Satellite, Cable and DTH Systems Explained

CBCS : SEMESTER - V : CORE ELECTIVE : GROUP - B
(TO SELECT ONE ELECTIVE IN GROUP B) ; HOURS PER WEEK - 5

Maximum Marks : 100 ; Internal Marks : 25 ; External Marks : 75
SATELLITE , CABLE AND DTH SYSTEMS
UNIT I : SATELLITE SYSTEMS :
Geo - Stationary Satellite – Satellite Communication System – Satellite Electronics –

International and Regional Direct Broadcasting Satellites – Indian Domestic Satellites –
Domestic Broadcasting Systems.
UNIT II : CABLE TV SYSTEMS :
Cable Signal Sources – Cable Signal Processing – Cable Signal Distribution –

Bidirectional Networks – Scrambling of TV Signals – Cable Signal Convertors.
UNIT III : DIGITAL SATELLITE TV:
Digital Satellite Transmission – Digital Satellite Reception and Decoding – DTH TV –

Digital TV Receiver – Merits of Digital TV Receiver – DTT.
UNIT IV : DTH WORKING :
DTH Antenna – DTH LNB – DTH Receiver – Additional Accessories – Complete DTH
Process – Connecting more than One TV Receiver to a Single Dish , Connecting more
than one tv to a Single Satellite Receiver – Connecting more than one Dish/LNB to a
Single Receiver – Changing Satellite Channels – Need of Telephone Jack.
UNIT V : DISH INSTALLATION
Site Survey – Dish Roof and Wall mounts – Adjusting the Azimuth and Elevation
Settings – Dish Antenna Connection Procedures – Precautions - Trouble Shooting –
Adjustment to Correct Position – LNB Testing – DD Direct Plus – Satellites Used –
Comparison with Other DTH Systems – Reception of DD Direct Plus – Receiver
Installation – TV/Radio Channels on DD Direct Plus.
REFERENCE BOOKS :
1. Modern TV Practice – R.R. Gulati – NAI – IIIrd Edition

2. Modern DTH Digital Satellite Receiver – Manahor Lotia – BPB – Rs.120/-
3. Composite Satellite and Cable TV – R.R. Gulati – NAI.
4. Satellite Communication - Dennis Roddy – TMH
satellite and cable Page 1

Unit-1
SATELLITE SYSTEM:
In general, a satellite is anything that orbits something else, as, for example, the moon orbits the earth.
In a communications context, a satellite is a specialized wireless receiver/transmitter that is launched by a

rocket and placed in orbit around the earth. There are hundreds of satellites currently in operation.
They are used for such diverse purposes as weather forecasting, television broadcast, amateur
radio communications, Internet communications, and the Global Positioning System, (GPS).
The first artificial satellite, launched by Russia (then known as the Soviet Union) in the late 1950s, was
about the size of a basketball. It did nothing but transmit a simple Morse code signal over and over.
In contrast, modern satellites can receive and re-transmit thousands of signals simultaneously, from
simple digital data to the most complex television programming.

Commonly there are three types of communications satellite systems.
 GEOCENTRIC ORBIT (GEO)

 MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT (MEO)
 LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)
GEO-STATIONARY SATELLITE:
One very popular orbit format is the geostationary satellite orbit. The geostationary orbit is used by
many applications including direct broadcast as well as communications or relay systems. The geostationary
orbit has the advantage that the satellite remains in the same position throughout the day, and antennas can be
directed towards the satellite and remain on track. This factor is of particular importance for applications such
as direct broadcast TV where changing directions for the antenna would not be practicable. It is necessary to
take care over the use of the abbreviations for geostationary orbit. Both GEO and GSO are seen, and both also
used for geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary orbit development

The idea of a geostationary orbit has been postulated for many years. One of the possible originators of
the basic idea was a Russian theorist and science fiction writer, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. However it was
Herman Oberth and Herman Potocnik who wrote about orbiting stations at an altitude of 35 900 km above the
Earth that had a rotational period of 24 hours making it appear to hover over a fixed point on the equator. The
next major step forwards occurred when Arthur C Clarke, the science fiction write, published a serious article in
Wireless World, a major UK electronics and radio publication, in October 1945. The article was entitled "Extra-
Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World Coverage?"
Clarke extrapolated what could be done with the German rocket technology of the day and looked at
what might be possible in the future. He postulated that it would be possible to provide complete global
coverage with just three geostationary satellites.
Arthur C Clarke's Geostationary Orbiting Satellites Concept

In the article, Clarke determined the orbital characteristics required as well as the transmitter power
levels, the generation of solar power could be used, even calculating the impact of solar eclipses. Clarke's article
was well ahead of its time. It took until 1963 before NASA was able to start launching satellites that could test
the theory. The first serviceable satellite able to start testing the theory was Syncom 2 which was launched on
26 July 1963. [Syncom 1 failed as it was unable to reach its correct geostationary orbit].
Geostationary orbit basics
As the height of a satellite increases, so the time for the satellite to orbit increases. At a height of 35790
km, it takes 24 hours for the satellite to orbit. This type of orbit is known as a geosynchronous orbit, i.e. it is
synchronized with the Earth. One particular form of geosynchronous orbit is known as a geostationary orbit. In
this type of orbit the satellite rotates in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth and has an approximate 24
hour period. This means that it revolves at the same angular velocity as the Earth and in the same direction and
therefore remains in the same position relative to the Earth.
In order to ensure that the satellite rotates at exactly the same speed as the Earth, it is necessary to clarify
exactly what the time is for the rotation of the Earth. For most timekeeping applications, the Earth's rotation is
measured relative to the Sun's mean position, and the rotation of the earth combined with the rotation around the
Sun provide the length of time for a day. However this is not the exact rotation that we are interested in to give a
geostationary orbit - the time required is just that for one rotation. This time period is known as a sidereal day
and it is 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds long.
Geometry dictates that the only way in which an orbit that rotates once per day can remain over exactly
the same spot on the Earth's surface is that it moves in the same direction as the earth's rotation. Also it must not
move north or south for any of its orbit. This can only occur if it remains over the equator.
Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator

Different orbits can be seen from the diagram. As all orbital planes need to pass through the geo-centre
of the Earth, the two options available are shown. Even if both orbits rotate at the same speed as the Earth, the
one labelled geosynchronous will move north of the equator for part of the day, and below for the other half - it
will not be stationary. For a satellite to be stationary, it must be above the Equator.
Geostationary satellite drift

Even when satellites are placed into a geostationary orbit, there are several forces that can act on it to
change its position slowly over time. Factors including the earth's elliptical shape, the pull of the Sun and Moon
and others act to increase the satellite orbital inclination. In particular the non-circular shape of the of the Earth
around the Equator tends to draw the satellites towards two stable equilibrium points, one above the Indian
Ocean and the other very roughly around the other side of the World.. This results in what is termed as an east-
west libration or movement back and forth.
To overcome these movements, fuel is carried by the satellites to enable them to carry out "station-
keeping" where the satellite is returned to its desired position. The period between station-keeping manoeuvres
is determined by the allowable tolerance on the satellite which is mainly determined by the ground antenna
beamwidth. This will mean that no re-adjustment of the antennas is required.

Often the useful life of a satellite is determined by the time for which fuel will allow the station-keeping
to be undertaken. Often this will be several years. After this the satellite can drift towards one of the two
equilibrium points, and possibly re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. The preferred option is for the satellites to
utilise some last fuel to lift them into a higher and increasing orbit to prevent them from interfering with other
satellites.
Geostationary orbit coverage

A single geostationary satellite obviously cannot provide complete global coverage. However, a single
geostationary satellite can see approximately 42% of the Earth's surface with coverage falling off towards the
satellite is not able to "see" the surface. This occurs around the equator and also towards the polar regions.
Geostationary satellite coverage

For a constellation of three satellites equally spaced around the globe, it is possible to provide complete
coverage around the equator and up to latitudes of 81° both north and south. The lack of polar coverage is not a
problem for most users, although where polar coverage is needed, satellites using other forms of orbit are
needed.
Geostationary orbit and path length / delay

One of the issues with using satellites in a geostationary orbit is the delay introduced by the path length.
The path length to any geostationary satellite is a minimum of 22300 miles. This assumes that the user is
directly underneath the satellite to provide the shortest path length. In reality the user is unlikely to be in this
position and the path length will be longer. Assuming the shortest path length, this gives a single trip i.e. to the
satellite or back of a minimum of around 120 milli-seconds. This means that the round trip from the ground to
the satellite and back is roughly a quarter of a second. Therefore to obtain a response in a conversation can take
half a second as the signal must pass through the satellite twice - once on the outward journey to the remote
listener, and then again with the response. This delay can make telephone conversations rather difficult when
satellite links are used. It can also be seen when news reporters as using satellite links. When asked a question
from the broadcasters studio, the reporter appears to take some time to answer. This delay is the reason why
many long distance links use cables rather than satellites as the delays incurred are far less.
Advantages and disadvantages of geostationary orbit satellites

While the geostationary orbit is widely used for many satellite applications it is not suitable for all
situations. There are several advantages and disadvantages to be taken into consideration:
Geocentric circular orbit:

Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi). The period of the orbit
equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3,000
metres per second (9,800 ft/s).
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with the help of satellite.
In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then
the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s surface. So, all
the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this type of communication is known as space
communication.
Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite communication are Active and passive satellites.
Passive satellites: It is just a plastic balloon having a metal coated over it. This sphere reflects the coming
microwave signals coming from one part of the earth to other part. This is also known as passive sphere. Our
earth also has a passive satellite i.e. moon.
Active satellites: It basically does the work of amplifying the microwave signals coming. In active satellites
an antenna system, transmitter, power supply and a receiver is used. These satellites are also called as
transponders. The transmitters fitted on the earth generate the microwaves. These rays are received by the
transponders attached to the satellite. Then after amplifying, these signals are transmitted back to earth. This
sending can be done at the same time or after some delay. These amplified signals are stored in the memory
of the satellites, when earth properly faces the satellite. Then the satellite starts sending the signals to earth.
Some active satellites also have programming and recording features. Then these recording can be easily played
and watched. The first active satellite was launched by Russia in 1957. The signals coming from the satellite
when reach the earth, are of very low intensity. Their amplification is done by the receivers themselves. After
amplification these become available for further use.
Microwave communication is possible only if the position of satellite becomes stationary with respect to the
position of earth. So, these types of satellites are known as geostationary satellites.
The requirements for a satellite to be geostationary:
1. Its revolutionary direction must be same as that of the earth, i.e. from west to east.
2. The time period of satellite’s revolution must be same to the time period of the rotation of earth along its
polar axis, which is equal to 24 hours.
3. The equatorial plane of earth must be coplanar with the orbital plane of the satellitesrevolution.

The name given to the orbit of the geo-stationary satellites is synchronous orbit. Due to this geo-
stationary satellites are also called as geo-synchronous satellites. Geo-synchronous orbit is at a height of nearly
36000km from the surface of earth. These orbits are capable of giving a successful communication link between
two stations present on the earth. These satellites can handle communication up to large distances. But it is
impossible for a single geo-stationary satellite to cover the whole earth and provide acommunication link. Due
to curvature of earth the stations will be out of sight after coveringsome distance. If we want to cover the whole
earth then we have to put three satellites onto the geosynchronous orbit. These satellites can cover the earth if
all are inclined at an angle of 120oto each other.
SATELLITE ELECTRONICS:
In telecommunication, a transponder is one of two types of devices. In air navigation or radio

frequency identification, a flight transponder is a device that emits an identifying signal in response to an
interrogating received signal. In a communications satellite, a transponder gathers signals over a range of uplink
frequencies and re-transmits them on a different set of downlink frequencies to receivers on Earth, often without
changing the content of the received signal or signals. A transponder is a broadband RF channel used to amplify
one or more carriers on the downlink side of a geostationary communications satellite. It is part of the
microwave repeater and antenna system that is housed onboard the operating satellite. Examples of these
satellites include AMC 4 and Telstar 5, located at 101 and 97 degrees west longitude, respectively.
These satellites and most of their cohorts in the geostationary orbit have bent-pipe repeaters using C and
Ku bands; a bent pipe repeater is simply one that receives all signals in the uplink beam, block translates them
to the downlink band, and separates them into individual transponders of a fixed bandwidth. Figure 1 shows the
basic concept. Each transponder is amplified by either a traveling wave tube amplifier (TWTA) or a solid state
power amplifier (SSPA). Satellites of this type are very popular for transmitting TV channels to broadcast
stations, cable TV systems, and directly to the home. Other applications include very small aperture terminal
(VSAT) data communications networks, international high bit rate pipes, and rural telephony. Integration of
these information types is becoming popular as satellite transponders can deliver data rates in the range of 50 to
150 Mbps. Achieving these high data rates requires careful consideration of the design and performance of the
repeater.
The nature and location of the various system impairments are also shown.
The most significant impairments to digital transmission come about in the filtering, which constrains
bandwidth and introduces delay distortion, and the power amplification, which produces AM/AM and AM/PM
conversion. These effects will be discussed in detail later in this article. For maximum power output with the
highest efficiency (e.g., to minimize solar panel DC supply), this amplifier should be operated at its saturation

point. However, many services are sensitive and susceptible to AM/AM and AM/PM conversion, for which
backoff is necessary. With such an operating point, intermodulation distortion can be held to an acceptable
level; however, backoff also reduces downlink power.
The transponder itself is simply a repeater. It takes in the signal from the uplink at a frequency f 1,
amplifies it and sends it back on a second frequency f2. Figure 2 shows a typical frequency plan with 24-channel
transponder. The uplink frequency is at 6 GHz, and the downlink frequency is at 4 GHz. The 24 channels are
separated by 40 MHz and have a 36 MHz useful bandwidth. The guard band of 4 MHz assures that the
transponders do not interact with each other.
Satellite/broadcast communication.
A communications satellite’s channels are called transponders, because each is a
separate transceiver or repeater. With digital video data compression andmultiplexing,
several video and audio channels may travel through a single transponder on a single wideband carrier.
Original analog video only has one channel per transponder, with subcarriers for audio and automatic
transmission identification service (ATIS). Non-multiplexed radio stations can also travel in single channel per
carrier (SCPC) mode, with multiple carriers (analog or digital) per transponder. This allows each station to
transmit directly to the satellite, rather than paying for a whole transponder, or using landlines to send it to
an earth station for multiplexing with other stations.
Optical communications:

