Structural Training Note (Print)

Homik Oil & Gas Facility Engineering Schools.
Basic Steel Structural Design and Detailing
BASIC STEEL STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING
(CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES)
BY
HOMIK ENGINEERING LIMITED
FOR
HOMIK OIL & GAS FACILITY ENGINEERING SCHOOLS
1
Table of contents
1. Strength of materials
2. BEAMS
2.1. Girders
3. Columns
4. Connection design
5. Pile foundation
6.Trusses
2
1.0 Strength of material
During this session, the following issues will be addressed:
 Materials, what are they?

 How do they behave when subjected to various load combination?
 Which term fits what.
 What criteria would necessitate the choice of a material under certain load.
 Etc.
Everything around the world are made up of one substance or another. Material is that substance
from which a thing is or can be made. Some of the materials in various application include:
 Vehicle body - steel, polymer, paint, composite.

 Spark plug - ceramics, steel.
 Tyre - plastic, steel, composite.
 Windscreen - ceramics
 Pipes - steel
 Offshore structures - steel
 Well head tubing - steel
 Pumps/valves - steel, rubber
 Pipe support - steel, concrete
 Manifold - steel
 List goes on.
Materials are therefore classified into the following:
 Metals
 Polymers
 Ceramics
 Composites
 Etc.
These materials behave differently under various load combination hence their strength. Strength
of material or mechanics of material is a subject that deals with the behavior of material under
load. It deals with the application of action - reaction law to the material system, giving rise to
the study of forces and their effect on the stability of the material system. These behaviors are
considered as resulting from the properties of material.
The methods employed to predict the response of a structure under load and its susceptibility to
various failure modes takes into account the properties of the material such as its yield strength,
ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition the mechanical element's
macroscopic properties (geometric properties), such as its length, width, thickness, boundary
constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
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Definition of terms:
 Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a material. In
some materials, the point of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is usually defined as
the stress required to cause 0.2% plastic strain. This is called a 0.2% proof stress.
 Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a

material in the manner of ductile failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure
(rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak plane.
 Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to
tensile failure in the manner of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure, some
hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation) or brittle
failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low stress state). Tensile strength can
be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering stress is the most
commonly used.
 Fatigue strength is a measure of the strength of a material or a component under cyclic
loading, and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength measures.
 Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and
is expressed in terms of energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or
Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact energy required to fracture a
sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect the
impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high impact
strength the stresses must be distributed evenly throughout the object. It also must have a
large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high material yield strength.
 Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied (as a
result of applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.).
Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the material.
 Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is displaced
when subject to an applied load.
Types of loadings in mechanics of material are:
 Transverse loadings — These are forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
a member. It causes the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with
internal tensile and compressive strains accompanying the change in curvature of the
member. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the
material and increase the transverse deflection of the member.
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Transverse loading
 Axial loading — The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the
member. The forces result in tension or compression.
Axial loading
 Torsional loading — Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and
oppositely directed force couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple
applied to a member that has one end fixed against rotation.
Torsional loading
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A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called
stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause
deformation of the material in various manners including breaking them completely.
Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed on a unit
basis. The applied loads may be axial (tensile or compressive), or rotational (strength shear). The
stresses and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to
assess the load capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of
the member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member and the properties of the material of
which the member is composed. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of
the member, the state of stress and state of strain at any point within the member can be
calculated. Once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load
carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations (stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability
to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be
compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material yield or ultimate
strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection criterion that
is based on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to
the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to
calculate the member's dynamic response and then compared to the acoustic environment in
which it will be used.
•Limit of proportionality (A)
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This is the extent where load-extension curve is linear and elastic.
•Elastic limit (B)
At this point, the material will recover its original shape on removal of the load. The section of
the curve between the limit of proportionality and the elastic limit can be described as non-linear
elastic.
•Yield point (CD)
This is the stress at which the material yields and behaves plastically beyond this point. The
extension of the specimen from C to D is approximately .10 times greater than extension of the
specimen up to B.
• Strain hardening (DE)
In this region of the curve, the material strain hardens and the slope of the curve is much lower
than the slope between the origin and A.
• Peak load (F)
This is the maximum load that the material can withstand. This load is used for calculating the
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) or Tensile strength of the material. After this point, the specimen
"necks" and eventually fractures at F.
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝐿
Strain, =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐿
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Stress, =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
STRESS -STRAIN CURVE:
From the load and extension values from the Tensile Testing, stress and strain values are
calculated. When the stress values are plotted against strain values, a stress-strain curve result.
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Hook’s law:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Proof stress
Certain materials like Aluminum do not exhibit a definite yield point hence it is difficult to
determine the yield stress of such materials precisely. For such materials 0.1% or 0.2% proof
stress is defined. Here 0.1% or 0.2% strain is set off along the horizontal axis and a straight line a
drawn from this point, parallel to the linear portion of the stress-strain curve. From where the
straight line cuts the curve, a line is drawn parallel to the strain axis to cut the stress axis at 0.1%
proof stress for 0.1% strain and 0.2% proof 'stress for 0.2% strain.
FACTOR OF SAFETY
In practice although the ultimate tensile stress is used as a basis for design the maximum
allowable stress or working stress is always less than this value The ratio of the ultimate tensile
stress (UTS) to the working stress is called the factor of safety, thus
𝑈𝑇𝑆
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Factor of safety has also been defined as the ratio of yield stress or even elastic limit to the
working stress since the member is considered to have failed if the stress in any part of It is
sufficient to cause plastic deformation.
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It is not satisfactory to allow the stress in structural component to exceed the limit of
proportionality. If the stress exceeds this value, it is likely that certain parts of the structural
component will suffer permanent deformation. If the stress in a structure does not exceed the
materials' limit of proportionality, the structure will return to its undeformed shape upon removal
of the loading.
2.0 BEAMS
Beam is a horizontal structural member that supports vertical load. It resists loads applied
laterally to the beam's axis with mode of deflection is primarily bending. The loads applied to the
beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting
on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce
internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized based on type of
support, shape of cross section, length and their material.
CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS BASED ON TYPE OF SUPPORT
 Cantilever beam
 Simply supported beam
 Overhanging beam
 Continuous beam
 Fixed beam
Cantilever Beam: A cantilever beam is a beam which is fixed from one end and free at the other
end.
Simply Supported Beam:A beam resting on supports at both ends is called simply supported
beam.
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Overhanging Beam: This beam has one of its ends extended beyond the support.
Fixed Beams: A beam which has both of its ends fixed or builtin walls.
Continuous Beam: This is a beam which is provided with more than two supports as shown in
the figure.
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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE SHAPE OF CROSS SECTION
Classification of beams based on shape of cross section are divided into three classes
 I/H-beam – Beam with ‘I’ cross section

 T-beam – Beam with ‘T’ cross section
 C-beam – Beam with ‘C’ cross section
I-BEAM (UNIVERSAL BEAM):

Just as the name impliesthese steel beams are shaped like the capital letter ‘I’. The inner surface
inclination of upper and lower flanges is generally 1:6 which makes the flange thin outside
while thick inside.
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T- BEAM
A T-beam used in construction, is a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete, wood or

metal, with a t-shaped cross section. The top of the t-shaped cross section serves as a flange or
compression member in resisting compressive stresses. The web (vertical section) of the beam
below the compression flange serves to resist shear stress and to provide greater separation for
the coupled forces of bending
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C – BEAM: The C beam is used primarily in building construction and civil engineering. Its
cross section consists of a wide "web", usually but not always oriented vertically, and two
"flanges" at the top and bottom of the web, only sticking out on one side of the web. It is
distinguished from I-beam or H-beam type steel cross sections in that those have flanges on both
sides of the web.
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Beam design consideration:
After establishing the design bending moment andshear force, the next thing is toassess the size
and strength of beam required bearing in mind that the design load does not exceed the
loadcapacitythe beam.
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑍
𝜎𝐼
𝑀=
𝑦
Z=elastic section modulus
I=moment ofinertia or second moment of area of the section
y=distance fromneutral axis
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16
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2.1 Girder plates
These are typical I beam in shape made from different structural steel plates or sections. They are
welded, rivetted or bolted together instead of having them in single rolled steel cross section.
Plate girder components:
 Web plate
 Flange plate (addition of cover plate curtailed at proper sections)
 Stiffeners like bearing stiffeners, longitudinal stiffeners, and intermediate stiffeners
 Splices for flange plate and web plate
 End connections
Web plate: The web plates allows the beam to resist shear acting on it. Its thickness varies as
well as its depth. The depth of the web plate depends upon the type and quantity of loading. For
larger depths, stiffeners are used to ensure stability
Flange plate: They resist the bending moment which will be acting on the beam by developing
the compressive force in one flange and tensile force in other flange. The resistance to bending
as well as shear may be increased by increasing the distance between the flanges.
Stiffeners: in trying to prevent the web from buckling, stiffeners sre used.
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3.0 COLUMN AND STRUT DESIGN
COLUMN AND STRUT
Both strut and column belong to the group of compression members. They can withstand the
compressive forces inside the structure instead of the tensile forces. Struts are mostly found in
roof trusses, steel bridges, and other structures that combine trusses for their structural
development.
Columns are found in buildings and related type of structures, where the structure directly takes
care of the gravitational force. The materials used to construct these compressive members are
built with various materials like steel, concrete, timber.
What is a Strut?
Strut stands for an inclined compressive member or component of a truss type structure. The two
ends of a strut are set to other members of the truss, and usually the objective of the strut is to
sustain the hardness of the structure, which otherwise prone to move freely. Besides, it is can
include more strength to the structure. A strut may be defined as a long, inclined column.
A specific value named “Slenderness Ratio” is set, that ascertains whether the specific member
comes into the category of Struts or into Columns. If the slenderness ratio becomes higher, the
structure element will be more slender. If the slenderness is higher, the structural element will
come into the category of struts, and the less slender ones will come into the category of
columns. Struts may collapse because of buckling. It signifies that they bend off if compressed
apart a specific limit.
Differences between Strut and a Column
1. Both Strut and Column belong to compression structural members.

