
Perturbations in the data correspond to an airplane maneuver or changes in the engine setting. The controller
handled the disturbances caused by changes in both the system set point and engine setting. The data also shows the
effect of increasing aero-loads on the VGCs resulting from increasing engine RPM. This decreased some of the
16
VGC tip immersions when actuator authority was insufficient to overcome aero-loading at high engine settings (see
point A Fig. 29).
The actuator authority was a function of the actuator and substrate design and not a limitation of the technology.
Fig. 30 shows the time trace comparing one VGC’s tip immersion estimate with its in-flight photogrammetry
measurement.
0.8 100
90
A
0.6 80
Tip Immersion (in)
Engine (% RPM)
70
0.4
0.4 60
0.6 50
0.2 40
0.0 30
0.0 -0.1 20
Strain
10
-0.2 Temperature
0
5000 7000 9000 11000 13000 15000 17000 19000
Seconds
Figure 29. In-flight VGC Tip Immersions
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Tip Immersion (in)
0.3
0.2
0.1
-0.1
Photogrametry
-0.2
Estimate
-0.3
120 180 240 300 360 420
Time (min)
Figure 30. Tip Immersion from Strain Gages Compared to In-flight Photogrammetry.
17
C. Parametric Shock Cell Noise Test
A parametric shock cell noise study was completed for the uniform immersion chevron configurations shown in
Fig. 29. Shock cell noise is responsible for components of the interior cabin noise which is significant to
passengers. The influence of the chevron configuration on interior noise was measured by surface mounted Kulite
transducers shown in Fig. 27. The Overall Sound Pressure Level (OASPL), integrated over 1/3 octave frequency
bands, was computed. The difference between OASPL for a baseline (production engine) configuration and a given
chevron configuration is plotted versus engine setting (Nozzle Pressure Ratio, NPR) in Fig. 31. The delta OASPL
increases from 0.0”, 0.2”, 0.4”, to 0.6”. This means that the low frequency noise levels decrease as immersion
increases. The presence of the chevrons without immersion (0.0”) shows a large change from the baseline with
relatively smaller changes between 0.2” and 0.4” immersion. There is another large OASPL reduction at 0.6”
immersion. This data identifies trends in chevron configurations which are useful for the design of future
commercial jet engines nozzles.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6