In optical fiber communications, a transponder is the element that sends and receives the optical signal
from a fiber. A transponder is typically characterized by its data rate and the maximum distance the signal can
travel.
The term 'transponder' can apply to different items with important functional differences, mentioned across
academic and commercial literature:
 According to one description,[ a transponder and transceiver are both functionally similar devices
that convert a full-duplex electrical signal into a full-duplex optical signal. The difference between
the two is that transceivers interface electrically with the host system using a serial interface,
whereas transponders use a parallel interface to do so. In this view, transponders provide easier-to-
handle lower-rate parallel signals, but are bulkier and consume more power than transceivers.
 According to another description,[3] transceivers are limited to providing an electrical-
optical function only (not differentiating between serial or parallel electrical interfaces), whereas
transponders convert an optical signal at one wavelength to an optical signal at another wavelength
(typically ITU standardized for DWDMcommunication). As such, transponders can be considered as
two transceivers placed back-to-back. This view also seems to be held by e.g. Fujitsu. As a result,
difference in transponder functionality also might influence the functional description of related
optical modules like transceivers and muxponders.
Marine
The International Maritime Organization's International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea requires the Automatic Identification System (AIS) to be fitted aboard international voyaging ships
with gross tonnage (GT) of 300 or more, and all passenger ships regardless of size. [5] Although AIS
transmitters/receivers are generally called transponders they generally transmit autonomously, although coast
stations can interrogate class B transponders on smaller vessels for additional information. In addition,
navigational aids often have transponders called RACON (radar beacons) designed to make them stand out on a
ship's radar screen.
Passive and active RFID systems are used in off-road events such as Enduro and Hare and Hounds racing, the
riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm. When they complete a lap they swipe or touch
the receiver which is connected to a computer and log their lap time. The Casimo Group Ltd make a system
which does this.
Underwater:
Sonar transponders operate under water and are used to measure distance and form the basis of
underwater location marking, position tracking and navigation.
INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL DIRECT BROADCASTING SATELLITE:

Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS)
It is a type of artificial satellite which usually sends satellite television signals for home reception. The
type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television
(DBSTV) or direct-to-home television (DTHTV).[2] This has initially distinguished the transmissions directly
intended for home viewers from cable television distribution services that are sometimes carried on the same
satellite. The term DTH predates DBS and is often used in reference to services carried by lower power
satellites which required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter or greater) for reception.[citation needed]
In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to describe the
nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television broadcasts to the home within
several European countries (such as BSB in the United Kingdom and TV-Sat in Germany). These services were
to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions
allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few
channels, really intended for cable distribution, and requiring dishes typically of 1.2m. SES launched the Astra
1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe receivable on dishes of just 60-80 cm and, although

these mostly used PAL video format and FSS frequencies with linear polarization, the DBS name slowly came
to applied to all Astra satellites and services too.
Direct-broadcoast satellite(DBS) can be used in two services:
 Commercial service
 Free service
COMMERCIAL SERVICE:
The second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc (now BSkyB after its merger with British
Satellite Broadcasting's five-channel network), was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-
air analogue service on the Astra 1Asatellite, serving both Ireland and the United Kingdom.[4] By 1991, Sky had
changed to a conditional access pay model, and launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue
transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is rarely used in the UK or Ireland, the popularity of
Sky's service has caused the terms "minidish" and "digibox" to be applied to products other than Sky's
hardware. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB.
PrimeStar began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined
by DirecTV (then owned by a division of General Motors, GM Hughes Electronics), in 1994. At the time,
DirecTV's introduction was the most successfulconsumer electronics debut in American history. Although
PrimeStar transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which
required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. DirecTVpurchased PrimeStar in 1999
and moved all of that provider's subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In a series of transactions consummated in
2003, Hughes Electronics was spun out of GM and the News Corporation purchased a controlling interest in the
new company, which was renamed The DIRECTV Group.
In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News Corporation's controlling interest in DirecTV.

In 1996, EchoStar's Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTV's primary competitor,
achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under. Astro was also started, using a direct
broadcast satellite system. Dominion Video Satellite Inc.'s Sky Angel launched on a satellite platform in the
United States in 1996, with its DBS service geared toward the faith and family market. It grew from six to 36
television and radio channels of family entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming, and 24-hour news
services. Dominion, under its former corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc., was actually the second from
among the first nine companies to apply to the FCC for a high-power DBS license in 1981, and it was the sole
surviving DBS company from the first round of applicants until the sale of their license to EchoStar
Communications Corporation in 2007 and departure from satellite distribution in 2008. Sky Angel, although a
separate and independent DBS service, used the same satellites, transmission facilities and receiving equipment
used for Dish Network through an agreement with Echostar.
Because of this, Sky Angelsubscribers also had the option of subscribing to Dish Network's channels as
well. In 2003, EchoStar attempted to purchase DirecTV, but the FCC and U.S. Department of Justice denied the
purchase based on anti-competitive concerns. As of 2013, India has the most competitive direct-broadcast
satellite market with seven operators (six private DTH and one Govertment-owned FTA DTH) vying for more
than 110 million television homes.
FREESERVICE:
Germany is likely the leader in free-to-air (FTA) DBS, with approximately 200 digital FTA channels
(including 18 HDTVchannels and various regional channels) broadcast from the Astra 19.2°E satellite
constellation. These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are received in approximately 12 million homes, as
well as in any home using the Sky Deutschlandcommercial DBS system. All German analogue satellite
broadcasts ceased on April 30, 2012.[5][6]
The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional variations
of BBC channels, ITVchannels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) are broadcast without encryption from the Astra
28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S-compliant receiver (a DVB-S2 receiver is required
for certain high definition television services). Most of these channels are included within the Sky EPG, and an
increasing number within the Freesat EPG.
India's national broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air DBS package as "DD Direct Plus",
which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial transmission network. It is broadcast from Insat 4B at
93.5°E and contains about 57 FTA channels. While originally launched as backhaul for their digital terrestrial
television service, a large number of French channels are free-to-air on satellites at 5°W, and have recently been
announced as being official in-fill for the DTT network.
In North America (United States, Canada and Mexico) there are over 80 FTA digital channels
available on Galaxy 19 (with the majority being ethnic or religious in nature). Other FTA satellites
include AMC-4, AMC-6, Galaxy 18, and Satmex 5. A company called GloryStar promotes FTA religious
broadcasters on Galaxy 19.
INDIAN DOMESTIC SATELLITE
The GSLV carrying the GSat-14 communications satellite lifted off Jan. 5 from the Satish Dhawan
Space Centre at Sriharikota on India’s southeastern coast. “We now have a totally indigenous GSLV," ISRO
Chairman Koppilli Radhakrishnan said. BANGALORE, India — The new year opened on a high note for the
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) with the first successful flight of a rocket with a domestically
built cryogenic upper-stage engine. The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) carrying the
GSat-14 communications satellite lifted off Jan. 5 at 4:18 p.m. local time from the Satish Dhawan Space
Centre at Sriharikota on India’s southeastern coast. The 1,982-kilogram satellite was released into
geosynchronous transfer orbit 17 minutes into the flight.

The upper-stage engine burned for 720 seconds during the mission, boosting the morale of ISRO
scientists who had been struggling to build it for two decades. The engine was developed at ISRO’s Liquid
Propulsion Systems Centre at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu at a cost of 3.36 billion rupees ($54 million),
according to ISRO. “It is an important day and a major achievement for ISRO and a proud moment for
India,” ISRO Chairman Koppilli Radhakrishnan said in an address immediately after the nationally
televised launch. “We now have a totally indigenous GSLV.”
The three-stage GSLV rocket is 51 meters tall and weighs 418 metric tons. The first stage is
powered by a solid-fueled core motor and four liquid-fueled strap-on boosters; the second stage uses liquid
fuel. The cryogenic third stage employs liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. The
latest launch was GSLV’s eighth flight and followed two successive failures in 2010, one of which involved
the homemade cryogenic stage. The other previous GSLV flights used a Russian-designed cryogenic stage
under an agreement signed in 1991.
ISRO began working on its own cryogenic engines in 1993 after Russia — under pressure from
Washington — refused to transfer the technology necessary for India to produce the hardware domestically.
The first test flight, in April 2010, went awry when the domestically built engine failed to ignite, leading to
the loss of the GSat-4 satellite. A scheduled test flight in August 2013 had to be aborted two hours before
liftoff due to a second-stage propellant leak.
The second stage was replaced for the Jan. 5 flight. The upper stage, featuring redesigned
components, was put through several tests including one to assess its performance at high altitude. ISRO
reported Jan. 9 that the GSat-14, designed for a 15-year lifetime, had successfully raised itself to
geostationary orbit using its on-board propulsion system and was drifting toward its operating location at
74 degrees east longitude. After commissioning, it will join ISRO’s fleet of nine operational
communications satellites.
According to ISRO, the satellite’s main objective is to augment India’s in-orbit transponder capacity,
which in recent years has been insufficient to meet surging demand for satellite-based services, primarily
for television broadcasting. GSat-14 carries six extended C-band and six Ku-band transponders covering

the entire Indian subcontinent, and two Ka-band beams operating at 20.2 and 30.5 gigahertz for studying
the impact of weather on satellite communications links.
India’s larger geostationary telecommunications satellites today are still launched by foreign rockets,
usually Europe’s Ariane 5, but ISRO is working on a larger version of the GSLV to handle these
missions. ISRO also harbors ambitions to launch commercial telecommunications satellites. In addition, the
GSLV will be used for future ISRO space ventures including a robotic mission to the Moon slated to launch
in 2015 or 2016.
The latest launch was GSLV’s eighth flight and followed two successive failures in 2010, one of
which involved the homemade cryogenic stage. The other previous GSLV flights used a Russian-designed
cryogenic stage under an agreement signed in 1991. ISRO began working on its own cryogenic engines in
1993 after Russia – under pressure from Washington – refused to transfer the technology necessary for
India to produce the hardware domestically.
The first test flight, in April 2010, went awry when the domestically built engine failed to ignite,
leading to the loss of the GSat-4 satellite. A scheduled test flight in August 2013 had to be aborted two
hours before liftoff due to a second-stage propellant leak. The second stage was replaced for the Jan. 5
flight. The upper stage, featuring redesigned components, was put through several tests including one to
assess its performance at high altitude. ISRO said the GSAT-14, designed to operate for 15 years, will use
its own propulsion system to reach its geostationary orbital home at 74 degrees east longitude over the next
few days. After commissioning, it will join ISRO’s fleet of nine operational communications satellites.
According to ISRO, the satellite’s main objective is to augment India’s in-orbit transponder capacity,
which in recent years has been insufficient to meet surging demand for satellite-based services, primarily
for television broadcasting. The GSat-14 carries six extended C-band and six Ku-band transponders
covering the entire Indian subcontinent, and two Ka-band beams operating at 20.2 and 30.5 gigahertz for
studying the impact of weather on satellite communications links. India’s larger geostationary
telecommunications satellites today are still launched by foreign rockets, usually Europe’s Ariane 5, but
ISRO is working on a larger version of the GSLV to handle these missions. ISRO also harbors ambitions to
launch commercial telecommunications satellites. In addition, the GSLV will be used for future ISRO space
ventures including a robotic mission to the Moon slated to launch in 2015 or 2016.
DOMESTIC BROAD COASTING SYSTEM:
Radio broadcasting:

Radio broadcasting is a one-way wireless transmission over radio waves intended to reach a wide audience.
Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast a common radio format, either in broadcast
syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable radio, local wire television
networks, satellite radio, and internet radio via streaming media on the Internet. The signal types can be
either analog audio or digital audio.
In 2009, there were 3,494 radio broadcasting stations in the United States.
Broadcasting by radio takes several forms. These include AM and FM stations. There are several subtypes,
namelycommercial broadcasting, non-commercial educational (NCE) public broadcasting and non-
profit varieties as well ascommunity radio, student-run campus radio stations and hospital radio stations can be
found throughout the world.
Many stations broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles
(especially at night). For example, the BBC, VOA, VOR, and Deutsche Welle have transmitted via shortwave to
Africa and Asia. These broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and solar activity.
Arbitron, the United States-based company that reports on radio audiences, defines a "radio station" as a
government-licensed AM or FM station; an HD Radio (primary or multicast) station; an internet stream of an
existing government-licensed station; one of the satellite radio channels from XM Satellite Radio or Sirius
Satellite Radio; or, potentially, a station that is not government licensed.
AM:
AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitude modulation,
a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude
of the signal to be transmitted. The medium-wave band is used worldwide for AM broadcasting. Europe also
uses the long wave band. In response to the growing popularity of FM stereo radio stations in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this never gained
popularity, and very few receivers were ever sold.
One of the advantages of AM is that its signal can be detected (turned into sound) with simple
equipment. If a signal is strong enough, not even a power source is needed; building an unpowered crystal radio
receiver was a common childhood project in the early decades of AM broadcasting.

AM broadcasts occur on North American airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530 to
1700 kHz (known as the “standard broadcast band”). The band was expanded in the 1990s by adding
nine channels from 1620 to 1700 kHz. Channels are spaced every 10 kHz in the Americas, and generally every
9 kHz everywhere else.
The signal is subject to interference from electrical storms (lightning) and other electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
AM transmissions cannot be ionospherically propagated during the day due to strong absorption in the D-
layer of the ionosphere. In a crowded channel environment this means that the power of regional channels
which share a frequency must be reduced at night or directionally beamed in order to avoid interference, which
reduces the potential nighttime audience. Some stations have frequencies unshared with other stations in North
America; these are called clear-channel stations. Many of them can be heard across much of the country at
night. During the night, absorption largely disappears and permits signals to travel to much more distant
locations via ionospheric reflections. However, fading of the signal can be severe at night.
AM radio transmitters can transmit audio frequencies up to 15 kHz (now limited to 10 kHz in the US
due to FCC rules designed to reduce interference), but most receivers are only capable of reproducing
frequencies up to 5 kHz or less. At the time that AM broadcasting began in the 1920s, this provided adequate
fidelity for existing microphones, 78 rpm recordings, and loudspeakers. The fidelity of sound equipment
subsequently improved considerably, but the receivers did not. Reducing the bandwidth of the receivers reduces
the cost of manufacturing and makes them less prone to interference. AM stations are never assigned adjacent
channels in the same service area. This prevents the sideband power generated by two stations from interfering
with each other.[18] Bob Carver created an AM stereo tuner employing notch filtering that demonstrated that an
AM broadcast can meet or exceed the 15 kHz baseband bandwidth allotted to FM stations without objectionable
interference. After several years, the tuner was discontinued. Bob Carver had left the company and the Carver
Corporation later cut the number of models produced before discontinuing production completely.
FM :
FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves in the frequency range of 88 to
108 MHz everywhere except Japan and Russia. Japan uses the 76 to 90 MHz band. Russia has two bands, 65.9
to 74 MHz (which was widely used in the former Soviet Union) and 87.5 to 108 MHz worldwide standard. FM
stations are much more popular since higher sound fidelity and stereo broadcasting became common in this
format.
FM radio was invented by Edwin H. Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose of overcoming the
interference problem of AM radio, to which FM is relatively immune. At the same time, greater fidelity was
made possible by spacing stations further apart. Instead of 10 kHz apart, as on the AM band in the US, FM
channels are 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) apart. In other countries greater spacing is sometimes mandatory, such as in
New Zealand, which uses 700 kHz spacing (previously 800 kHz). The improved fidelity made available was far
in advance of the audio equipment of the 1940s, but wide interchannel spacing was chosen to take advantage of
the noise-suppressing feature of wideband FM.
Bandwidth of 200 kHz is not needed to accommodate an audio signal — 20 kHz to 30 kHz is all that is
necessary for a narrowband FM signal. The 200 kHz bandwidth allowed room for ±75 kHz signal deviation
from the assigned frequency, plus guard bands to reduce or eliminate adjacent channel interference. The larger
bandwidth allows for broadcasting a 15 kHz bandwidth audio signal plus a 38 kHz stereo "subcarrier"—a
piggyback signal that rides on the main signal. Additional unused capacity is used by some broadcasters to
transmit utility functions such as background music for public areas, GPS auxiliary signals, or financial market
data.

The AM radio problem of interference at night was addressed in a different way. At the time FM was set
up, the available frequencies were far higher in the spectrum than those used for AM radio - by a factor of
approximately 100. Using these frequencies meant that even at far higher power, the range of a given FM signal
was much shorter; thus its market was more local than for AM radio. The reception range at night is the same as
in the daytime. All FM broadcast transmissions are line-of-sight, and ionospheric bounce is not viable. The
much larger bandwidths, compared to AM and SSB, are more susceptible to phase dispersion. Propagation
speeds (celerities) are fastest in the ionosphere at the lowest sideband frequency. The celerity difference
between the highest and lowest sidebands is quite apparent to the listener. Such distortion occurs up to
frequencies of approximately 50 MHz. Higher frequencies do not reflect from the ionosphere, nor from storm
clouds. Moon reflections have been used in some experiments, but require impractical power levels.
The original FM radio service in the U.S. was the Yankee Network, located in New England.[19][20]
[21]
Regular FM broadcasting began in 1939, but did not pose a significant threat to the AM broadcasting
industry. It required purchase of a special receiver. The frequencies used, 42 to 50 MHz, were not those used
today. The change to the current frequencies, 88 to 108 MHz, began after the end of World War II, and was to
some extent imposed by AM broadcasters as an attempt to cripple what was by now realized to be a potentially
serious threat.
FM radio on the new band had to begin from the ground floor. As a commercial venture it remained a
little-used audio enthusiasts' medium until the 1960s. The more prosperous AM stations, or their owners,
acquired FM licenses and often broadcast the same programming on the FM station as on the AM station
("simulcasting"). The FCC limited this practice in the 1960s. By the 1980s, since almost all new radios included
both AM and FM tuners, FM became the dominant medium, especially in cities. Because of its greater range,
AM remained more common in rural environments.

UNIT-2
CABLE T.V SYSTEM
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers via radio
frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This
contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and
received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed
Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access
Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air
reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were
constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older
as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.
CABLE SIGNAL SOURCE:

A set-top box (STB) or set-top unit (STU) is an information appliance device that generally contains
a TV-tunerinput and displays output connects to a television set and an external source of signal, turning the
source signal intocontent in a form that can then be displayed on the television screen or other display device.
They are used in cable television, satellite television, and over-the-air television systems, as well as other uses.

T.V SIGNAL SOURCE:
The signal source might be an Ethernet cable, a satellite dish, a coaxial cable (see cable television),
a telephone line (includingDSL connections), broadband over power lines (BPL), or even an
ordinary VHF or UHF antenna. Content, in this context, could mean any or all of video, audio, Internet web
pages, interactive video games, or other possibilities. Satellite and microwave-based services also require
specific external receiver hardware, so the use of set-top boxes of various formats has never completely
disappeared. Set-top boxes can also enhance source signal quality.
UHF CONVERTER:
Before the All-Channel Receiver Act of 1962 required US television receivers to be able to tune the
entire VHF and UHF range (which in North America was NTSC-M channels 2 through 83 on 54 to 890 MHz),
a set-top box known as a UHF converter would be installed at the receiver to shift a portion of the UHF-TV
spectrum onto low-VHF channels for viewing. As some 1960s-era 12-channel TV sets remained in use for many
years, and Canada and Mexico were slower than the US to require UHF tuners to be factory-installed in new
TVs, a market for these converters continued to exist for much of the 1970s.
CABLE CONVERTER:
Cable television represented a possible alternative to deployment of UHF converters as broadcasts could
be frequency-shifted to VHF channels at the cable head-end instead of the final viewing location. However,
most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz VHF/UHF frequency range and the twelve
channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on most systems. Adding any additional channels therefore
needed to be done by inserting the extra signals into cable systems on nonstandard frequencies, typically either
below VHF channel 7 (midband) or directly above VHF channel 13 (superband).
These frequencies corresponded to non-television services (such as two-way radio) over-the-air and
were therefore not on standard TV receivers. Before cable-ready TV sets became common in the late 1980s, an
electronic tuning device called a cable converter box was needed to receive the additional analog cable TV
channels and transpose or convert the selected channel to analog radio frequency (RF) for viewing on a regular
TV set on a single channel, usually VHF channel 3 or 4. The box allowed an analog non-cable-

ready television set to receive analog encrypted cable channels and was a prototype topology for later date
digital encryption devices. Newer televisions were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the
standard converter built-in for selling premium television (akapay per view). Several years later and slowly
marketed, the advent of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms of these devices. Block
conversion of the entire affected frequency band onto UHF, while less common, was used by some models to
provide full VCR compatibility and the ability to drive multiple TV sets, albeit with a somewhat nonstandard
channel numbering scheme.
Newer television receivers greatly reduced the need for external set-top boxes, although cable converter
boxes continue to be used to descramble premium cable channels according to carrier-controlled access
restrictions, and to receive digital cable channels, along with using interactive services like video on demand,
pay per view, and home shopping through television.
CABLE SIGNAL PROCESSING:
Once a television signal is received, it must be processed. For digital satellite TV signals, a
dedicated commercial satellite receiver such as a GI DSR4400X or a Scientific Atlanta/PowerVu
satellite receiver is needed for each channel that is to be distributed by the cable system; these are
usually rack-mountable receivers that are designed to take up less space than consumer receivers.
They output video and stereo audio signals as well as a digital signal for digital plants.
Analog terrestrial TV signals require a processor which is a RF receiver that outputs video and audio.
In some cases the processor will include a built-in modulator.
Digital terrestrial TV signals require a special digital processor.

Digital channels are usually received on an L band QAM stream from a satellite, which
uses multiplexing. Using special receivers such as the Motorola MPS, the signal can be
demultiplexed or "Demuxed" to extract specific channels from the multiplexed signal. At this
point, local insertion may be performed to add content specifically targeted to the local geographic
area.
Modulation:
Cable television signals are then mixed in accordance with the cable system's channel numbering
scheme using a series of cable modulators (one for each channel), which is in turn fed into a
frequency multiplexer or signal combiner. The mixed signals are sent into a broadband amplifier, then sent into
the cable system by the trunk line and continuously re-amplified as needed.