2. Slenderness ratio of struts is elevated, while it is low for columns.
3. Struts collapse because of buckling, but columns collapse due to crushing.
4. Columns are dependent on bending moments and shears additionally and are considered as
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the primary supports in a building or structure while the Struts are short members in an assembly
of members that get compressed, in place of ties which are stretched (i.e. subjected to tension)
5. Column is vertical member that is dependent on axial compressive load whereas strut belongs
to the inclined member that is dependent on the axial load.
6. The objective of the column is to withstand compressive load only whereas the objective of
the strut is to withstand both compressive and tensile load.
7. The column is usually supported with fixed supports at both ends whereas the strut is set by
hinged or pin joint at both ends.
Depending upon the Slenderness ratio(ratio of effective length to least lateral dimension of the
column).It is used extensively for finding out the design load as well as in classifying various
columns in short/intermediate/long.
Short Column: If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less
than12,it is called a short column.
Long Column: If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension
exceeds12, it is called as long column. Along column fails by bending or buckling.
FAILURE MODE OF COLUMNS
Columns may fail in one of the three mechanisms:
1. Compression failure of the concrete or steel reinforcement.

2. Buckling.
3. Combination of buckling and compression failure.
NB. Compression failure is likely to occur with columns which are short and stocky.
Buckling is probable with columns which are long and slender.
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4.0 COMPRESSION MEMBER DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

 Compression Members: Structural elements that are subjected to axial compressive forces
only are called columns. Columns are subjected to axial loads through the centroid.
 Stress: The stress in the column cross-section can be calculated as
P
f  (2.1)
A
where f is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section.
 This ideal state is never reached. The stress-state will be non-uniform due to:
- Accidental eccentricity of loading with respect to the centroid
- Member out-of –straightness (crookedness), or
- Residual stresses in the member cross-section due to fabrication processes.
 Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness can cause bending moments in the
member. However, these are secondary and are usually ignored.
 Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting on the member. Members with axial
compression and bending moment are called beam-columns
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COLUMN BUCKLING
 Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and increased
slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pcr that will cause buckling of the column (Figure 1).
Pcr is called the critical buckling load of the column.
P
(a) Pcr (b)
P
Pcr
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What is buckling?
Buckling occurs when a straight column subjected to axial compression suddenly undergoes
bending as shown in the Figure 1(b). Buckling is identified as a failure limit-state for columns.
Figure 1. Buckling of axially loaded compression members
 The critical buckling load Pcr for columns is theoretically given by Equation (4.1)
2 E I
Pcr = (4.1)
K L 2
where, I = moment of inertia about axis of buckling
K = effective length factor based on end boundary conditions
 Effective length factors are given on page 16.1-511 (Table C-A-7.1) of the AISC manual.
25
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EXAMPLE 4.1 Determine the buckling strength of a W 12 x 50 column. Its length is 20 ft. For
major axis buckling, it is pinned at both ends. For minor buckling, is it pinned at one end and
fixed at the other end.
Solution
Step I. Visualize the problem
Figure 2. (a) Cross-section; (b) major-axis buckling; (c) minor-axis buckling
 For the W12 x 50 (or any wide flange section), x is the major axis and y is the minor axis.
Major axis means axis about which it has greater moment of inertia (Ix>Iy)
Figure 3. (a) Major axis buckling; (b) minor axis buckling
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 According to Table C-A-7.1 of the AISC Manual (see page 16.1 - 511):
- For pin-pin end conditions about the major axis
Kx = 1.0 (theoretical value); and Kx = 1.0 (recommended design value)
- For pin-fix end conditions about the minor axis
Ky = 0.7 (theoretical value); and Ky = 0.8 (recommended design value)
 According to the problem statement, the unsupported length for buckling about the major (x)
axis = Lx = 20 ft.
 The unsupported length for buckling about the minor (y) axis = Lx = 20 ft.
 Effective length for major (x) axis buckling = Kx Lx = 1.0 x 20 = 20 ft. = 240 in.
 Effective length for minor (y) axis buckling = Ky Ly = 0.8 x 20 = 16 ft. = 192 in.
Step III. Determine the relevant section properties
 For W12 x 50: elastic modulus = E = 29000 ksi (constant for all steels)
 For W12 x 50: Ix = 391 in4. Iy = 56.3 in4 (see pages 1-26 and 1-27 of the AISC manual)
Step IV. Calculate the buckling strength
2 E I x  2  29000 391
 Critical load for buckling about x - axis = Pcr-x = =
K x L x 2 2402
Pcr-x = 1942.9 kips
2 E I y  2  29000 56.3

K y L y 2
Critical load for buckling about y-axis = Pcr-y = =
1922
Pcr-y = 437.12 kips
 Buckling strength of the column = smaller (Pcr-x, Pcr-y) = Pcr = 437.12 kips
Minor (y) axis buckling governs.
 Notes:
- Minor axis buckling usually governs for all doubly symmetric cross-sections. However, for
some cases, major (x) axis buckling can govern.
- Note that the steel yield stress was irrelevant for calculating this buckling strength.
4.3 INELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING

 Let us consider the previous example. According to our calculations Pcr = 437 kips. This Pcr
will cause a uniform stress f = Pcr/A in the cross-section
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 For W12 x 50, A = 14.6 in2. Therefore, for Pcr = 437 kips; f = 30 ksi
The calculated value of f is within the elastic range for a 50 ksi yield stress material.
2 E I y

K y L y 2
However, if the unsupported length was only 10 ft., Pcr = would be calculated as
1748 kips, and f = 119.73 ksi.

 This value of f is ridiculous because the material will yield at 50 ksi and never develop f =
119.73 ksi. The member would yield before buckling.
 Equation (4.1) is valid only when the material everywhere in the cross-section is in the
elastic region. If the material goes inelastic then Equation (4.1) becomes useless and
cannot be used.
 What happens in the inelastic range?
Several other problems appear in the inelastic range.
- The member out-of-straightness has a significant influence on the buckling strength in
the inelastic region. It must be accounted for.
- The residual stresses in the member due to the fabrication process causes yielding in the
cross-section much before the uniform stress f reaches the yield stress Fy.
- The shape of the cross-section (W, C, etc.) also influences the buckling strength.
- In the inelastic range, the steel material can undergo strain hardening.
 So, what should we do? We will directly look at the AISC Specifications for the strength of
compression members, i.e., Chapter E (page 16.1-31 of the AISC manual).
4.4 AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH

 The AISC specifications for column design are based on several years of research.
 These specifications account for the elastic and inelastic buckling of columns including all
issues (member crookedness, residual stresses, accidental eccentricity etc.) mentioned above.
 The specification presented here (AISC Spec E3) will work for all doubly symmetric cross-
sections and channel sections.
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 The design strength of columns for the flexural buckling limit state is equal to cPn
Where, c = 0.9 (Resistance factor for compression members)

Pn = AgFcr (4.2)
KL E Fy
- When  4.71 (or  2.25 )
r Fy Fe
 Fy

 
Fcr = 0.658 Fe  Fy (4.3)
 
 
KL E Fy
- When  4.71 (or  2.25 )
r Fy Fe
Fcr = 0.877 Fe  (4.4)
 2E
Where, Fe = 2
(4.5)
 KL 
 
 r 
Ag = gross member area; K = effective length factor

L = unbraced length of the member; r = corresponding radius of gyration
1.0
Fcr =  
Fy
0.658 Fe F
  y
Fcr/F y  
0.39 F cr = 0.877 Fe 
E KL
4.71
Fy r
2E I
 Note that the original Euler buckling equation is Pcr =
K L2
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Pcr  2E I  2E  2E
 Fe      r 2

Ag  K L  2 A g  K L  2 K L
2
 
 r 
KL E
 Note that the AISC equation for  4.71 is Fcr = 0.877Fe
r Fy
- The 0.877 factor tries to account for initial crookedness.