3.5
OASPL Reduction from Baseline
2.5
1.5
0.5
-0.5
2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35 2.4 2.45 2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65
Nozzle Pressure Ratio
Figure 31. Effect of VGC Immersion on Noise Reduction.
VI. SUMMARY
The Variable Geometry Chevron program has been an unqualified success. Boeing has completed the first flight
test of a shape memory alloy actuator used to morph a commercial aircraft structure. This VGC system
demonstrated the successful use of smart materials to solve an aerospace problem and provided previously
unavailable capability for a flight test, greatly enhancing the flight test program. The program highlights an exciting
fusion of Boeing Commercial Airplane and Phantom Works engineering expertise to rapidly bring concept to
practice. The VGCs were taken from concept to flight-test in under three-and-a-half. One of the keys to the VGC’s
successful performance was the pioneering use of a new shape memory alloy, 60-Nitinol, as actuators. The program
was the first to exploit the unique shape memory properties of 60-Nitinol and model, design, and test monolithic 60-
Nitinol actuators. The VGC system demonstrates a new capability for validating designs with flight tests. With
variable geometry technology, a component can be tested in numerous configurations during one flight test. Finally
variable geometry technology demonstrates new and as yet unexplored capability to optimize aircraft performance
for multiple flight conditions. Designers can use this technology to optimize an aircraft component for different
flight conditions rather than being limited to a compromise design point. We see this program as an important step
in the utilization of smart material-based morphing structures for commercial aircraft.
18
Acknowledgments
The authors would like thank Mike Lallement of Spirit Aerosystems for his support in design and fabrication of the
Thrust Reverser Sleeve, and Boeing’s Seattle Flight Test team, particularly Dan Outlaw and Dylan Welsh for their
support in the installation and integration of the flight hardware and the Data Acquisition and Control system.
References
1
C. W. Tam, “Jet Noise: Since 1952,” Theoretical and Computational Fluid Dynamics, Vol 10, pp 393-405, 1998.
2
J. Bridges, M. Wernet, C. Brown, “Control of jet noise through mixing enhancement,” NASA/TM 2003-212335,
2003.
3
J. Bowman, B. Sanders, T. Weisshaar, “Evaluating the impact of morphing technologies on aircraft performance,”
AIAA 2002-1631, 43rd AIAA Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference, Denver CO, April 2002.
4
E. Nesbitt, G. Butler, D. Reed, The Boeing Company, Deployable segmented exhaust nozzle for a jet engine, US
Patent 6,718,752, April 13 2004.
5
F.T. Calkins and G.W. Butler, “Subsonic Jet Noise Reduction Variable Geometry Chevron”, 42nd AIAA
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, AIAA-2004-0190, Reno NV, January 2004.
6
R. Cabell, N. Schiller, J. H. Mabe, R.T. Ruggeri, and G.W. Butler, “Feedback Control of a Morphing Chevron for
Takeoff and Cruise Noise Reduction”, Active 2004, Williamsburg VA, September 2004.
7
J. H. Mabe, R.T. Ruggeri, G.W. Butler and S. Sellmeyer, “Morphing Chevrons for Takeoff and Cruise Noise
Reduction”, Active 2004, Williamsburg VA, September 2004.
8
J. Mabe, R. Cabell, G. Butler, “Design and control of a morphing chevrons for takeoff and cruise noise reduction”,
AIAA-2005-2889, 11th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference, Monterey CA, May 2005.
9
S. Klute, R. Duncan, R. Fielder, G. Butler, J. Mabe, A. Sang, R. Seeley, M. Raum, “Fiber-optic shape sensing and
distributed strain measurements on a morphing chevron,” AIAA-2006-624, 44th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting,
Reno, Nevada, January 2006.
10
G. Julien, Nitinol Technologies Inc., Manufacturing of Nitinol parts and forms, US Patent 6,422,010, July 23,
2002.
11
D.J. Clingman, F.T. Calkins, and J.P. Smith, “Thermomechanical Properties of 60-Nitinol”, SPIE Smart
Structures and Materials 2003, SPIE-5053 p.219-229, San Diego CA, March 2003.
12
J.H. Mabe, R.T. Ruggeri, E. Rosenzweig, and C. Yu, “NiTinol Performance Characterization and Rotary Actuator
Design”, SPIE Smart Structures and Materials 2004, SPIE-5388-11, San Diego CA, March 2004.
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J. H. Mabe, C. Yu, and E. Rosenzweig, “A Comparison of the DSC measurements of Shape Memory Alloys and
the material’s thermal characteristics in a large scale actuator.”, SPIE Smart Structures and Materials 2006, SPIE-
6170-38, San Diego CA, March 2006.
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SIAM, Philadelphia, 2004.
15
F.T. Calkins, J.H. Mabe, and G.W. Butler, “Boeing’s Variable Geometry Chevron: morphing aerospace structures
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AIAA-2006-2440, 12th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference, Cambridge MA, May 2006.
17
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12th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference, Cambridge MA, May 2006.
19

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47th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Confere AIAA 2006-2142

1 - 4 May 2006, Newport, Rhode Island

Boeing’s Variable Geometry Chevron,

James H. Mabe1, Frederick T. Calkins2, and George W. Butler3

Covers Removed Thrust Reversers Installed

II. SMA Alloy Selection and Material Characterization

A. NiTinol Material Properties

2.5 Each loads fully Austenite

and Martensite strains are

Figure 4. Dynamic Modulus Test Method.

B. Stability and Creep

Figure 5. Dynamic vs. Static Modulus for 60-NiTinol.

55-NiTinol 2-way SME

Pulley with Load Cable Beam Under

load Rigid base

Figure 7. Test Fixture for Evaluating NiTinol Creep.

5 60-NiTinol 250 5 55-NiTinol 250

Applied Stress (MPa)

Figure 8a and 8b. Creep Rates for 60-NiTinol and 55-NiTinol.

Max. Substrate Strain (microstrain)

Figure 9. 60-NiTinol Actuator Conditioning.

makes it an ideal SMA for rapid

1 and developmental time is limited

or where the anticipated thermal

environment is not well known or

atomic NiTinol the transition

0.8 desired shape during high temperature

Flat Actuators Prior to Heating Actuators Formed After Heating

III. Variable Geometry Chevron Design

were mounted on each actuator to control

thermal and mechanical performance.

2 E. Instrumentation and Control

measuring strain in 3 carefully selected locations that 5

the tip could be accurately estimated regardless of the 4

integral (PI) feedback control system controlled the tip

Figure 18. Chevron Tip Immersion Control

Instrumentation and Inner Sleeve

B. 60-NiTinol Actuator Fabrication

All of the flight test actuators were

Photogrammetry Targets Chiller

Exterior Measurement Interior Measurement

Figure 28. Autonomous Operation.

Figure 29. In-flight VGC Tip Immersions

0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Nozzle Pressure Ratio

Figure 31. Effect of VGC Immersion on Noise Reduction.

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