Modulators essentially take an input signal and attach it to a specific frequency. For example in North
America,NTSC standards dictate that CH2 is a 6 MHz wide channel with its luminance carrier at 55.25 MHz, so
the modulator for channel 2 will impose the appropriate input signal on to the 55.25 MHz frequency to be
received by any TV tuned to Channel 2.
Digital channels are modulated as well; however, instead of each channel being modulated on to a
specific frequency, multiple digital channels are modulated on to one specific NTSC frequency. Using QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation), a CATV operator can place usually up to eight channels on one specific
frequency so channel 2 may actually be carrying channels 1 - 8 in a viewer's city. STBs (Set top boxes)
or CableCards are required to receive these digital signals and are provided by the cable operator themselves.
Distribution plant:
The plant consists of trunk lines that run from one distribution amplifier to the next. Feed lines run from
a bridge amplifier inside the distribution amplifier to taps that are placed in front of a section of close together
homes. From the taps a drop, consisting of a buried or aerial coax, runs to each home that wishes to obtain
service. Unused ports on a tap are normally terminated with anti-theft terminators. To extend the feed lines even
further line extenders are used which are small amplifiers. small systems have been built without trunk lines
using only line extenders every few thousand feet.
CABLE SIGNAL DISTRIBUTION:
Single Cable Distribution is a satellite TV technology that enables the delivery of broadcast
programming to multiple users over a single coaxial cable, and eliminates the numerous cables required to
support consumer electronics devices such as twin-tuner Digital Video Recorders (DVRs) and high end
receivers.
Without single cable distribution, providing full spectrum access for multiple receivers, or receivers with
multiple tuners, in a single family home has required a separate coaxial cable feeding each tuner from the
antenna equipment (either multiple LNBs, a multi-output LNB or a multiswitch distribution system) because of
the large bandwidth requirement of the signals. Single cable distribution technology enables one coaxial cable
from the antenna equipment to multiple tuners, to provide independent tuning across the whole range of satellite
reception for each tuner.
A European industry standard for distributing satellite signals over a single coaxial cable - CENELEC
EN50494 - has been defined in 2007[2] and developed by a consortium led by SES. Single cable distribution
technology can be found in commercial equipment with the Unicable trademark from FTA Communications

Technologies. Unicable uses an integrated software and hardware solution that allows Unicable-certified Digital
Video Recorders and receivers to multiplex selected programming when using Unicable LNB or multiswitching
products.
The Unicable Interoperability Platform is open to companies designing and/or marketing satellite and
other broadcast-related products. The platform is designed to facilitate the acceptance of Unicable-certified
solutions in the consumer TV broadcast market.
How it works:
Each satellite receiver in the installation has a dedicated user band of a bandwidth approximately the
same as a transponder. The receiver requests a particular transponder frequency via a DiSEqC-compliant
command. A mixer in the dish-end equipment (an LNB or distribution unit) converts the received signal to the
correct user band IF centre frequency for that receiver.[3]
The converted transponders of the various users are then combined, and sent via the single coaxial cable
to the receivers. The combined signal is tapped or split to reach every user. Silicon vendors have developed
complex Integrated Circuits that greatly reduce the cost of implementing the single cable distribution function.
A Channel Stacking Switch IC is a multiple-input multiple-output device. It typically has N 1.2 GHz inputs that
can be cascaded to additional chips as required (to expand output capacity). These inputs are fed into a large N-
pole M-Throw switch that outputs to M mixers. Each mixer path then translates only the user requested
transponder to a predetermined fixed frequency within the 950-2150 MHz band. This fixed frequency is unique
for each tuner on the single cable output. Each tuner in the STB always stays at this fixed frequency while the
CSS IC translates the user requested content down the cable to this exact frequency. This architecture requires
no hardware change to the STB design. Communications protocol between the CSS IC and the STB is handled
via the CENELEC EN50494 standard or proprietary systems.
Equipment:
Special LNBs have been developed for use in single cable distribution systems. All four sub-bands of
the Ku band (low frequency/horizontal polarity, high frequency/horizontal polarity, low frequency/vertical
polarity, high frequency/vertical polarity) are received by a conventional front end, amplified and
downconverted to the L-band, to be fed to a number of SatCR (Satellite Channel Router) – one for each user
that can be connected - to further downconvert the required section of the received spectrum to centre on the
user band IF frequency. The LNB further includes a mixer to combine the user bands together and a
microcontroller to receive the instructions as to which frequency is required by each user and control the SatCR
chips. [5]
Alternatively, a single cable distribution system can use a conventional LNB feeding the four sub-bands
to a separate SatCR receivers, as a substitute for a traditional multiswitch, that needs a dedicated coaxial cable
for every receiver (or tuner) connected.
Unicable LNBs and SatCRs also include either a legacy mode of operation or a legacy output which
provides conventional LNB IF for use with an installation of non-Unicable receivers. A receiver required to
operate in a single cable distribution installation can be essentially conventional. It should be able to tune to the
user channel (within the normal IF tuning range) and modulate the LNB power voltage with the 22 kHz signal
required for issuing DiSEqC commands. It will then require only software modification to operate as a single
cable distribution receiver.
For correct operation, two-way splitters are required to feed the combined signal to each receiver. These
allow bi-directional passage of both RF and DC signals, to provide for the passing of DiSEqC commands
between the LNB and receiver(s).

As of March 2010, SES' Single Cable Distribution factsheet lists 88 receivers as supporting single cable
distribution technology[6] although this list is not exhaustive. Several receivers for the HD+ German high
definition platform broadcast from Astra 19.2°E are compatible with the SatCR system.
BIDIRECTIONAL NETWORKS:
The video sources to the headend typically include satellite signals, off air receivers, microwave
connections and other video feed signals. The video sources are scrambled to prevent unauthorized viewing
before being sent to the cable distribution system. The headend receives, decodes and decrypts these channels.
This example shows that the programs that will be broadcasted are supplied to encoders and modulators to
produce television channels on multiple frequencies. These channels are combined onto a single transmission
line by a channel combiner.
This figure shows a basic cable modem system that consists of a head end (television receivers and cable
modem system), distribution lines with amplifiers, and cable modems that connect to customers' computers.
This diagram shows that the cable television operator's head end system contains both analog and digital
television channel transmitters that are connected to customers through the distribution lines. The distribution
lines (fiber and/or coaxial cable) carry over 100 television RF channels. Some of the upper television RF
channels are used for digital broadcast channels that transmit data to customers and the lower frequency
channels are used to transmit digital information from the customer to the cable operator.
Each of the upper digital channels can transfer 30 to 40 Mbps and each of the lower digital channels can
transfer data at approximately 2 Mbps. The cable operator has replaced its one-way distribution amplifiers with
precision (linear) high frequency bi-directional (two-way) amplifiers. Each high-speed Internet customer has a
cable modem that can communicate with the cable modem termination system (CMTS) modem at the head end
of the system where the CMTS system is connected to the Internet.
SCRAMBLED OF T.V SIGNALS:

As you can see the video portion of the signal is between regular pulses. The high amplitude regular
shaped pulses are made up of several componets. The horizontal blanking pulse is the widest part and is used to
turn off the CRT during the vertical retrace. This prevents the vertical retrace lines from showing up on the
screen. On top of the blanking pulse is the horizontal-sync pulse. Its purpose is to synchronize the sweep
circuitry in the TV with the video signal. After the horizontal-sync pulse's trailing edge and before the blanking
pulse's trailing edge is the color burst signal. This area is called the "backporch". The color burst signal is a
3.58Mhz sinewave that is used to synchronize the color circuitry in the TV. In a standard picture signal there are
15,750 horizontal and 30 vertical frames per second. To understand the many methods of scrambling it is
important to remember that the horizontal and vertical pulses and the color burst signal are used for timing and
are needed to reconstruct a TV picture. If any of those signals are absent, distorted or changed in any way the
TV picture will not be synchronized. The picture will be unwatchable. The picture will tear, roll, and the colors
may be incorrect and will appear like the picture at the beginning of this page. The audio in the NTSC format is
frequency modulated on a 4.5 Mhz signal that is added to the composite video signal. The audio portion of a TV
works like a standard FM radio and therefore the signal is similar.
Scrambling Techniques
There are a few key components that can be altered to cause a picture to be unwatchable. These key
componets are the sync pulses, color burst signal and the video signal also the audio signal can be modified to
disable the audio portion. Most scrambling today is done using a form of sync suppresion.
Video Inversion
One of the most simplest forms of scrambling is to reverse the polarity of the video information. This
may cause the TV not to sync up and the picture will tear and roll. If the TV does sync up then the picture will
appear as a negative picture. The dark areas will be light and light areas will be dark. The colors will be
reversed and cause faces to be blue and the sky to be brown. Inverted video is very easy to fix; all that needs to
be done is to re-invert the video again. A slightly more sophisticated version of this method is to invert the video
at different intervals during the frame. The picture would flicker or have a superimposed pattern. Typically this
method is not used by itself because it is very easy to disable, it is usually used with another form of
scrambling.
Sine-Wave Scrambling:
One way to alter the sync pulses is to add a sinewave to the video signal. With this method a 15.75khz
sinewave is added. If the sinewave and the video signal is summed properly it is posible for the sync pulse to
reduce and the video signal to be higher. As shown in the picture below, the sync pulse ids now below the video
signal. This will cause the sync circuits in the TV not to function properly.

To unscramble the signal all you need to do is mix a sinewave of the same type to the video signal and it
will cancel out and restore the video to normal. The sinewave is typicaly added to the audio signal.
Gated-Sync Scrambling:
This method is very similar to the sinewave scrambling except that a square wave is used to reduce the
signal level of the sync pulses. As you can see from the diagram a negative pulse is added to the video signal so
that the negative pulses will reduce the level of the sync pulses below the video signal information. The result is
a scrambled picture because the TV sync circuits cannot lock onto the sync signal.
To descramble a gated-sync method, a proper square wave needs to be mixed to the scrambled signal
and the sync pulses will be restored to the orignal size. The most common way for the cable company to provide
the square wave is to add it to the audio signal and then all you need to do is strip it away. In the out band gated
sync method the correcting wave can be attached to any frequency that the cable can handle. With this method
the frequency would have to be known and and then the correcting wave could be extracted. Typical frequecys
are 50MHz and any frequency between 90MHz and 114MHz.
SSAVI Scrambling
One of the most commonly used scrambling methods is the SSAVI system. SSAVI stands for Scrambled Sync
And Video Inversion. This system has four modes of operation.
1. Suppressed Sync Pulses and Inverted Video

2. Suppressed Sync Pulses and Normal Video
3. Normal Sync Pulses and Inverted Video
4. Normal Sync and Normal Video ( not scrambled )

CABLE SIGNAL CONVERTER:
TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION:
A cable converter box or television converter box is an electronic tuning device that
transposes/converts any of the available channels from a cable television service to an analog RF signal on a
single channel, usually VHF channel 3 or 4, or to a different output for digital televisions such as HDMI. The
device allows a television set that is not “cable ready” to receive cable channels. While later televisions were
"cable ready" with a standard converter built-in, the existence ofpremium television (aka pay per view) and the
advent of digital cable have continued the need for various forms of these devices for cable television reception.
While not an explicit part of signal conversion, many cable converter boxes include forms of descrambling to
manage carrier-controlled access restriction to various channels.
The basic converter box is passive and does not communicate back to the carrier. It simply tunes to one
of the channels being transmitted together over the wire and re-transmits it to a television or other video device
on a standard broadcast frequency (usually a customer-selected, locally unused frequency between VHF 2and
4). Like other set-top boxes, converter boxes usually provide multiple options for the output channel (either 2/3
or 3/4) so that the same box can be used, with simple configuration, in multiple television markets. Despite not
having a broadcast reception television antenna, a strong local television station can causeinterference with the
TV's reception of the cable converter's signal, resulting in undesired static or ghosting.
Later cable boxes became addressable, allowing the carrier to independently identify one cable box from
another. In early systems, this permitted the carrier to send instructions to the boxes by addressing them over the
wire. This allowed customers to subscribe to premium television and pay-per-view. More recent cable boxes,
particularly those for digital cable, engage in two-way communication with the carrier central office, allowing
for more advanced and interactive features.
UNIT-3
DIGITAL SATELLITE T.V
Digital satellite system
Digital Satellite Transmission: The four stages of digital satellite transmission are
(1) Signal encoding
(2) Processing
(3) Modulation and Transmission encoding of video and audio signal is detailed in the previous section and
modulation and 'transmission of processed signals is covered in chapter 26 titled "Satellite Television
Technology". As such, necessary details of signal processing are given here with the, help of Fig. 30.5
which shows simplified UP-LINK set-up of a transmitting station
Signal Processing~: The three stages of signal processing are-
(i) Data compression
(ii)Encryption
iii) Packetising.
i) Data Compression: The data rate required to transmit all the digital video and audio
a) information obtained' from the studio would exceed 200Mbps and if attempted will need a channel
bandwidth of around 50 MHz with provisions for very expensive process equipment.
b) Therefore,data compression technique is used to reduce the average data rate to about 3 to 6
Mbps.,The comperession or reduction In data transfer-rate becomes possible because while scanning
any scene, the motion and background stays the same for many frames at a time and its repetitive
transmission can be avoided by curtailing the available data i.e., compressing it.
c) Such a compression is accomplished by predicting motion that occurs from one frame of the video to
the next and transmitting only this along with similar changes in the background of scene being
televised. The resulting data will of course change a bit depending on the motion occurring in the
scene.
Similarly, audio compression, is also done to reduce audio bit rate by eliminating soft sounds
That are near louds because their absence at the receiving end would not matter much on account of the
limitations of human ear. The resultant i.e., compressed audio data rate can vary from 50 Kbps for mono signals
to near 300kbps for stereo sounds.
Data Encryption: To prevent unauthorized reception of channels for which a special fee is to
be paid, their video signal are encrypted before up linking by inserting, special data , into the pulse train to
disturb its sequence and content with the aim to prevent normal reproduction of pictures on the receiver screen.
The keys for de-encryption are also transmitted with the channel data to enable authorized (paying) customers
to restore normal sequence of video signals. This is done by inserting in the decoder (satellite receiver) a card
called 'SMART CARD' which is supplied to the subscriber.
Datapackets:_ Besides video and audio Signals, conditional information is also, transmitted
to the customer which includes conditional access data, PC compatible data and program guide. Each set of
information is combined in the form of a packet as shown in the figure which also contains signals to register
identity of each packet thus enabling their easy separation at the receiving end.
DIGITAL SATELLITE RECEPTION AND DECODING:

DTH TV:
DIGITAL T.V RECEIVER:

MERITS OF DIGITAL T.V RECEIVER:

Unit – 4
DIGITAL SATELLITE SYSTEMS:
A satellite navigation or sat-nave system is a system of satellites that provide autonomous geo-spatial
positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location
(longitude, latitude, and altitude) to high precision (within a few meters) using time signals transmitted along
a line of sight by radio from satellites. The signals also allow the electronic receivers to calculate the current
local time to high precision, which allows time synchronization. A satellite navigation system with global
coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system or GNSS.
As of April 2013, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) and the
Russian GLONASS are global operational GNSSs. China is in the process of expanding its regional Beidou
navigation system into the global Compass navigation system by 2020. The European Union's Galileo
positioning system is a GNSS in initial deployment phase, scheduled to be fully operational by 2020 at the
earliest. France, India and Japan are in the process of developing regional navigation systems.
Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 20–30medium Earth
orbit (MEO) satellites spread between several orbital planes. The actual systems vary, but use orbital
inclinations of >50° and orbital periods of roughly twelve hours (at an altitude of about 20,000 kilometers
(12,000 mi)).
DTH WORKING - DTH ANTENNA
How does DTH work
A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre,

satellites, encoders, multiplexers, modulators and DTH
receivers.
A DTH service provider has to lease Ku-band
transponders from the satellite. The encoder
converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer mixes these signals. At the
user end, there will be a small dish antenna and set-top boxes to decode and view numerous channels. On the
user's end, receiving dishes can be as small as 45 cm in diameter.
DTH is an encrypted transmission that travels to the consumer directly through a satellite. DTH
transmission is received directly by the consumer at his end through the small dish antenna. A set-top box,
unlike the regular cable connection, decodes the encrypted transmission.
How does DTH really differ from cable TV

The way DTH reaches a consumer's home is different from the way cable TV does. In DTH, TV
channels would be transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on the window or rooftop of
the subscriber's home. So the broadcaster directly connects to the user. The middlemen like local cable operators
are not there in the picture.
DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of a cable
operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house. As we explained above, in
DTH signals directly come from the satellite to your DTH dish.
There are four serious contenders for DTH services in India: Doordarshan, Star, Zee, and Data Access.
DTH offers better quality picture than cable TV. This is because cable TV in India is analog. Despite
digital transmission and reception, the cable transmission is still analog. DTH offers stereophonic sound effects.
It can also reach remote areas where terrestrial transmission and cable TV have failed to penetrate. Apart from
enhanced picture quality, DTH has also allows for interactive TV services such as movie-on-demand, Internet
access, video conferencing and e-mail. But the thing that DTH has going for it is that the powerful broadcasting
companies like Star, Zee, etc are pushing for it.
In DTH, the payments will be made directly by the subscriber to the satellite company offering the
service.
A big problem that broadcasters face in India is the issue of under-reporting of subscribers by cable
operators.
DTH where broadcasters directly connect to consumers and can actually grow revenues with a growth in
the subscriber base also reaping the benefits of more attractive tariffs.
DTH be cheaper than cable or more expensive and it will be definitely more expensive than cable as it exists
today.
DTH LNB
A Duo LNB is a double low-noise block down converter (LNB) developed by SES for the simultaneous
reception of satellite television signals from both the Astra 23.5°Eand Astra 19.2°E satellite positions.
It is a monoblock LNB, which comprises two feed horns with a single body of electronics containing the
LNB stages along with switching circuitry to select which received signal is passed to the output(s).
Availability

A Duo LNB can be purchased in most parts of Europe but it is particularly marketed to Germany, the
Netherlands, Belgium and the Czech and Slovak Republics.
Duo LNBs operate as universal LNBs and are manufactured under various brand names, such as Maximum and
Invert, in single, twin-output and quad-output versions – with one, two and four outputs (independently
selectable for polarization and frequency band), respectively, for one, two or four receivers/tuners. The Duo
LNB is available in two versions - the original Duo LNB for dishes of 80 cm or 85 cm diameter and the Duo
LNB II for dishes of 60 cm.
Background
The Astra 23.5°E orbital position was established as a major source of direct-to-home (DTH) broadcasts
for central and western Europe with the launch of Astra 3A at the end of 2007, and some channels moved there
from other satellite positions (in particular 19.2° east) so viewers, who were unable to erect two dishes to
receive transmissions from both positions, had to choose between them.The Duo LNB was introduced to enable
a single satellite dish to be used to receive all the channels from 19.2° east and 23.5° east.
The ASTRA2Connect satellite internet service also operates from 23.5° east.
In May 2010 the Astra 3B satellite was launched to the Astra 23.5° east position to release the Astra
1E and Astra 1Gsatellites previously in that position for use at other orbital positions.
Technology
The basic technology behind the Duo LNB is not new. It takes advantage of the fact that signals hitting a
dish off-axis will be focused (albeit with some diffusion) off axis in the opposite direction. So, with the dish
aligned so that the central LNB is receiving one satellite, a secondary offset LNB can be aligned on the focus of
a second satellite spaced away from the first.
This effect has been exploited for many years to receive signals from two satellites at once with a single
dish, and two LNBs have been most commonly arranged on a dish in this way for reception of Astra 19.2°E and
the Hot Bird satellites at 13° east, primarily for the abundance of TV channels from 19.2° east, and some
additional channels (especially adult channels) from 13° east.
Installation
The Duo LNB is normally fitted with the feed horn for Astra 23.5°E mounted on the dish's feed arm, and
the 19.2°E feed horn sticking out to the right - as viewed standing in front of the dish, with the satellites behind
you. The Astra 23.5°E feed horn is identified with a "23.5" marking on the casing. The dish is then aligned on
the 23.5°E position, using a signal strength meter, in the normal way.
The correct skew angle and height difference depend on the position of the receive site on Earth's
surface, and in most locations the tilt angle from the LNB is a compromise between their ideal settings.
However, within Europe the single tilt angle adjustment provides sufficient accuracy for both settings for
reliable reception.
The tilt angle for the Duo LNB at the receive site location may be found in maps or city tables (a scale is
marked on the LNB casing) or found by adjustment with a signal meter connected. By setting the correct tilt
angle and aligning the whole dish in azimuth and elevation, the two feed horns of the LNB are optimally
aligned for both orbital positions.
DTH RECIEVERS

A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive
microwaves from communications satellites, which transmit data transmissions or broad casts, such as satellite
television.
Principle of operation
Schematics of reflection principles used in parabolic antennas.

The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the dish’s focal point. Mounted on brackets at the
dish's focal point is a device called a feed horn. This feed horn is essentially the front-end of a waveguide that
gathers the signals at or near the focal point and 'conducts' them to a low-noise block down converter or LNB.
The LNB converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals and shifts the
signals from the down linked C-band and/or Ku-band to the L-band range. Direct broadcast satellite dishes use
an LNBF, which integrates the feed horn with the LNB. (A new form of Omni directional satellite antenna,
which does not use a directed parabolic dish and can be used on a mobile platform such as a vehicle was
announced by the University of Waterloo in 2004.
Modern dishes intended for home television use are generally 43 cm (18 in) to 80 cm (31 in)
in diameter, and are fixed in one position, for Ku-band reception from one orbital position. Prior to the
existence of direct broadcast satellite services, home users would generally have a motorized C-band dish of up
to 3 metres in diameter for reception of channels from different satellites. Overly small dishes can still cause
problems, however, including rain fade and interference from adjacent satellites.
Systems design
In a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the receiver set-
top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB is provided through the
same coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In addition, control signals are also
transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable.
The receiver uses different power supply voltages (13/18V) to select antenna polarization, and pilot
tones (22 kHz) to instruct the LNB to select one of the two frequency bands. In larger installations each band
and polarization is given its own cable, so there are 4 cables from the LNB to a switching matrix, which allows
the connection of multiple receivers in a star topology using the same signaling method as in a single receiver
installation.
Types--Motor-driven dish
A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a stepper motor or a servo can be controlled and rotated
to face any satellite position in the sky. Motor-driven dishes are popular with enthusiasts. There are three
competing standards: DiSEqC,USALS, and 36v positioners. Many receivers support all of these standards.
Multi-satellite

Special dish for up to 16 satellite positions (Ku-band).
Some designs enable simultaneous reception from multiple different satellite positions without re-
positioning the dish. The vertical axis operates as an off-axis concave parabolic concave hyperbolic CASs grain
reflector, while the horizontal axis operates as a concave convex Casse grain. The spot from the main dish
wanders across the secondary, which corrects astigmatism by its varying curvature. The elliptic aperture of the
primary is designed to fit the deformed illumination by the horns. Due to double spill-over, this makes more
sense for a large dish.
Vsat
A common type of dish is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT). This provides two way satellite
internet communications for both consumers and private networks for organizations. Today most VSATs operate
in Ku band; C band is restricted to less populated regions of the world. There is a move which started in 2005
towards new Ka band satellites operating at higher frequencies, offering greater performance at lower cost.
ADDITIONAL ACCESSERIES
Pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work in conjunction
with chlorophyll. They include other forms of this pigment, such as chlorophyll b in green algal and higher
plant antennae, while other algae may contain chlorophyll c or d. In addition, there are many non-chlorophyll
accessory pigments, such ascarotenoids or phycobiliproteins, which also absorb light and transfer that
light energy to photosystem chlorophyll. Some of these accessory pigments, in particular the carotenoids, also
serve to absorb and dissipate excess light energy, or work as antioxidants. The large, physically associated
group of chlorophylls and other accessory pigments is sometimes referred to as a pigment bed, though this term
is no longer supported by what we know of photosystem and antenna complex structures.
The different chlorophyll and non-chlorophyll pigments associated with the photo systems all have
different absorption spectra, either because the spectra of the different chlorophyll pigments are modified by
their local protein environment or because the accessory pigments have intrinsic structural differences. The
result is that, in vivo, a composite absorption spectrum of all these pigments is broadened and flattened such
that a wider range of visible and infrared radiation is absorbed by plants and algae. Most photosynthetic
organisms do not absorb green light well, thus most remaining light under leaf canopies in forests or under
water with abundant plankton is green, a spectral effect called the "green window". Organisms such as
some cyano bacteria and red algae contain accessory phycobili proteins that absorb green light reaching these
habitats.
In aquatic ecosystems, it is likely that the absorption spectrum of water, along with given and trip ton
(dissolved and particulate organic matter, respectively), determines phototrophic niche differentiation. The six

shoulders in the light absorption of water between wavelengths 400 and 1100 nm correspond to troughs in the
collective absorption of at least twenty diverse species of phototrophic bacteria. Another effect is due to the
overall trend for water to absorb low frequencies, while given and tripton absorb higher ones. This is why open
ocean appears blue and supports yellow species such as Prochlorococcus, which contains divined-
chlorophyll a and b. Synechococcus, colored red with phy coerythrin, is adapted to coastal bodies,
while phycocyanin allows Cyano bacteria to thrive in darker inland waters
COMPLETE DTH PROCESS
Work in process, work in progress, (WIP) goods in process, or in-process inventory are a company's
partially finished goods waiting for completion and eventual sale or the value of these items. These items are
either just being fabricated or waiting for further processing in a queue or a buffer storage. The term is used in
production and supply chain management.
Optimal production management aims to minimize work in process. Work in process requires storage
space, represents bound capital not available for investment and carries an inherent risk of earlier expiration of
shelf life of the products. A queue leading to a production step shows that the step is well buffered for shortage
in supplies from preceding steps, but may also indicate insufficient capacity to process the output from these
preceding steps.
Just-in-time (acronym: JIT) production is a concept to reduce work in process with respect to a
continuous configuration of product. Just in sequence (JIS) is a similar concept with respect to a scheduled
variety in sequence of configurations for products.
Barcode and RFID identification can be used to identify work items in process flow. For locating the products
additional requirements must be considered to ensure not only presence of work items, but also knowledge of
the whereabouts of these items. This is a mandatory condition in flexible production lines with paralleled work
positions for single steps of production.
Sometimes, outside of a production and construction context "Work in process" is used erroneously
where the status "Work in Progress" would be correctly used to describe more broadly work that is not yet a
final product.
WIP in construction projects
Work-In-Process in construction accounting identifies the value of construction projects which are
currently being worked on by the construction firm. To properly account for each project, FOUR values are
needed for each project at the end of any given month (or period):
1. the Sales Price (excluding sales tax) for the project,

2. the total Cost Estimate for the project,
3. the Costs-To-Date,
4. the Billed-To-Date.

CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE TV RECEIVER TO A SINGLE DISH
Single Cable Distribution is a satellite TV technology that enables the delivery of broadcast
programming to multiple users over a single coaxial cable, and eliminates the numerous cables required to
support consumer electronics devices such as twin-tuner Digital Video Recorders (DVRs) and high end
receivers.
Without single cable distribution, providing full spectrum access for multiple receivers, or receivers with
multiple tuners, in a single family home has required a separate coaxial cable feeding each tuner from the
antenna equipment (either multiple LNBs, a multi-output LNB or a multi switch distribution system) because of
the large bandwidth requirement of the signals.
Single cable distribution technology enables one coaxial cable from the antenna equipment to multiple
tuners, to provide independent tuning across the whole range of satellite reception for each tuner.
A European industry standard for distributing satellite signals over a single coaxial cable - CENELEC
EN50494 - has been defined in 2007and developed by a consortium led by SES.
Single cable distribution technology can be found in commercial equipment with the Unicable
trademark from FTA Communications Technologies. Uni cable uses an integrated software and hardware
solution that allows Uni cable-certified Digital Video Recorders and receivers to multiplex selected
programming when using Uni cable LNB or multi switching products.
The Unicable Interoperability Platform is open to companies designing and/or marketing satellite and
other broadcast-related products. The platform is designed to facilitate the acceptance of Unicable-certified
solutions in the consumer TV broadcast market.
How it works
Each satellite receiver in the installation has a dedicated user band of a bandwidth approximately the
same as a transponder. The receiver requests a particular transponder frequency via a DiSEqC-compliant
command. A mixer in the dish-end equipment (an LNB or distribution unit) converts the received signal to the
correct user band IF centre frequency for that receiver.
The converted transponders of the various users are then combined, and sent via the single coaxial cable
to the receivers. The combined signal is tapped or split to reach every user.
Silicon vendors have developed complex Integrated Circuits that greatly reduce the cost of
implementing the single cable distribution function. A Channel Stacking Switch IC is a multiple-input multiple-
output device. It typically has N 1.2 GHz inputs that can be cascaded to additional chips as required (to expand
output capacity).
Equipment
Special LNBs have been developed for use in single cable distribution systems. All four sub-bands of
the Ku band (low frequency/horizontal polarity, high frequency/horizontal polarity, low frequency/vertical
polarity, high frequency/vertical polarity) are received by a conventional front end, amplified and down
converted to the L-band, to be fed to a number of Single Cable Router (SCR) chips – one for each user that can
be connected - to further down convert the required section of the received spectrum to centre on the user band
IF frequency.

The LNB further includes a mixer to combine the user bands together and a microcontroller to receive
the instructions as to which frequency is required by each user and control the SCR chips.
Alternatively, a single cable distribution system can use a conventional LNB feeding the four sub-bands
to a separate SCR device, as a substitute for a traditional multi switch, that needs a dedicated coaxial cable for
every receiver (or tuner) connected.
Fiber Optic Alternative
An alternative approach to that provided by single cable distribution of the signal from a single LNB to
multiple receivers, or receivers with multiple tuners, is offered by the use of fiber satellite
distribution using optical fiber. The high bandwidth of optical connections allows for the full satellite spectrum
received at the dish to be accommodated on one fiber optic cable, which can be easily optically split to provide
that full spectrum signal to a large number of receivers.
UK company, Global Invacom (which also developed and markets SCR single cable distribution
equipment) has developed a low cost system of fiber optic distribution suitable for domestic installations and
small or medium commercial communal dish systems.
CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE DISH
Fibre satellite distribution is a technology that enables satellite TV signals from an antenna to be
distributed using an optical fibre cable infrastructure and then converted to electrical signals for use with
conventional set-top box receivers.
Particularly applicable to satellite TV distribution systems in a multi-dwelling unit, such as a block of
flats (but useful in smaller domestic distribution systems too), such a hybrid fibre/electrical system reduces the
cabling required, reduces signal noise and interference, and provides for an easy upgrade to increase the number
of tuners connected at each dwelling.
Conventional systems that distribute the electrical satellite IF signal via a star network of coaxial
cable require one relatively short cable run from the central distribution equipment to each tuner connected to
the system, whereas in a fiber system, cables can be very long, and split at successive locations, in a tree
structure without detriment to the reception.
Advantages
The primary benefit of using optical fiber for a satellite TV IF distribution system is that the fiber can
carry the entire received spectrum on one cable, which can then be split to provide for multiple tuners, without
requiring a separate feed from the antenna to each tuner. Additional outlets can be added to increase the number
of receivers within one home without accessing the central antenna or main infrastructure.

Fiber cable is cheap in long runs, retailing at about twice the price of equivalent copper coaxial cable,
but replacing four runs of coaxial cable with a single fiber cable. It is also much smaller than the coaxial signal
cable used for electrical IF distribution, but robust and flexible. The losses in a fiber system are almost
negligible so very long cable runs of hundreds of meters are possible without any signal reinforcement.
Because the signal is carried as a beam of light, it is impervious to the electrical interference that even
the best coaxial satellite cable may suffer, and cables can be safely and conveniently run alongside mains power
cables. Power consumption is also lower than an equivalent electrical system.
Development
An eight-way optical signal splitter to feed eight virtual LNBs or further splitters from a single optical
feed.While optical fiber has been used for telephone and Internet backbone data, and even for television and
multimedia carriage for terrestrial cable, for many years, use for satellite IF distribution has been held back by
considerations of cost and installation convenience.
How it works
A virtual LNB with four electrical outputs for four tuners, The complete spectrum of Ku-band satellite
reception stretches from 10.70 GHz-12.75 GHz across two signal polarizations, or a bandwidth of about
4000 MHz This cannot be carried on a single coaxial cable and so in a conventional satellite reception system,
just one of four sub-bands (received in vertical and horizontal polarization, and high and low frequency,) is sent
from the antenna to the indoor receiver as 0.95 GHz-2.15 GHz IF.
Which sub-band is required is signaled from the receiver to the antenna’s LNB by a 13/18V and
0/22 kHz tone on the LNB supply sent up the same coaxial cable. In a single antenna distribution system,
special Quattro LNB supplies all four sub-bands at once, from four outputs and these are supplied as required to
each of the multiple outlets connected to an IF multiswitch
An optical fiber system “stacks” the four sub-bands in frequency, one above the other, at the LNB, in the
range 0.95 GHz-5.45 GHz (a bandwidth of 4500 MHz) and transmits them together as a modulated optical
signal down the fiber cable using a 1310 nm semiconductor laser.
The losses in the cable are extremely small (in the region of 0.3dB/km) and the Global Invacom optical
LNB output can be split up to 32 ways with a cable length of up to 10 km between the LNB and the receiver.
CONNECTING MORE THAN ONE DISH/LNB TO SINGLE RECEIVER

A low-noise block down converter (or LNB) is the receiving device mounted on satellite used
for satellite TV reception, which collects the radio waves from the dish. Also called a low-noise
block. LNC (for low-noise converter), or even LND (for low-noise down converter), the device is sometimes
wrongly called an LNA (low-noise amplifier).
The LNB is a combination of low-noise amplifier, frequency mixer, local oscillator and IF amplifier. It
receives the microwave signal from the satellite collected by the dish, amplifies it, and down converts the block
of frequencies to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF). This down conversion allows the signal to be
carried to the indoor satellite TV receiver using relatively cheap coaxial cable; if the signal remained at its
original microwave frequency it would require an expensive and impractical waveguide line.
The LNB is usually a small box suspended on one or more short booms, or feed arms, in front of the
dish reflector, at its focus (although some dish designs have the LNB on or behind the reflector). The
microwave signal from the dish is picked up by a feed horn on the LNB and is fed to a section of waveguide.
One or more metal pins, or probes, protrude into the waveguide at right angles to the axis and act as antennas,
feeding the signal to a PCB inside the LNB's shielded box for processing. The lower frequency IF output signal
emerges from a socket on the box to which the coaxial cable connects.
LNBF disassembled (All Parts). The waveguide carrying the microwave radio signal collected by the
dish passes through the hole in the center. The pins visible at the top and left side of the hole project into the
waveguide and receive the signal, converting it to radio frequency switch are processed by the circuit board.
a low-noise block down converter. fig(a). the pin and the horn antenna in a converter. fig(b)
The LNB gets its power from the receiver or set-top box inside the house. This phantom is sent "up" the
same coaxial cable that carries the received signals "down" to the receiver, eliminating the need for a separate
power cable.
A corresponding component, called a block up converter (BUC), is used at the satellite earth
station (uplink) dish to convert the band of television channels to the microwave uplink frequency.
Amplification and noise
The signal received by the LNB is extremely weak and it has to be amplified before down conversion.
The low noise amplifier section of the LNB amplifies this weak signal while adding the minimum possible
amount of noise to the signal.
The low-noise quality of an LNB is expressed as the noise figure (or sometimes noise). This is the ratio
of the amount of noise in the output to the amount in the input, in decibels (dB). Every LNB off the production
line has a different noise figure because of manufacturing
tolerances.
The noise figure quoted in the specifications - important for determining the LNB's suitability - is
usually representative of neither that particular LNB nor the performance across the whole frequency range,
since the noise figure most often quoted is the typical figure averaged over the production batch.
Ku-band linear-polarized LNBF

Block down conversion
Satellites use comparatively high radio frequencies (microwaves) to transmit their TV signals. As
microwave satellite signals do not easily pass through walls, roofs, or even glass windows, it is preferable for
satellite antennas to be mounted outdoors. Plastic glazing however is transparent to microwaves and residential
satellite dishes have successfully been hidden indoors looking through acrylic attic windows to preserve the
aesthetics of the home.
The purpose of the LNB is to use the super heterodyne principle to take a block (or band) of relatively
high frequencies and convert them to similar signals carried at a much lower frequency (called the intermediate
frequency or IF). These lower frequencies travel through cables with much less attenuation, so there is much
more signal left at the satellite receiver end of the cable. It is also much easier and cheaper to design electronic
circuits to operate at these lower frequencies, rather than the very high frequencies of satellite transmission.
LNBFs
With the launch of the first DTH broadcast satellite in Europe (Astra 1A) by SES in 1988, antenna
design was simplified for the anticipated mass-market. In particular, the feedhorn (which gathers the signal and
directs it to the LNB) and the polarizer(which selects between differently polarized signals) were combined with
the LNB itself into a single unit, called an LNB-feed or LNB-feedhorn (LNBF), or even an "Astra type" LNB.
The prevalence of these combined units has meant that today the term LNB is commonly used to refer to all
antenna units that provide the block-down conversion function, with or without a feedhorn.

Polarization
It's common to polarize satellite TV signals because it provides a way of transmitting more TV channels
using a given block of frequencies. This approach requires the use of receiving equipment that can filter
incoming signals based on their polarization. Two satellite TV signals can then be transmitted on the same
frequency (or, more usually, closely adjacent frequencies) and provided that they are polarized differently, the
receiving equipment can still separate them and display whichever one is currently required.
Throughout the World, most satellite TV transmissions use vertical and horizontal linear polarization but
in North America,DBS transmissions use left and right hand circular polarization. Within the waveguide of a
North American DBS LNB a slab of dielectric material is used to convert left and right circular polarized
signals to vertical and horizontal linear polarized signals so the converted signals can be treated the same.
A 1980s banding (2.18 dB noise figure) without built-in polarization selection and with a WR75 fitting
for separate feed horn and polarizer
The probe inside the LNB waveguide collects signals that are polarized in the same plane as the probe.
To maximize the strength of the wanted signals (and to minimize reception of unwanted signals of the opposite
polarization), the probe is aligned with the polarization of the incoming signals.
This is most simply achieved by adjusting the LNB's skew - its rotation about the waveguide axis. To
remotely select between the two polarizations, and to compensate for inaccuracies of the skew angle, it used to
be common to fit a polarizer in front of the LNB's waveguide mouth. This either rotated the incoming signal
with an electromagnet around the waveguide (a magnetic polarizer) or rotated an intermediate probe within the
waveguide using a servo motor (a mechanical polarizer) but such adjustable skew polarizer’s are rarely used
today.
CHANGING SATELLITE CHANNELS
Satellite television is television programming delivered by the means of communications satellite and
received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic reflector generally referred to as a satellite dish, and as far
as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of an external set-top box or a
satellite tuner module built into a television set. Satellite television tuners are also available as a card or
a USB peripheral to be attached to a personal computer. In many areas of the world satellite television provides
a wide range of channels and services, often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable providers.