 For a given column section:
- Calculate I, Ag, r
- Determine effective length K L based on end boundary conditions.
E
- Calculate Fe, Fy/Fe or 4.71
Fy
E
- If (KL/r) greater than 4.71 , elastic buckling occurs and use Equation (4.4)
Fy
E
- If (KL/r) is less than or equal to 4.71 , inelastic buckling occurs and use Equation
Fy
(4.3)
 Note that the column can develop its yield strength Fy as (KL/r) approaches zero.
4.5 COLUMN STRENGTH

 In order to simplify calculations, the AISC specification includes Tables.
- Table 4-22 on pages 4-322 to 4-326 shows KL/r vs. cFcr for various steels.
- You can calculate KL/r for the column, then read the value of cFcr from this table
- The column strength will be equal to cFcr x Ag
EXAMPLE 4.2Calculate the design strength of W14 x 74 with length of 20 ft. and pinned ends.
A36 steel is used.
Solution
 Step I. Calculate the effective length and slenderness ratio for the problem
Kx = Ky = 1.0
Lx = Ly = 240 in.
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Major axis slenderness ratio = KxLx/rx = 240/6.04 = 39.735

Minor axis slenderness ratio = KyLy/ry = 240/2.48 = 96.77
 Step II. Calculate the elastic critical buckling stress
The governing slenderness ratio is the larger of (KxLx/rx, KyLy/ry)
 2E  2 * 29000
Fe   = 30.56 ksi
 KL 
2
96.77 2
 
 r 
Check the limits
KL E F
(  4.71 ) or ( y  2.25 )
r Fy Fe
E 29000
4.71  4.71  133.68
Fy 36
 Fy

Since
KL
 4.71
E
; 
Therefore, Fcr = 0.658 Fe  Fy
r Fy  
 
Therefore, Fcr = 21.99 ksi
Design column strength = cP n = 0.9 (AgFcr) = 0.9 (21.8 in2 x 21.99 ksi) = 431.4 kips
Design strength of column = 431 kips
 Check calculated values with Table 4-22. For KL/r = 97, cFcr = 19.7 ksi
4.6 LOCAL BUCKLING LIMIT STATE

The AISC specifications for column strength assume that column buckling is the governing
limit state. However, if the column section is made of thin (slender) plate elements, then
failure can occur due to local buckling of the flanges or the web.
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Figure 4. Local buckling of columns

 If local buckling of the individual plate elements occurs, then the column may not be able to
develop its buckling strength.
 Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be prevented from controlling the column
strength.
 Local buckling depends on the slenderness (width-to-thickness b/t ratio) of the plate element
and the yield stress (Fy) of the material.
 Each plate element must be stocky enough, i.e., have a b/t ratio that prevents local buckling
from governing the column strength.
 The AISC specification B4.1 (Page 16.1-14) provides the slenderness (b/t) limit that the
individual plate elements must satisfy so that local buckling does not control.
 For compression, the AISC specification provides slenderness limit (λ r) for the local buckling
of plate elements.
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Figure 5. Local buckling behavior and classification of plate elements

- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is greater than r then it isslender. It will
locally buckle in the elastic range before reaching Fy
- If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than r, then it is non-slender. It
will not locally buckle in elastic range before reaching Fy
- If any one plate element is slender, then the cross-section is slender.
 The slenderness limit λ r for various plate elements with different boundary conditions are
given in Table B4.1a on page 16.1-16 of the AISC Spec.
 Note that the slenderness limit (λ r) and the definition of plate slenderness (b/t) ratio depend
upon the boundary conditions for the plate.
- If the plate is supported along two edges parallel to the direction of compression force,
then it is a stiffened element. For example, the webs of W shapes
- If the plate is supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the compression
force, then it is an unstiffened element, e.g., the flanges of W shapes.
 The local buckling limit state can be prevented from controlling the column strength by using
sections that are non slender.
- If all the elements of the cross-section have calculated slenderness (b/t) ratio less than λ r,
then the local buckling limit state will not control.
- For the definitions of b/t and λ r for various situations see Table B4.1a and Spec B4.1.
34
EXAMPLE 1.3 Determine the local buckling slenderness limit and evaluate the W14 x 74
section used in Example 4.2. Does local buckling limit the column strength?
Solution
 Step I. Calculate the slenderness limits
See Table B4.1a on page 16.1-16.
- For the flanges of I-shape sections
E 29000
λr = 0.56 x = 0.56 x = 15.9
Fy 36
- For the webs of I-shapes section
E 29000
λr = 1.49 x = 1.49 x = 42.3
Fy 36
 Step II. Calculate the slenderness ratios for the flanges and webs of W14 x 74
- For the flanges of I-shape member, b = bf/2 = flange width / 2
Therefore, b/t = bf/2tf.
For W 14 x 74, bf/2tf = 6.43 (See Page 1-24 in AISC)
- For the webs of I shaped member, b = h
h is the clear distance between flanges less the fillet / corner radius of each flange
For W14 x 74, h/tw = 24.17 (See Page 1-24 in AISC)
 Step III. Make the comparisons and comment

For the flanges, b/t < λr. Therefore, the flange is non slender
For the webs, h/tw< λr. Therefore the web is non slender
Therefore, the section is non slender.
Therefore, local buckling will not limit the column strength.
4.7 COLUMN DESIGN

 The AISC manual has tables for column strength. See page 4-12 onwards.
 For wide flange sections, the column buckling strength ( cPn) is tabulated with respect to the
effective length about the minor axis KyLy in Table 4-1.
35
- The table takes the KyLy value for a section, internally calculates the KyLy/ry, and then
calculates the tabulated column strength using either Equation E3-2 or E3-3 of the
specification.
 If you want to use the Table 4-1 for calculating the column strength for buckling about the
major axis, then do the following:
K xLx
- Take the major axis KxLx value. Calculate an equivalent (KL)eq =
rx / ry
- Use the calculated (KL)eq value to find ( cP n ) the column strength for buckling about the
major axis from Table (4-1)
 For example, consider a W14 x 74 column with KyLy = 20 ft. and KxLx = 25 ft.
- Material has yield stress = 50 ksi (always in Table 4-1).
- See Table 4-1, for KyLy = 20 ft., cP n = 495 kips (minor axis buckling strength)
- rx/ry for W14x74 = 2.44 from Table 4-1 (see page 4-16 of AISC).
- For KxLx = 25 ft., (KL)eq = 25/2.44 = 10.25 ft.
- For (KL)eq = 10.25 ft., cP n = 819.5 kips (major axis buckling strength)
- If calculated value of (KL)eq<KyLythen minor axis buckling will govern.
EXAMPLE 4.4Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W14 x 132 that is part of a
braced frame. Assume that the physical length L = 30 ft., the ends are pinned and the column is
braced at the ends only for the X-X axis and braced at the ends and mid-height for the Y-Y axis.
Solution
 Step I. Calculate the effective lengths.
For W14 x 132: rx = 6.28 in; ry = 3.76 in; Ag =38.8 in2
Kx = 1.0 and Ky = 1.0
Lx = 30 ft. and Ly = 15 ft.
KxLx = 30 ft. and KyLy = 15 ft.
 Step II. Determine the governing slenderness ratio
KxLx/rx = 30 x 12 in./6.28 in.= 57.32
KyLy/ry = 15 x 12 in./3.76 in. = 47.87
36
The larger slenderness ratio, therefore, buckling about the major axis will govern the column
strength.
 Step III. Calculate the column strength
K xLx 30
KxLx = 30 ft. Therefore, (KL)eq = = = 17.96 ft.
rx / ry 6.28 / 3.76
From Table 4-1, for (KL)eq = 18.0 ft. cPn = 1370 kips (design column strength)
 Step IV. Check the local buckling limits
E
For the flanges, bf/2tf = 7.14 < λr = 0.56 x = 13.5
Fy
E
For the web, h/tw = 15.5 < λr = 1.49 x = 35.9
Fy
Therefore, the section is non slender. OK.
EXAMPLE 4.5 A compression member is subjected to service loads of 165 kips dead load and
535 kips of live load. The member is 26 ft. long and pinned at each end. Use A992 (50 ksi) steel
and select a W shape
Solution
 Calculate the factored design load Pu
Pu = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL = 1.2 x 165 + 1.6 x 535 = 1054 kips
 Select a W shape from the AISC manual Tables

For KyLy = 26 ft. and required strength = 1054 kips
- Select W14 x 145 from page 4-15. It has cP n = 1230 kips
- Select W12 x 170 from page 4-18. It has cP n = 1130 kips
- No W10 will work. See Page 4-21
- W14 x 145 is the lightest.
 Note that column sections are usually W12 or W14. Usually sections bigger than W14 are
usually not used as columns.
37
Note the following for conversion between imperial and metric units.
1 kip = 4.4482N
1 kips = 0.0044482 kN
1 kip/in.2 = 0.006895 MPa
1 lb/ft3 = 0.1571 kN/m3
1 lb/in.2 = 0.006895 MPa
1 kip/ft = 14.59 kN/m
1kip = 1000 lbf
ksi = kips per square inch

ksf = kips per square foot
1 ksi = 6894800 Pa
1 ksi = 6894.8 kPa
1ksf = 47880 Pa
1ksf = 47.88 kPa
I ft = 304.8mm
1ft = 0.3048m
1 in = 25.4mm
1 in = 0.0254
38
4.0 CONNECTION DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel sections are manufactured and shipped to some standard lengths, as governed by
rolling, transportation and handling restrictions. However, most of the steel structural
members used in structures have to span great lengths and enclose large three-
dimensional spaces. Hence connections are necessary to synthesize such spatial
structures from one-and two-dimensional elements and also to bring about stability of
structures under different loads. Thus, connections are essential to create an integral steel
structure using discrete linear and two-dimensional (plate) elements.
A structure is only as strong as its weakest link. Unless properly designed, the
connections joining the members may be weaker than the members being joined.
However, it is desirable to avoid connection failure before member failure for the
following reasons:
• To achieve an economical design, usually it is important that the connections

develop the full strength of the members.
• Usuallyconnectionfailureisnotasductileasthatofsteelmemberfailure.Henceit is
desirable to avoid connection failure before the member failure.
Therefore, design of connections is an integral and important part of design of steel

structures. They are also critical components of steel structures, since
• They have the potential for greater variability in behavior and strength,
• They are more complex to design than members, and
• They are usually the most vulnerable components, failure of which may lead to the
failure of the whole structure.
Thus designing for adequacy in strength, stiffness and ductility of connections will ensure
deflection control during service load and larger deflection and ductile failure under over-
load. Hence, a good understanding of the behavior and design of joints and connections
in steel structures is an important pre-requisite for any good design engineer. This chapter
gives an overview of the design of connections in steel structures. The following five
chapters deal with bolted and welded connections in greater detail.
4.2 COMPLEXITIES OF STEEL CONNECTIONS
Margins of safety of any design, in particular that of connection, involves uncertainty due
to random nature of (a) the forces acting on the structure and (b) the actual strength of
65the joint designed.
39
The randomness of the loads has been discussed in an earlier chapter; that of the actual
strength is due to the variability of the dimensions of the elements and that of the strength
of constituent material as well as errors due to simplification in analysis and design.
The reasons for the high uncertainty and complexity of the connection are:
 Complexity of connection geometry

 Geometric imperfections
 Residual stresses and strains
4.3 Complexity of connection geometry
The geometry of connections is usually more complex than that of the members being
joined (Fig.1). The stress analysis of the joint is complicated by the (locally) highly
indeterminate nature of the joint, non-linear nature of the behaviour due to lack of fit,
local yielding etc. and stress concentration due to discontinuity in elements around bolt
holes and weld profiles.
Bolt
Colum s Bracket
Tee
n
Beam
Angl Flange Plate

e
Stiffene
r
(a)Bolted Connection (b)Welded Connection
40
Fig. 1 Complex Beam to Column Connections

4.3.1 Geometric imperfections
The following factors contribute to the geometric imperfections in connection:
• Bow in the beam or column as rolled

• Lack of fit in black bolts in clearance holes
• Gaps in the connecting plate and the surface of the member to be connected to, due to
fabrication errors, welding distortions, and tolerances allowed for ease of fabrication
and erection
4.3.2Residual Stresses and Strains
Residual stresses and strains are inherent features of steel joints due to differential cooling
after the hot rolling, gas cutting and welding stages. The residual stresses cause premature
local yielding and the residual strains cause distortions and lack of fit.
4.4 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
Connections are normally made either by bolting or welding. Bolting is common in field
connections, since it is simple and economical to make. Bolting is also regarded as being
more appropriate in field connections from considerations of safety. However, welded
connections, which are easier to make and are more efficient, are usually resorted to in
shop fabrications.
4.4.1 Bolted Connections
Two types of bolts are used in bolted connection. The most common type is bearing bolts
in clearance holes, often referred to as ordinary bolts or black bolts. They are popular
since they are economical, both in terms of material and installation cost
The force transfer mechanism under shear is as shown in Fig. 2(a). The force is
transferred by bearing between the plate and bolts at the bolt holes. The bolts experience
single or double shear depending upon the plate configuration. The failure may be either
by shearing of the bolts or bearing of the plate and the bolt.
41
The main disadvantage of bearing type of bolted connections is that the elements undergo
some slip even under a small shear, before being able to transfer force by bearing. This is
due to clearance between the bolts and the holes. Such a slip causes increased flexibility
in the lower ranges of load and unexpected joint behavior in some situations. In such
cases high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts are used.
In HSFG bolted joints, high strength bolts (8G or10K grade) are pre-tensioned against the
plates to be bolted together, so that contact pressure is developed between the plates being
joined [Fig. 2(b)]. When external shear force is applied, the frictional resistance to slip
between the plates prevents their relative slip. These bolted joints achieve higher
stiffness in shear because of frictional resistance between the contact surfaces. Only when
the externally applied force exceeds the frictional resistance between the plates, the plates
slip and the bolts bear against the bolt holes. Thus even after slip, there is a reserve
strength due to bearing.
The HSFG bolts are expensive both from material and installation points of view. They
require skilled labour and effective supervision. Due to their efficient force transfer
mechanism they have become very popular recently. Moreover, their performance is
superior under cyclic loading compared to other forms of jointing.
4.4.2 Welded Connections
Welded connections are direct and efficient means of transferring forces from one
member to the adjacent member. Welded connections are generally made by melting base
metal from parts to be joined with weld metal, which up on cooling form the connection.
The welded connections in a majority of the cases may be categorized as fillet weld or
butt (or groove) welds as shown in Fig. 3.
Fillet welds, as showing Fig.3(a),are made against two surfaces of adjacent plates to join
them together. The merits of the fillet welds are:
42
• No prior edge preparation is necessary,

• Simple, fast and economical to make,
and
• does not require very skilled labor.
The demerits of fillet welds are:
• Not appropriate to transfer forces large in magnitude,

• Poorer performance under fatigue loading, and
•Less attractive in appearance.
Butt welds, as shown in Fig. 3(b), are made by butting plate surfaces against one another
andfillingthegapbetweencontactsurfaceswithweldmetal,intheprocess fusing the base
metals together. In order to ensure full penetration of the weld metal, normally the contact
surfaces are cambered to obtain gap for the weld metal to flow easily.
Edge preparation
(b)Butt welds
(a)Fillet Welds
43
Fig. 3 Typical welded Connections
The merits of butt welds are:
• easily designed and fabricated to be as strong as the member,

• better fatigue characteristics, compared to fillet welds,
• better appearance, compared to fillet welds, and
• easy to detail and the length of the connection is considerably reduced.
The demerits of the butt welds are:
• more expensive than fillet welds because of the edge preparation required, and
• require more skilled manpower, than that required for filled welds.
4.4.3 Riveted Joints
Riveted joints are very rare in modern steel construction practice. The behavior and
design of riveted connections are very similar to bearing type of bolted constructions.
Since structural rivets are driven hot, the rivet shank expands to fill the hole while being
driven. Hence, while calculating rivet strength, the hole diameter and not the nominal
rivet diameter is used. Due to this, the slip in riveted joints is less than in bearing type of
bolted joint. Further ,in the process of cooling, the rivet shank length reduces, thereby
causing some clamping force, as in HSFG.
Riveting has been traditionally limited to railway bridges in India. However, with the
introduction of HSFG bolts, which are better suited under cyclic loading than rivets, their
use is discontinued even in railway bridges in most countries.
4.4.4 Moment Resisting Connections
Moment resisting connections between beams and columns in multistoried buildings are
very common. These connections may be made using bolting or welding. Depending
upon the type of joining method and elements used to make the joint, the flexibility of the
joint may vary from hinged to rigid joint condition. The moment at the joint, M, may vary
between rigid joint moment ,Mr [Fig.4(a)], and zero value Fig.4(b)] and the relative
rotation between members at the joint, θ, may vary between zero[Fig.4(a)] and hinged
joint rotation, θh[Fig. 4(b)].
44
>90
ο
Mr
θh
(a)Rigid Joint (b)Hinged Joint (c)Semi-rigid Joint
Fig.4TypesofBeamtoColumnJoints
Moment
Rigid joint
Mr
Semi-rigid joint
Hinged joint
θh Rotation
Fig. 5 Moment Versus Joint Rotation
45
In practice the joints are neither ideally hinged nor ideally rigid. In fact all the joints
exhibit some relative rotation between members being joined [Fig.4(c)]. This is due to the
deformation of elements in the joint. The moment versus relative joint rotation of
different types of connections is shown in Fig.5. Any joint developing more than 90% of
the ideal rigid joint moment is classified as rigid and similarly any joint exhibiting less
than10% of the ideal rigid joint moment is classified as hinged joint; and the joint
developing moments and rotations in between are referred as semi-rigid. Based on test
results and theoretical studies, moment rotation relationship for different standard
connections exhibiting semi-rigid behavior has been presented in literature.
4.5 CONNECTION DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
Traditional methods of analysis of connection stresses were based on the following

assumptions:
• Connected parts are rigid compared to connectors themselves and hence their
deformations may be ignored
• Connectors behave in a linear-elastic manner until failure.
• Connectors have unlimited ductility.
However, in reality, connected parts such as end plates, angles etc. are flexible and
deform even at low load levels. Further, their behavior is highly non-linear due to slip,
lack of fit,-linearity and residual stresses. Ductility of welds in some orientation with
respect to direction of loads may be very limited, (e.g. Transverse fillet welds)
Even though truss joints are assumed to be hinged the detailing using gusset plates and
multiple fastener and welding does not represent hinged condition. However, in practice
these secondary moment associated with such a rigid joint is disregarded unless the
loading is cyclic.
The complexity and variability in strength of connections require a rational design