Direct-broadcast satellite television comes to the general public in two distinct flavors – analog and
digital. This necessitates either having an analog satellite receiver or a digital satellite receiver. Analog satellite
television is being replaced by digital satellite television and the latter is becoming available in a better quality
known as high-definition television.
Standards
Analog television distributed via satellite is usually sent scrambled or unscrambled in NTSC, PAL,
or SECAM television broadcast standards. The analog signal is frequency modulated and is converted from an
FM signal to what is referred to as baseband. This baseband comprises the video signal and the audio
subcarrier(s). The audio subcarrier is further demodulated to provide a raw audio signal.
If the signal is a digitized television signal or multiplex of signals, it is typically QPSK.
In general, digital television, including that transmitted via satellites, is generally based on open
standards such as Megan DVB-S or ISDB-S.
Direct broadcast via satellite

Direct broadcast satellite, (DBS) also known as "Direct-To-Home" can either refer to the
communications satellites themselves that deliver DBS service or the actual television service. DBS systems are
commonly referred to as "mini-dish" systems. DBS uses the upper portion of the K u band, as well as portions of
the Ka band.
Modified DBS systems can also run on C-band satellites and have been used by some networks in the past to
get around legislation by some countries against reception of Ku-band transmissions.
Most of the DBS systems use the DVB-S standard for transmission. With pay television services, the
data stream is encrypted and requires proprietary reception equipment. While the underlying reception
technology is similar, the pay television technology is proprietary, often consisting of a Conditional Access
Module and smart card.
This measure assures satellite television providers that only authorized, paying subscribers have access
to pay television content but at the same time can allow free-to-air (FTA) channels to be viewed even by the
people with standard equipment (DBS receivers without the Conditional Access Modules) available in the
market.
Television receive-only
The term Television receive-only, or TVRO, arose during the early days of satellite television reception
to differentiate it from commercial satellite television uplink and downlink operations (transmit and receive).
This was before there was a DTH satellite television broadcast industry. Satellite television channels at that time
were intended to be used by cable television networks rather than received by home viewers. Satellite television
receiver systems were largely constructed by hobbyists and engineers.
In 1978 Microcosm, a small company founded by radio amateur and microwave engineer H. Paul
Shush, introduced the first commercial home satellite television receiver. These early TVRO systems operated
mainly on the C band frequencies and the dishes required were large; typically over 3 meters (10 ft) in diameter.
Consequently TVRO is often referred to as "big dish" or "Big Ugly Dish" (BUD) satellite television.

TVRO systems are designed to receive analog and digital satellite feeds of both television or audio from
both C-band and Ku-band transponders on FSS-type satellites. The higher frequency Ku-band systems tend to be
Direct To Home systems and can use a smaller dish antenna because of the higher power transmissions and
greater antenna gain.
Direct to Home television
Many satellite television customers in developed television markets get their programming through a
direct broadcast satellite (DBS) provider. The provider selects programs and broadcasts them to subscribers as a
set package. Basically, the provider’s goal is to bring dozens or even hundreds of channels to the customer's
television in a form that approximates the competition from cable television. Unlike earlier programming, the
provider’s broadcast is completely digital, which means it has high picture and stereo sound quality. Early
satellite television services were broadcast in C-band radio, in the 3.7 Giga Hertz (GHz) to 4.2 GHz frequency
range. Digital broadcast satellite transmits programming in the Ku frequency range (10 GHz to 14 GHz).[2][3]
Programming sources are simply the channels that provide television programming for broadcast. The
provider (the DTH platform) does not create original programming itself. The broadcast center is the central hub
of the system. At the broadcast center, the television provider receives signals from various programming
sources, compresses these signals using digital video compression (encryption if necessary), and sends a
broadcast signal to the proper satellite.
NEED OF TELEPHONE JACK:
A telephone plug is a type of connector used to connect a telephone set to the telephone wiring inside a
building, establishing a connection to a telephone network. It is inserted into its counterpart, a telephone jack,
commonly affixed to a wall or baseboard. The standard for telephone plugs varies from country to country,
though the RJ11 modular connector has become by far the most common.
A connection standard, such as RJ11, specifies not only the physical aspects of an electrical connector,
but also the pin out, i.e. the assignment or function of each contact. Modular connectors are specified for
the Registered Jack (RJ) series of connectors, as well as for Ethernet and other connectors, such as 4P4C (4
position, 4 contacts) modular connectors, the de facto standard on handset cords, [2] often improperly referred to
as RJ connectors.
Bell system line cord as used in the mid 1960s

Historically the telephone was typically owned by the telephone company and permanently wired to
the telephone line they supplied, but as phone markets were deregulated a need arose for a simple plug-in
interface that consumers could install. Many countries initially used different specifications for connectors. For
example, after 1965 Bell System companies used the 505A plug, a round connector about 40 mm in diameter
with four prongs about 15 mm apart. National connectors remain in service but few are used for new
installations.
Connections
The installation of a conventional wired telephone set has four connection points, each of which may be
hardwired, but more often use a plug and socket:
 telephone line to phone cord: The wall jack. This connection is the most standardized, and often
regulated as the boundary between an individual's telephone and the telephone network. In many residences,
though, the boundary between utility-owned and household-owned cabling is a network interface on an
outside wall; all wall jacks in the home are part of the household's internal wiring.
 Telephone cord to telephone set base: This connection is generally not regulated, but instead follows de
facto standards. It is often a 6P4C connector, which is often RJ11, but may be proprietary or hardwired.
 Telephone set base to handset cord: By de facto standard, this is usually a 4P4C connector.
 Handset cord to handset: The handset end of the straight-through handset cord also uses
a 4P4C connector.
Some of these may be absent: Wired telephones may not have a separate base and handset. The defining
characteristic of wireless telephones is that they do not have a handset cord, and the defining characteristic of
mobile telephones is that they do not have a phone cord.
Wiring
Typical U.S. modular phone connector

A standard specifies both a physical connector and how it is wired. Sometimes the same connector is
used by different countries but wired in different ways.
For example, telephone cables in the UK typically have a BS 6312 (UK standard) plug at the wall end and a
6P4C or 6P2C modular connector at the telephone end: this latter may be wired as per the RJ11 standard (with
pins 3 and 4), or it may be wired with pins 2 and 5, as a straight through cable from the BT plug (which uses
pins 2 and 5 for the line, unlike RJ11, which uses pins 3 and 4).
List of plugs---Modular connectors
 4P4C and 4P2C for handset cables (often erroneously referred to as RJ9, RJ10, and RJ22)
 6P2C for RJ11 single telephone line
 6P4C for RJ14 two telephone lines
 6P6C for RJ25 three telephone lines

Other connectors
50-pin miniature ribbon connector for RJ21X, used for up to 25 lines for multiline phones such as
the ITT 2564, key telephone systems such as the 1A2 Key System, and PBX systems.
International standards National standards
1. RJ11, by far the most common. WT-4
2. BS 6312, British. RJ11
3. F-010, French. Cable holes
4. TAE connector, German.
Traditionally, the 5th plastic pin disconnects 1 μF capacitor that shorts telephone line while plug is not
inserted into socket. In modern makes it does nothing electrical, and capacitor compartment was reused for
additional RJ11 socket

UNIT -5
SITE SURVEY:
A site survey is an inspection of an area where work is proposed, to gather information for a design or
an estimate to complete the initial tasks required for an outdoor activity. It can determine a precise location,
access, best orientation for the site and the location of obstacles. The type of site survey and the best practices
required depend on the nature of the project. Examples of projects requiring a preliminary site survey include
urban construction, specialized construction (such as the location for a telescope) and wireless network design.
In hydrocarbon exploration, for example, site surveys are run over the proposed locations of offshore
exploration or appraisal wells.[5] They consist typically of a tight grid of high resolution (high
frequency) reflection seismology profiles to look for possible gas hazards in the shallow section beneath the
seabed and detailed bathymetric data to look for possible obstacles on the seafloor (e.g. shipwrecks, existing
pipelines) using multiband echo sounders
SATELLITE DISH INSTALLATIONS
Even a small 18 inch dish can excerpt a lot of force on a dish mast. The mast must be secured to
withstand years of wind loading. A dish mast installed on a traditional wood framed structure should be secured
with 6 lag screws. Two in the center secured into a wall stud or roof rafter, and four secured in the corners of the
mount.
When a solid wood beam or post is available, four lag screws on the corners are usually sufficient. When
mounting to brick or concrete, four corner anchors are sufficient. Masts should not be attached with wood, sheet
rock or sheet metal screws.
Only lag screws at least 5/16" in diameter should be used and they should be long enough to set at least
2 inches into solid wood. At least two lag screws in the middle of the mount should be set into a wall stud of
roof rafter. 1/4" inch diameter lag screws should never be used, they can loosen over a few years resulting in a
loss of picture with wind.
Some form of sealant should be used on all wall / roof mast installations. The only exception would be if
the mounting service was treated wood. An appropriate sealant for the mounting service should always be
selected. Using silicone sealant on a asphalt roof should never be allowed. If you read the instructions for the
proper use of silicone sealant it says something similar to; "Apply to a clean, grease free surface". Asphalt
roofing IS a grease surface. The silicone will stick to the rocks on the roofing, but will never form a water tight
seal to the roofing base. For asphalt roofing, roof patch tar or a material designed for sealing to asphalt should
be used. A good tar alternative is a pitch pad compound. The rubber/tar like compound acts as gasket between
the mount and the roof.
This particular install was only 6 months old and was already loose.
The sealant is placed between the siding and the mount. Excess sealant is removed. This particular
sealant will dry clear. Notice the 6 -5/16" lag screws securing the mount to the wall.
Ground post should always be metal pipe. Wood post not secured at both ends can twist as they cure and
with seasonal changes. The dish in image 8 had to be realigned after 6 months. The wood post twisted enough
to lower the signal level to the mid 40's. The dish in image 9 will never need to be aligned due to mast
movement. All ground post should be set in concrete. A pin should also be inserted through the pipe to eliminate
the chance of the pipe turning in the concrete. All ground post installs are not considered part of a basic or
standard installation. Additional installation fees will be required. Never allow your installer to simply pound
the pipe into the ground. It must be in concrete or a special pole designed for a cement-less installation.
DISH ROOF AND WALL MOUNTS
Bracket for a shelf or hanging items.

A bracket is an architectural element: a structural or decorative member. They can be made of wood,
stone, or meta that projects from a wall, usually to carry weight and sometimes to "...strengthen an
angle". A corbel and console are types of brackets.
Uses
Brackets can support many architectural items, including a wall, balcony, parapets, eaves, the spring of
an arch, beams, pergola roof, window box, or a shelf. In adjustable shelving systems, the bracket may be in two
parts, with the load-bearing horizontal support fitting into a wall-mounted slotted vertical metal strip. Brackets
also are an element in the systems used to mount modern facade cladding systems onto the outside of
contemporary buildings, as well as interior panels.
Architectural sculptures
Brackets are used in traditional timber framing including the support of a jetted floor which can be
carved. Magdalene Street, Cambridge, England. Sixteenth century
Brackets are often in the form of architectural sculptures with reliefs of objects and scrolls. Depending
on their material, decorated ones can be carved, cast, or molded. They can be of cast stone or resin-foam
materials with faux finishes for use on new buildings in historic revival styles of architecture. Some brackets
and corbels are only ornamental, and serve no actual supporting purpose.