philosophy to account for their behavior. Keeping in view the large number of joints to be
normally designed in a structure and the considerable variability in the design strength,
any sophisticated analysis is neither desirable nor warranted. The design should ensure
that equilibrium issatisfied,slendernessoftheelementsisconsistentwiththeductility demand
and the deleterious effects of stress concentration on fatigue strength is considered in
cyclically loaded structures. The following approach is consistent with connection
design requirements in most general cases encountered in practice in statically loaded
systems.
The steps to be followed in the proposed rational design approach are enumerated
initially. These are illustrated using a simple framing angle connection between a beam
and a column of a framed building designed to transfer a shear force of V, as shown in
Fig. 6.
46
4.5.1 Steps in Transfer of Member Forces to Joints
Overall connection behavior should be clearly understood in order to effectively and

efficiently design connections following simple procedure , such as the one discussed
below. To start with, the stress resultants (moment ,shear, torsion, axial force etc.)
transmitted by the members to be joined are to be determined. Normally analysis for
forces is carried out using a model wherein members are represented by their centroidal
line. Thus the calculated forces in the joints are at the intersection of centroid a line of
members meeting at the joint. Therefore the effect of the size of the joint in design forces
to correspond to that at the face of the joints, if substantial, has to be considered. The
force resultants thus obtained should be replaced by an equivalent system of forces on the
elements of the joint. In carrying out this replacement by and equivalent system of forces
in the joint elements, the following are to be considered.
 The distribution of forces in the elements being connected is considered first. (For
example, in the case of a beam, major proportion of the bending moment is carried by
the flanges and the major proportion of shear force is carried by the web. Hence, the
equivalent forces may be assumed to act on the corresponding elements at the
interface).
 The equivalent system of forces should be consistent with the flexibility of the joint.
For example plate elements are stiffer in resisting forces acting in their plane than in
resisting forces normal to the plane. Hence most of the forces acting at a junction
would be transferred to the plate in the plane of the force and little is transferred to a
plate perpendicular to the force.
 Equivalent system of forces should be in equilibrium with the external force resultants
and also in equilibrium with the joint as a whole.
47
In the framing angle joint shown in Fig.6, the shear from the beam web acts eccentric with
respect to reaction from the column flange causes couple. The framing angle leg
connected to the column is weak in resisting any moment normal to the plane of the leg.
Hence the moment at this flange connection may be assumed be negligible and only the
shear force ,V, may be assumed to be acting on the leg connected to the column flange. In
the framing angle connection with the web of the beam, the forces act in the plane of the
framing angle and in the plane of web of the beam. Hence both shear and the moment to
equilibrate the couple due to eccentricity of shear in the framing angle can be resisted by
this connection.
4.5.2 Determination of Force flow in the joint
Once the equivalent forces in the interface elements are obtained, the flow path of the the
elements in the joint is to be established by using equilibrium and simplifying
assumptions regarding the force sharing, based on their relative stiffness as discussed
earlier. At each stage, each element in the force flow path should be checked to ensure
that they have
(a)adequate strength to withstand the force and

(b) adequate ductility to redistribute the forces to parallel elements in case of overload.
The strength and ductility evaluation is to be done for all component plates in the force
path as well as all the joining elements such as bolts and welds.
As mentioned earlier the distribution of forces to different elements in the joints is

complex due to highly indeterminate interaction of different element. Hence in practical
joint design, the force flow analysis is based on simplifying assumptions with regard to
sharing of forces. These assumptions may be at variance with the actual stresses in the
elastic range. Hence it is important that adequate ductility is exhibited by all elements to
redistribute the forces among alternate elements in case of over-load. This step in the
framinganglejointexampleinFig.6(a)isillustratedinFig.6(b),intheformoffree body diagram
of all the elements and the force flow in the elements, while satisfying equilibrium.
Using these free body diagrams, the stresses/forces in the elements in the joint can be
evaluated and compared with their respective strength, as given below:
• The bolts are assumed to share the shear force equally. Due to misfit and
clearancebetweentheboltsandtheholes,intheelasticrange,thisneednotbe true.
However, as long as the bolts behave in a ductile fashion, the assumption of equal
sharing of shear by bolts is valid, before failure, due to plastification.
• Theframingangleexperiencesshearandbendingduetotheeccentricityofthe shear load.

The section with holes corresponding to the bolts connecting framing
angletothebeamwebisthecriticalsection,sincethissectionexperiencesshear
48
and moment. The "Strength of Materials” approach to calculate shear and bending stresses
is not strictly appropriate here due to the deep beam nature of the bending behavior of
angle leg. Nevertheless , usually stresses in the framing angle are calculated based on“
Strength of the Materials” concepts, due to very small value of these stresses. These
stresses are usually very nominal and hence frequently need not be checked.
Bolts connecting framing angle with the beam web are subjected to the same shear force
and moment in the angle legs. This is an eccentric bolted connection. The vertical shear
and horizontal shear in the bolts due to the shear force and moment, respectively, are
calculated and the resultant shear in the bolt is evaluated. This again is based on the rigid
angle and flexible bolt assumption and the method of superposition. The maximum
resultant shear force in the bolt has to be checked against the shear strength of the bolt.
The stresses in beam web and column flange can be checked at the location of bolt force
transfer, by following block shear method at critical sections as shown in Fig. 6(b).
Usually these stresses would be very nominal.
4.6 BEHAVIOUR OF ELEMENTS IN CONNECTIONS
Many local elements such as end plates, framing angles, stiffeners are used in a
connection design. These elements on the load path have to perform the function of
transferring forces imposed upon them. Frequently forces are distributed somewhat
arbitrarily between parallel elements in the load path. In order to redistribute the loads as
assumed and in order to avoid sudden failure, these elements have to behave in a ductile
fashion in case of overloading.
4.6.1 Distribution of Forces in Elements
Thejointsarelocallycomplexandtheoreticallyexactcalculationofelementforce/stress is a
highly indeterminate analysis problem, making exact analysis of a joint impractical in
day-to-daydesign.Theoreticallyexactanalysismethodsandexperimentalstudiesare used for
research to develop a better understanding of the force flow and simplified connection
design procedures. One often makes simplifying assumptions consistent with the internal
behavior of the elements and relies heavily on ductility to redistribute overload on any
element. This process requires a good understanding of the following:
• Free body diagram and equilibrium analysis of elements in the load transfer path,
• Relative stiffness of elements in the load transfer path, and
• Ductility demand on the elements and the consequent slenderness limitation.
The simplified analysis steps are illustrated through a few examples. Let us consider an
interior beam to column moment resisting connection of a frame, as showninFig.7. It is
seen that shear and bending moment should be transferred from the beams to the column
as shown. We know that a major portion of the bending moment in a beam is transferred
through bending stresses in flanges and a major portion of the shear force in the beam is
49
transferred through shear stress in the web, as shown. Equal and opposite forces act on the
column flanges, as shown in Fig. 7.
The concentrated beam flange forces (C and T) have to be transferred as shear to the
column web, since the column web plate is the stiff element in that plane in the load path.
The transfer to the column web is through column flanges, which may cause excessive
bending of column flanges and excessive bearing in the column web flange junction. In
order to overcome this, we often use stiffener plates, S1and S2 as shown
S1 T
C
T S2 C
Fig. 7 Elements in Connections
TheforcesTandCmaybeeitherassumedtobefullytransferredbythestiffeners provided or the

balance force in excess of the bearing capacity of the web and bending capacity of the
flange may be assumed as the design force in the stiffeners. The assumption made
dictates the ductility requirement of the stiffener. If the entire force is assumed to be
transferred by the stiffener, the actual force in the stiffener in the elastic range will be less
than this and hence only semi-compact design requirement with regard to the b/t ratio has
to be satisfied by the stiffener (see chapter on plate buckling), since it needs only to carry
the load without local buckling.
If, however, the stiffener is designed for forces in excess of the capacity of the flange and
web of the column, the design force on the stiffener is usually an under estimation of the
actual force experienced by it in the elastic range. This is due to the higher rigidity of the
stiffener compared to the column flanges. Consequently, the stiffener should deform
plastically on over-loading so that the load on stiffener, in excess of what it has been
designed for, can be redistributed. Hence stiffeners should not only sustain the force but
also plastically deform (adequate ductility is needed)in order to redistribute the force and
hence the slenderness of the stiffener should meet the compact plate element requirement
(see the chapter on plate buckling).
The unbalanced beam moment transferred by the beam to the column at the junction
causes shear(V=C+TinFig.7),locally at the joint in the column web. This may be in
50
excess of shear capacity of the column web. Hence the column web may have to be
locally thickened or provided with a diagonal stiffener, as shown in Fig. 7. Further, the
welds between the stiffeners and the column flange should be sufficiently large so that
they remain elastic during the plastic deformation of the stiffener, discussed earlier.
The shear from the beam is directly transferred to column B through column flanges, as
an additional axial compression. Thus, all the elements in the force transfer path across
the joint should be ensured to have adequate strength, stiffness and ductility, to perform
the function based on rational simplifying assumptions.
4.7 COST OF CONNECTIONS
Usually cost of fabrication and erection constitute about 50% of the total cost of steel
structures, per tonne of material used. Hence, designers of connections have a great
responsibility in reducing the overall cost of steel structures.
Factors affecting design cost:
Important factors affecting connection design costs are discussed below:
• Connectiondesigntakesupasignificantpartoftheoveralldesigncostofsteel structures and

decisions made at this stage considerably influence the fabrication and erection costs.
• Theconnectiondesignsshouldbedoneusingsimpleandstandardcases,sothatusing design
tables, connections can be designed and detailed rapidly. Such tables considerably
reduce repetitive calculations, improve accuracy and speedup
fabrication.
Factors affecting fabrication/erection costs:
Important factors in improving productivity ,decreasing cost of fabrication and erection of

connection work are discussed below:
• Repetitive use of standard detail
The repetitive use of standard details spread the cost of learning, cost of setup, cost of
templates etc. over a large number of products/components to be fabricated, thus
reducing the cost and time required for fabrication. Special, complicated and precise
fitting details should be avoided or minimized.
• Ease of joining
The detail should provide easy access to welding and bolting. The positioning of
members should be simplified with temporary supports to facilitate quick release of the
handling equipment, ease of adjustment and alignment and quick joining.
51
• Appropriate mix of automatic and manual fabrication
The productivity of numerically controlled automatic machineries (NC machines), and

continuous submerged arc welding is very high compared to manual methods. The
quality is usually superior. However, their setup costs are high. Hence, automatic
fabrication methods are appropriate in large volume jobs. For example, a large number of
framing angles can be cut and drilled to the same part detail using NC machines and long
continuous fillet weld between plate girder web and flange can be done using an
automatic submerged welding machine, economically. In the Indian market such
machines are not widely available. Most fabrication shops still work with outdated
equipment and require capital equipment infusement to bring about efficiency and
economy in shop fabrication and erection.
Manual methods take lesser time and unit time costs are low, but productivity and quality
are so low. Hence the manual methods are appropriate in fabricating a smaller number of
elements or in shorter welds, such as web stiffener welding.
• Choice of connection method
Generally welded connections are more direct and more efficient, but require more
elaborate preparation and machinery compared to bolted connection. This has generally
ledtotheuseofweldinginshopandongroundfieldconnectionsandtheuseofbolting at the
erection connections.
There are exceptions to this general tendency. For example, if only a few angle trusses are
to be fabricated, then pre-drilling of the members in shop, based on theoretical
calculations of geometry of members and connection sizes and site assembly
subsequently by bolting would be economical compared to laying the truss out and
aligning the members appropriately and welding them together on ground. On the other
hand, welded fabrication may be economical in the case of a large number of trusses
fabricated to the same detail, where in the higher cost incurred for templates, layout and
welding are spread over the larger number of units to be fabricated.
• Choice of shop versus site fabrication
Shopfabricationisfaster,cheaper,hasbetterqualityandhigherproductivity. In India, the cost

advantage of shop fabrication is partly offset by differential excise duty rates between the
shop and site fabricated components, as well as low productivity equipment and process
used in shop practices.
Transportation cost also dictates the economy of shop fabrication. The transportation cost
is governed by distance to be transported, weight and volume of component to be
transported. Instead of transporting a very long girder from a shop, it can be shop
fabricated in shorter segments and joined at field using bolting or welding, to achieve
greater economy. Fittings such as framing angles can be pre-attached to one of the
members being joined (say the web of beam) at shop using welding and connected at field
52
to the other member by bolting.
• Other Factors
Difficult connection details cause difficulty in understanding and execution at site. This may lead
to frustration, carelessness, poor quality connections, and also mistakes leading to delay, cost of
repair and failure. Prefabricated units to be connected at site should be of nearly uniform weight
so that handling capacity of the cranes is fully utilized, improving the productivity of the handling
equipment available.
HSFG bolted connections involve higher material cost, more skilled labor, more complex
equipment, higher level of inspection, when compared to ordinary bolts. Hence its use should be
restricted to special situations such as high forces and fatigue environment. Otherwise, at site,
black bolts in clearance holes are preferred. Usually, the same grade of bolt and only a few
standard sizes should be used at site, in order to reduce complexity of erection, maintenance of
inventory of different size bolts and mistakes in connection.
4.8 SUMMARY
Sound connection design is essential for safety and economy of steel structures. Economical
connection designs mostly take into account practicalities of fabrication and erection. True
behavior of connections is complex, variable and very difficult to analyze exactly. However, the
connection design should be simple and straightforward, based on a clear understanding of the
load transfer path, the effect of stiffness of elements in the path on the force distributed to the
elements in the connection and the effect of ductility on the connection behavior. The detailing
of connection should be simple and be based on repetitive use of standard practices to facilitate
ease of fabrication and erection, thus accrue speed and economy to the project.
53
5.0 PILE FOUNDATION
The types of deep foundations are
• Pile
• Pier
• Caissons
• Well-foundation
• Sheet Piles
Caissons or well foundations are heavier in section and they are sunk to the required depth.
Picture showing preparation for pile reinforcement
54
• Piles may be used for the following purposes,
1. End Bearing or compressive strength: To transfer the load through a soft soil to a suitable
bearing stratum by means of end bearing of the piles.
2. Scour depth. To transfer the load through Water, for any hydraulic structure because in this
case, we have to keep the foundation at the scour depth below the bed level. For River
Ravi Scour depth is 30 to 35m below the bed. So if we go for the shallow foundation, we
will have to make an open pit, coffer dam diversion of River etc. and it is highly
uneconomical.
3. Tension or Uplift: For a very tall structure (tower), even if the Soil is very good, but here
the overturning is the problem. So either make the base very large (Thick raft) or make
deep foundation.
4. Vibration Control: if a machine is generating high vibrations, then to absorb the vibrations
either make a massive block or the next choice is deep foundation, But Massive black is very
expensive. e.g. At Terbela the shaft of Turbine is 2m and when it runs therearea a lot of vibrations.
5) Compaction Piles: In order to compact the granular soils and to increase their bearing
capacity, piles are used (compaction Piles).
6) Anchor Piles: To provide Anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling walls or
other pulling forces.
7) Fender piles: To protect Water front structure against impact from ships or other floating
objects.
8) Batter piles: To resist large horizontal or inclined forces.
55
9) Rapid Construction: Piles can also be used if the time schedule has much importance.
Classification of piles
With respect to:
1. Mode of construction
2. Material of construction
3. Material of load
4. Function of pile
5. Shape
6. Size
CLASSIFICATION W.R.T MODE OF CONSTRUCTION:
1. Pre-cast (Driven Piles )
2. Cast in-situ Piles (Bored Piles)
• Under sized Bore.(It is feasible because of less noise , under sized hole is dug and full size
pile is driven.
• By driving the piles, the soil is displaced so type is
a) High volume displaced piles (vol. almost equal to vol. of pile).
b) No volume displaced piles.
c) Low volume displaced piles.
CLASSIFICATION W.R.T MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION:
1) Timber piles: (Trunk of a Wooden tree, the oldest pile)
2) Concrete pile
3) Steel pile
4) Composite pile: (Certain portion by one material and certain portion by other material)
CLASSIFICATION W.R.T MATERIAL OF LOAD
Sometimes skin friction is predominant and sometimes the End bearing so
56
1) Frictional Pile
If major part is taken by the shaft of pile. When very Weak soils of large depths are
available.
2) End Bearing Pile
When a soil layer of reasonable strength is available at a reasonable depth.
3)Combination of Two. (Friction cum bearing piles)
CLASSIFICATION W.R.T FUNCTION OF PILE
1. Compression pile: (To resist the comp. load)
2 Tension pile or Anchor pile
3. Compaction pile: (granular soil i.e. very loose sand can be compacted by driving the piles
at one place, then are pulled out and driven at the next place, in this way sand is densified).
4 Fender piles: (Used near sea-part to protect the Harbour, just to absorb the impact of
floating objects)
5 Batter piles: (Provided at an inclination their stability is more against overturning).
6 Sheet piles.(To reduce seepage or to provide lateral stability).
CLASSIFICATION W.R.T SHAPE OF PILE
1. Round Piles
2. Square Piles
3. Octagonal Piles
4. I-Shaped Piles
5. Straight Piles
6. Tapered Piles
7. Bell-Bottom Piles
8. Screw Piles
CLASSIFICATION W.R.T SIZE
1. Large Dia Pile: ( > 24”)
57
2. Small Dia Pile: ( > 6” to 24”)
3. Micro Dia Pile: (= 4” to 6”)
(These are used for specific projects i.e for Repair ).
1. Root Pile(Rectangular) Used for special projects i,e for under pressing, Repair).
If > 24” then These are called as pier
58
59
60
PILE INSTALLATION METHODS
• The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors as of the
design process of pile foundations. In this section we will discuss the two main types of
pile installation methods;
• installation by pile hammer and
• boring by mechanical auger.
• In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design, installation Methods and installation
equipment should be carefully selected.
• If installation is to be carried out using pile-hammer, then the following factors should be
taken in to consideration:
• the size and the weight of the pile
• the driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the design penetration
• the available space and head room on the site
61
• the availability of cranes and
• the noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality
Pile driving methods (displacement piles)
Methods of pile driving can be categorized as follows:
• Dropping weight
• Explosion
• Vibration
• Jacking (restricted to micro-pilling)
• Jetting
DROPPING HAMMER
A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide
and released to strike the pile head. This is a simple form of hammer used in conjunction
with light frames and test piling, where it may be uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or
compressor on to a site to drive very limited number of piles.
• There are two main types of drop hammers:
• Single-acting steam or compressed-air hammers
• Double-acting pile hammers
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
6.0 TRUSSES DESIGN
What are trusses
In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only, where the
members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object". A "two-
force member" is a structural component where force is applied to only two points. Although this
rigorous definition allows the members to have any shape connected in any stable configuration,
trusses typically comprise five or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose
ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes.
In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at
the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight
members, moments (torques) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a
truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two-force members.
A planar truss is one where all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a
space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are
called top chords and are typically in compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords,
and are typically in tension. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are
called panels.
Picture showing a typical truss section
A truss consists of typically (but not necessarily) straight members connected at joints,
traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically (but not necessarily) composed of triangles
because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric
figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the
angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at
which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point.
69
The simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a framed roof
consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist, and in other mechanical structures such as bicycles and
aircraft. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of analysis used to calculate the
forces within it, a truss composed entirely of triangles is known as a simple truss. However, a
simple truss is often defined more restrictively by demanding that it can be constructed through
successive addition of pairs of members, each connected to two existing joints and to each other to
form a new joint, and this definition does not require a simple truss to comprise only triangles.
The traditional diamond-shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an
example of a simple truss.
Planar truss
A planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are typically used in parallel to form roofs and
bridges.
The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an
efficient structural form. A solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight
and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material
in the chords and greater material in the verticals and diagonals. An optimum depth of the truss
will maximize the efficiency.
Space frame truss
A spaceframe truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends. A

tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members that meet at four joints.
Large planar structures may be composed from tetrahedrons with common edges, and they are
also employed in the base structures of large free-standing power line pylons.
Simple tetrahedron
Diagram of a planar space frame such as used for a roof

70
Types of Trusses
A truss can be of two types as far as workspace is considered;-
1. Planar truss
2. Space truss
Planar truss is that in which members lie in a two dimensional plane while space truss lies in three
dimension. A truss is composed of three basic parts, one is top chord, the beam at the top which is
usually in compression, bottom chord, beam at the bottom which is usually in tension, webs are
interior beams.
On the basis of usage, trusses can be grouped into two types as well
1. Roof trusses
2. Bridge trusses
Descriptions of some truss types
 Fink truss - A unique looking truss design that is placed only under the decks of bridges
(usually intended for carrying train or road vehicle transport). At the time of its creation in
1860, a Fink truss enabled the creation of the longest all-iron bridges in the world.
 Howe truss - A very popular truss type in which features triage diagonals that slope
upward toward the center. Many smaller bridges and architectural solutions for homes
feature this simple design.
 K-truss – Bridge type that features several types of triangles, who in the center of the
structure from the normal and inverted character of “K”
 Kingpost truss – An evolution of the easiest to make “Simple” truss, which is enhanced
with a single vertical support line.
 Queenpost truss – Similar as Kingpost truss, but with added horizontal extension that
separates two diagonal outer supports.
 Waddell truss – Another very simple truss design. It uses a single tall triangle that is
reinforced with two inward-facing triangles.
 Lattice truss – This truss type demands use of a large number of small and closely spaced
diagonal elements that form a lattice. This design is usually used for the creation of
lightweight structures (made from wood, iron or steel) such as smaller bridges or hangars.
 Lenticular truss – Design of this truss type consists from a big lens-shape truss that is
elevated above the main deck of the bridge. This lens is separated into two parts, with both
71
upper and lower arches having their network of trusses. If the deck of the bridge is placed
in the middle of the lens, then that bridge is called lenticular pony truss.
 Long truss – Based on the Howe Truss, but made exclusively from wood. The longest
surviving bridge of this type is Eldean Covered Bridge north of Troy, Ohio. Built in 1860,
this bridge spans the distance of 68 using one central anchor point.
 Parker truss – This is a very popular truss design that instead of the smooth arch features
rigged arch that directly connects the edges of the truss mesh. It closely resembles
bowstring arch truss. It is also known as camelback truss design.
 Pegram truss – This is a hybrid of Pegram truss designs, with the most notable difference
is that upper chords are all of the equal lengths, and lower ones are longer.
 Pennsylvania (Petit) truss – Truss type whose lower section of the mesh are additionally
reinforced with additional triangles.
 Pratt truss – Very popular truss design where diagonal supports slope down toward center
(while in Howe trusses are pointing in the opposite direction). This design enables the
creation of structures that have spans of 76 meters between anchor points. Bridges with
this design were very commonly made between a middle of 19th and early 20th century.
 Thatcher truss – A rare variation of Pratt and Howe truss design.
 Truss arch - An arch bridge whose inverse arch is built from the truss mesh below the
main deck of the bridge. Vertical supports connect this arch to the decking. It can be used
for the creation of medium-sized bridges that can even carry heavy railroad transport.
 Vierendeel truss – A truss design that does not uses regular triangular elements, but rigid
rectangular openings and strong reinforcements from other elements and connectors.
Today it can most commonly be found only in Belgium. Only one movable bridge of this
design exists today.
 Warren truss – A very simple truss design that consists of two parallel chords and equally
sized triangles placed in between. This effective design is popular not only in construction
but also in production countless other machines and systems. For example, early two-
winged airplanes used lightweight Warren truss mesh to reinforce the structure of the
wings.
 Whipple truss – Another variation of the Pratt truss design, but made with vertical bars
that are held together with an array of diagonal members (lightweight and put at a
shallower angle that enables them to cross one or more vertical bars) designed to work
together to alleviate tension from the rest of the structure.
 Octet truss - Truss members are made up of all equivalent equilateral triangles. The
minimum composition is two regular tetrahedrons along with an octahedron. They fill up
three dimensional space in a variety of configurations.

 Allan truss – Created as an evolution of Howe trusses (where diagonals slope toward the
center of the bridge), first bridge of this design was created in August of 1894 in Australia
by civil engineer Percy Allan who during his career designed over 580 bridges. Alan truss
designs multiply the number of Howe trusses, enabling the creation of much longer
bridges that are supported by one or more support points.
 Bailey bridge – Originally designed during WWII for easy assembly on site during
military engagements using pre-fabricated parts. Today, timber and steel versions of these
bridges are used for used for carrying pedestrians, road and rail vehicles.
72
 Baltimore truss – A variation of Pratt trusses that utilizes an additional bracing in the
lower sections of the bridge truss network. It is used mostly for carrying rail transport.
 Bollman truss – Very rare truss type that survives today in the only bridge of its design
left standing. Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge in Savage, Maryland features revolutionary
all-metal design.
 Bowstring truss – Patented in 1841, bowstring is one of the most popular truss designs for
smaller truss bridges.
 Brown truss – Very popular truss design that features diagonal cross compression
members that are connected to the horizontal top and bottom stringers. They are mostly
used for bridges made from wood, most notably covered bridges.
 Burr arch truss – Another truss design that is used a lot in the creation of covered
bridges. In addition to the traditional planar triangle truss design, it also features an arch
that gives entire structure additional strength and rigidity.
 Cantilevered truss – A truss network that is placed on the cantilevered bridges, whose
main decks are heavily anchored from the central vertical spars. Most bridges of this
design have trusses placed both above (where construction is placed under compression)
and below (where the bridge is placed under tension) the main decks of the bridge.
Other types of trusses are ,Town's lattice truss, Bowstring truss, North light truss, Mansard
truss, hipped truss, saw tooth truss etc.
73
Statically Determinate/Indeterminate Trusses

74
A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and which
is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically
determinate. Newton's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In
order for any node that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the
following conditions must hold: the sums of all (horizontal and vertical) forces, as well as all
moments acting about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the
magnitude of the compression or tension forces.
Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and
the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces.
In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it does not need to be entirely
composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for
stability of a simple truss:
where m is the total number of truss members, j is the total number of joints and r is the number of
reactions (equal to 3 generally) in a 2-dimensional structure.
When , the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m+3) internal member forces and
support reactions can then be completely determined by 2jequilibrium equations, once we know
the external loads and the geometry of the truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the
minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the
truss as a whole fails.
The stability of a truss also depends on the truss geometry, support conditions and the load
carrying capacity of the members.
Some structures are built with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those
structures may survive even when some of the members fail. Their member forces depend on the
relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described.
Note:
1. If m+r= 3j or m = 3j-r, we can compute all the internal forces using the equilibrium
equations. In this case, the structure is stable and is called a “determinate system”.
2. If m+r>3j or m >3j-r, we have more unknowns than the number of equations and,
therefore, we cannot find the internal forces by satisfying the internal equilibrium only.
However, the structure is stable and is called an “indeterminate system”.
3. If m+r<3j or m <3j-r, we have more equations than the number of unknowns. This means
that the internal forces cannot be computed due to the instability of the structure and the
structure is called an “unstable system”.
It is important to note that the stability versus instability condition mentioned here is only a
“necessary” and not “sufficient” condition. This means that if m <3j-r, the structure is unstable.
However, we may have structures with m ≥ 3j-r that are still unstable. To understand this better,
75
consider the case of a two-dimensional (plane) truss. For this structure, the above conditions are
changed as the total number of equations is ‘2j’ (two equations for each joint):
1. If m=2j-r → Determinate Truss

2. If m>2j-r → Indeterminate Truss
3. If m<2j-r → Unstable Truss
Analysis
Because the forces in each of its two main girders are essentially planar, a truss is usually modeled
as a two-dimensional plane frame. However if there are significant out-of-plane forces, the
structure must be modeled as a three-dimensional space.
The analysis of trusses often assumes that loads are applied to joints only and not at intermediate
points along the members. The weight of the members is often insignificant compared to the
applied loads and
so is often omitted; alternatively, half of the weight of each member may be applied to its two end
joints. Provided that the members are long and slender, the moments transmitted through the joints
are negligible, and the junctions can be treated as "hinges" or "pin-joints".
Under these simplifying assumptions, every member of the truss is then subjected to pure
compression or pure tension forces – shear, bending moment, and other more-complex stresses are
all practically zero. Trusses are physically stronger than other ways of arranging structural
elements, because nearly every material can resist a much larger load in tension or compression
than in shear, bending, torsion, or other kinds of force.
These simplifications make trusses easier to analyze. Structural analysis of trusses of any type can
readily be carried out using a matrix method such as the direct stiffness method, the flexibility
method, or the finite element method.
Design of members
A truss can be thought of as a beam where the web consists of a series of separate members
instead of a continuous plate. In the truss, the lower horizontal member (the bottom chord) and the
upper horizontal member (the top chord) carry tension and compression, fulfilling the same
function as the flanges of an I-beam. Which chord carries tension and which carries compression
depends on the overall direction of bending. In the truss pictured above right, the bottom chord is
in tension, and the top chord in compression.
The diagonal and vertical members form the truss web, and carry the shear stress. Individually,
they are also in tension and compression, the exact arrangement of forces is depending on the type
76
of truss and again on the direction of bending. In the truss shown above right, the vertical
members are in tension, and the diagonals are in compression.
The members under compression also have to be designed to be safe against buckling, this can be
effected by installing braces and also stiffening the web members.
The weight of a truss member depends directly on its cross section—that weight partially
determines how strong the other members of the truss need to be. Giving one member a larger
cross section than on a previous iteration requires giving other members a larger cross section as
well, to hold the greater weight of the first member—one needs to go through another iteration to
find exactly how much greater the other members need to be. Sometimes the designer goes
through several iterations of the design process to converge on the "right" cross section for each
member. On the other hand, reducing the size of one member from the previous iteration merely
makes the other members have a larger (and more expensive) safety factor than is technically
necessary, but doesn't require another iteration to find a buildable truss.
The effect of the weight of the individual truss members in a large truss, such as a bridge, is
usually insignificant compared to the force of the external loads.
Forces in members
The method of joints is one of the simplest methods for determining the force acting on the
individual members of a truss because it only involves two force equilibrium equations. I Since
only two equations are involved, only two unknowns can be solved for at a time. Therefore, you
need to solve the joints in a certain order. That is, you need to work from the sides towards the
center of the truss. I When a force points toward the joint, the member is said to be in
compression. If the force points away from the joint, the member is said to be in tension. It is
often important to know whether a truss member is in tension or in compression because some
building materials have diﬀerent strengths in compression versus tension.
Problem
Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in Figure T-01.
77
Solution
ΣMD=0
3AV+50(1)=80(0.75)
AV=3.33 kN
ΣFH=0
AH=80 kN
ΣMA=0
78
3RD=50(2)+80(0.75)
RD=53.33 kN
At joint A
ΣFV=0
3/5FAB=3.33
FAB=5.56 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FAE+ 4/5FAB=80
FAE+4/5 (5.56)=80
FAE=75.56 kN tension
At joint B
ΣFH=0
FBC=4/5FAB
FBC=4/5 (5.56)
FBC=4.45 kN tension
ΣFV=0
FBE=3/5FAB
FBE=3/5 (5.56)
FBE=3.34 kN compression
79
At joint E
ΣFV=0
3/5FCE=FAE
3/5FCE=3.34
FCE=5.57 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FFE + 4/5FCE=FAE
FFE + 4/5 (5.57)=75.56
FFE=71.11 kN tension
At joint F
ΣFV=0
FCF=50 kN tension
ΣFH=0
FDF=FFE
FDF=71.11 kN tension
At joint C
ΣFH=0
80
4/5FCD+4/5FCE+FBC=80
4/5FCD+4/5 (5.57)+4.45=80
FCD=88.87 kN compression
ΣFV=0
3/5FCD=3/5FCE+FCF
3/5 (88.87)= 3/5 (5.57)+50
53.3=53.3 check
At joint D
ΣFH=0
4/5FCD=FDF
4/5 (88.87)=71.11
71.1=71.1
check
ΣFV=0
RD = 3/5FCD
53.33 = 3/5 (88.87)
53.3 = 53.3 check
Summary
81
FAB=5.56 kN tension
FAE=75.56 kN tension
FBC=4.45 kN tension
FBE=3.34 kN compression
FCD=88.87 kN compression
FCE=5.57 kN tension
FCF=50 kN tension
FDF=71.11 kN tension
FFE=71.11 kN tension
The Warren truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-418 is supported by a roller at C and a hinge at G. By
the method of sections, compute the force in the members BC, DF, and CE.
82
Solution 418
83
ΣMG=0
12RC+6(60)=6(100)+9(80)+18(40)
RC=140 kN
At section through M-M
ΣFV=0
84
2/√5 FBC=40
FBC=44.721 kN
compression answer
At section through N-N
ΣMD=0
6FCE+9(40)=3(140)
FCE=10 kN
tension answer
ΣME=0
6FDF+3(80)+12(40)=6(140)+6(60)
FDF=80 kN
compression answer
85
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Homik Oil & Gas Facility Engineering Schools.

Basic Steel Structural Design and Detailing

BASIC STEEL STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DETAILING

(CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES)

HOMIK ENGINEERING LIMITED

HOMIK OIL & GAS FACILITY ENGINEERING SCHOOLS

1.0 Strength of material

During this session, the following issues will be addressed:

 Materials, what are they?

 Vehicle body - steel, polymer, paint, composite.

 Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a

Types of loadings in mechanics of material are:

•Limit of proportionality (A)

This is the extent where load-extension curve is linear and elastic.

•Elastic limit (B)

•Yield point (CD)

• Strain hardening (DE)

• Peak load (F)

STRESS -STRAIN CURVE:

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE SHAPE OF CROSS SECTION

 I/H-beam – Beam with ‘I’ cross section

I-BEAM (UNIVERSAL BEAM):

A T-beam used in construction, is a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete, wood or

Beam design consideration:

Z=elastic section modulus

I=moment ofinertia or second moment of area of the section

y=distance fromneutral axis

2.1 Girder plates

Plate girder components:

3.0 COLUMN AND STRUT DESIGN

COLUMN AND STRUT

Differences between Strut and a Column

1. Both Strut and Column belong to compression structural members.

FAILURE MODE OF COLUMNS

Columns may fail in one of the three mechanisms:

1. Compression failure of the concrete or steel reinforcement.

Buckling is probable with columns which are long and slender.

4.0 COMPRESSION MEMBER DESIGN

4.1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

Figure 2. (a) Cross-section; (b) major-axis buckling; (c) minor-axis buckling

Figure 3. (a) Major axis buckling; (b) minor axis buckling

4.3 INELASTIC COLUMN BUCKLING

1748 kips, and f = 119.73 ksi.

4.4 AISC SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLUMN STRENGTH

Where, c = 0.9 (Resistance factor for compression members)

Fcr = 0.877 Fe  (4.4)

Ag = gross member area; K = effective length factor

- The 0.877 factor tries to account for initial crookedness.

4.5 COLUMN STRENGTH

Major axis slenderness ratio = KxLx/rx = 240/6.04 = 39.735

4.6 LOCAL BUCKLING LIMIT STATE

Figure 4. Local buckling of columns

Figure 5. Local buckling behavior and classification of plate elements

- For the webs of I-shapes section

 Step III. Make the comparisons and comment

4.7 COLUMN DESIGN

 Step IV. Check the local buckling limits

Therefore, the section is non slender. OK.

 Select a W shape from the AISC manual Tables

1kip = 1000 lbf

ksi = kips per square inch

4.0 CONNECTION DESIGN

• To achieve an economical design, usually it is important that the connections