ADJUSTING THE AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION SETTINGS
It is an angular measurement in a spherical. The vector from an observer (origin) to a point of interest
is projected perpendicularly onto a reference plane; the angle between the projected vector and a reference
vector on the reference plane is called the azimuth.
An example is the position of a star in the sky. The star is the point of interest, the reference plane is
the horizon or the surface of the sea, and the reference vector points north. The azimuth is the angle between the
north vector and the perpendicular projection of the star down onto the horizon. Azimuth is usually measured
in degrees (°). The concept is used in navigation, astronomy, engineering, mapping, mining and artillery.
In land navigation, azimuth is usually denoted alpha, , and defined as a horizontal angle
measured clockwise from a north base line or meridian. Azimuth has also been more generally defined as a
horizontal angle measured clockwise from any fixed reference plane or easily established base direction line.
Today the reference plane for an azimuth is typically true north, measured as a 0° azimuth, though other
angular units (grad, mil) can be used. Moving clockwise on a 360 degree circle, east has azimuth 90°, south
180°, and west 270°. There are exceptions: some navigation systems use south as the reference plane. Any
direction can be the plane of reference, as long as it is clearly defined.
Quite commonly, azimuths or compass bearings are stated in a system in which either north or south can
be the zero, or the angle may be measured clockwise or anticlockwise from the zero.
True north-based azimuths
From North
North 0° or 360° South 180°
North-Northeast 22.5° South-Southwest 202.5°
Northeast 45° Southwest 225°
East-Northeast 67.5° West-Southwest 247.5°
East 90° West 270°
East-Southeast 112.5° West-Northwest 292.5°
Southeast 135° Northwest 315°

South-Southeast 157.5° North-Northwest 337.5°
Mapping
A standard Brunton Geo compass, used commonly by geologists and surveyors to measure azimuth
There are a wide variety of azimuthally map projections. They all have the property that directions (the
azimuths) from a central point are preserved. Some navigation systems use south as the reference plane.
However, any direction can serve as the plane of reference, as long as it is clearly defined for everyone
using that system.
Astronomy
Used in celestial navigation, an azimuth is the direction of a celestial body from the observer. [7] In
astronomy, an azimuth is sometimes referred to as a bearing. In modern astronomy azimuth is nearly always
measured from the north. (The article on coordinate systems, for example, uses a convention measuring from
the south.) In former times, it was common to refer to azimuth from the south, as it was then zero at the same
time that the hour angle of a star was zero. This assumes, however, that the star (upper) culminates in the south,
which is only true if the star's declination is less than (i.e. further south than) the observer's latitude.
Other systems
Right ascension
If instead of measuring from and along the horizon the angles are measured from and along the celestial
equator, the angles are called right ascension if referenced to the Vernal Equinox, or hour angle if referenced to
the celestial meridian.
Horizontal coordinate

In the horizontal coordinate system, used in celestial navigation and satellite dish installation, azimuth is
one of the twocoordinates. The other is altitude, sometimes called elevation above the horizon. See also: Sat
finder.
Polar coordinate
In mathematics the azimuth angle of a point in cylindrical coordinates or spherical coordinates is the
anticlockwise anglebetween the positive x-axis and the projection of the vector onto the xy-plane. The angle is
the same as an angle in polar coordinates of the component of the vector in the xy-plane and is normally
measured in radians rather than degrees. As well as measuring the angle differently, in mathematical
applications theta, , is very often used to represent the azimuth rather than the symbol phi .
Other uses of the word
For magnetic tape drives, azimuth refers to the angle between the tape head(s) and tape.
In sound localization experiments and literature, the azimuth refers to the angle the sound source makes
compared to the imaginary straight line that is drawn from within the head through the area between the eyes.
An azimuth thruster in shipbuilding is a propeller that can be rotated horizontally.
DISH ANTENNA CONNECTION PROCEDURES:
Unless you qualify for a 'free' promotional offer from one of the major satellite TV service providers,
a satellite dish installation by a pro may cost you at least a couple of hundred dollars, especially in the case of
a roof-top antenna installation.

However, installing a dish antenna yourself is not difficult. This guide shows you in an easy-to-
follow approach, how to select your dish, choose the best location, install, and eventually fine tune your
satellite TV antenna for best reception.
Invest some time prior to choosing your satellite dish to avoid unnecessary expense later on; the
type of satellite dish you use and satellite TV decoder you purchase now will eventually determine the
kind of satellite TV programming you will be able to receive with your satellite TV system.
Low Noise Block-down Converters Equally important is deciding on the number of LNBs.
LNB's/LNBF are low noise 'block' down-converters. An LNBF is an LNB with an integrated feedhorn.
Most LNB's in use today are actually LNBF's. The term 'low noise' relates to the quality of the
amplification and mixing that takes place inside the LNB.
LNB's sit in front of the actual parabola of the satellite dish, at the end of the arm projecting from
the dish itself.
Their purpose is to receive, amplify and down convert the required 'blocks' of microwave
frequencies to lower 950MHz to 1.45GHz L-band frequency signals; these are then sent to the satellite
TV receiver or IRD (integrated receiver decoder), via RG-6 coax cable (more information on RF coaxial
cables is available on our site here.)
The number of LNBs determines the number of satellites a satellite dish can 'see' since a separate
LNB is required to receive signals from satellites in different orbital positions. Satellite TV service
providers use multiple satellites to deliver their content, hence the need for multiple LNBs to receive the
full range of satellite TV programming.
LNB's use an antenna probe inside the feedhorn to pick up the signal focused by the satellite
dish. The probe has to be aligned mechanically in a vertical or horizontal direction (or left and right hand
circular polarization for DBS satellites), in line with the polarization of the signal transmitted by the
satellite transponders.
This dual polarization is used by satellites to avoid interference between adjacent channels, and is
achieved by assigning even and odd transponders on the satellite different polarization. LNBF's employ
a dual antenna probe setup inside the throat of the feedhorn with one aligned vertically and the other
horizontally (or left and right). Switching to the correct polarized probe is carried out electronically via a
voltage sent up the coaxial cable by the receiver.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE INSTALLING THE DTH SYSTEM

Safety
DTH Corporation is committed to providing our employees with a safe and healthful workplace.
Our organization understands that safety is one of the keys to a successful business operation, it demands
responsible and competent professionals. At DTH Corporation, each employee is expected to perform his
or her job in a safe manner and in accordance with the procedures outlined in our safety program.
All feasible and practical efforts are made to protect the lives of our employees. Organizational policy
requires employees and supervisors to report unsafe conditions as well as any accidents and/or injuries.
Employee-made requests to improve safety are made a priority by our management team, and
management provides the financial resources for any reasonable request for safety. DTH Corporation
develops a detailed and specific safety plan for each project we perform. These plans are aimed at meeting
or exceeding the requirements of our clients and address topics ranging from responsibility and lines of
authority to lock-out/tag-out procedures.
As part of our commitment to safety, DTH Corporation provides comprehensive, project specific safety
training throughout the lifecycle of each project. Our training sessions are mandatory for all project
personnel, and subcontractor employees are invited to attend.
Quality Control
It is DTH Corporations policy to obtain the highest level of quality and workmanship in services
performed in the projects we manage and construct. Our team takes pride in its workmanship and strives to
cover all aspects within the Quality Control Program. This policy is implemented through our company’s
specific Quality Control Plan, which monitors and measures performance though the project lifecycle.
DTH Corporations Quality Control Program establishes procedures for the scheduled and
unscheduled inspection and review of all items of work including management, design, and construction
services to ensure that the quality of materials, equipment, workmanship and warranty service comply with
the provisions and specifications of each project. Our Quality Control plans apply to DTH Corporations
employees, subcontractors, and vendors providing on-site or off-site materials, equipment and/or services.
At DTH Corporation, our employees complete the Corps of Engineers Training Course, Construction
Quality Management for Contractors. Additional quality control processes include: preparation and
implementation of a customized Quality Control Plan; submittal preparation, review certification and
submission; quality control meetings; performance of the three phases of control; performance of testing;
project acceptance procedures; documentation; warranty response; and customer service program
implementation.
TROUBLE SHOOTING
1. Check that All Components are On

Check that your DISH receiver, your TV, and any component(s) (VCR, DVD Player, etc.) in between are
on.
2. Check for Current TV Channel or Input
Check what channel or input your TV is currently on by powering the TV off then back on and noting
the channel or input that appears on screen when the TV is powered on.
3. Check that TV2 is on Correct Channel
Access "Modulator Setup" from TV1 by selecting Menu, System Setup, Installation, Modulator
Setup.
Tune TV2 to the channel that appears under "TV2 Out" on screen (channel may appear on TV2 remote
sticker).
If still no picture, verify the mode (air or cable) that TV2 is on. Then change the modulator setup to
match this mode (air or cable).

After changing modulator setup, tune TV2 to the channel that appears under "TV2 Out" on screen.
4. Check Receiver-to-TV Configuration
Check that the wiring between your DISH receiver and your TV is configured properly using Receiver
to TV2.
5. Secure Receiver-to-TV Connections
Check that the connections between your DISH receiver, your TV, and any componenet (s) (VCR, DVD
player, etc.) in between are secure.
6. Reset Receiver
If the issue is only on ONE receiver, unplug the DISH receiver for 10 seconds and plug back in.
Please note: It may take up to 5 minutes for the reset process to be completed.
7. Check for Obstruction to Dish
Check for anything obstructing the signal to your satellite dish such as tree branches, severe rain, or
snow build-up. If it is safe to do so, remove the obstruction or wait for it to pass.
8. Reset Receiver
If the issue is only on ONE receiver, unplug the DISH receiver for 10 seconds and plug back in.
Please note: It may take up to 5 minutes for the reset process to be completed.
9. Check Receiver-to-Wall Configuration
If issue is only on ONE receiver, check that the wiring between your DISH receiver and your wall outlet
is configured properly using the Receiver to Wall diagrams.
10. Secure Receiver-to-Wall Connections
If you are experiencing the issue on only ONE receiver, check that the connections between your DISH
receiver, the wall, and any devices in between are hand tight.
LNB TESTING
A communications satellite or com-sat is an artificial satellite sent to space for the purpose
of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary
orbits, Molina orbits, elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits.
For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio
relay technology complementary to that of communication cables. They are also used for mobile applications
such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting.
Today's satellite communications can trace their origins all the way back to the Moon. A project
named Communication Moon Relay was a telecommunication project carried out by the United States Navy. Its
objective was to develop a secure and reliable method of wireless communication by using the Moon as a
natural communications satellite.
The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in global communications was a balloon
named Echo 1. Echo 1 was the world's first artificial communications satellite capable of relaying signals to
other points on Earth. It soared 1,000 miles (1,609 km) above the planet after its Aug. 12, 1960 launch, yet
relied on humanity's oldest flight technology — ballooning. Launched by NASA, Echo 1 was a giant metallic
balloon 100 feet (30 meters) across. The world's first inflatable satellite — or "sate loon", as they were
informally known — helped lay the foundation of today's satellite communications. The idea behind a
communications satellite is simple: Send data up into space and beam it back down to another spot on the globe.
Echo 1 accomplished this by essentially serving as an enormous mirror 10 stories tall that could be used to
bounce communications signals off of.
The first American satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape
recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower.NASA launched the Echo satellite in 1960; the 100-foot (30 m) aluminized
PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio communications. Courier 1B, built by Phil co, also
launched in 1960, was the world's first active repeater satellite.
It is commonly believed that the first "communications" satellite was Sputnik 1. Put into orbit by the
Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, it was equipped with an onboard radio-transmitter that worked on two
frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space and rocket
development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one
point on earth to another. Hence, it was not the first "communications" satellite, but it was the first artificial
satellite in the steps leading to today's satellite communications.
Telstar was the first active, direct relay communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-
national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and
the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA
from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on
December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963.
An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was Hughes' Syncom 2, launched on July 26,
1963. Sitcom 2 revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north-south
motion, special equipment was needed to track it.
Geostationary orbits
Geostationary orbit
To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in
the sky. This is because it revolves around the earth at the earth's own angular velocity (360 degrees every 24
hours, in an equatorial orbit).
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite
without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive. In applications that require a
large number of ground antennas, such as Direct TV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more
than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964, and used for
communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics. Shortly after
Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on April 6, 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude. It
was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean.

On November 9, 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Akin A1, was
launched by Telecast Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western
Union on April 13, 1974.
On May 30, 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis
stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, nowSES)
launched Satcom 1 in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early TV channels such as WTBS
(now TBS Superstation), HBO, CBN (now ABC Family), and The Wet Channel become successful, because
these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV head ends using the satellite.
Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States,
like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations. Satcom 1 was widely used
because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as
opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs. Satellites in later decades tended to
have even higher transponder numbers.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 200 kilo metres (120 mi) above the earth's
surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes. Because of their
low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1000 kilometers from the sub-
satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position
quickly. So even for local applications, a large number of satellites are needed if the mission requires
uninterrupted connectivity.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due
to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the
distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic). Thus there is a tradeoff between the number of satellites and
their cost. In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support
the two types of missions.
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation. Two such constellations,
intended to provide satellite services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Global star systems. The
Iridium system has 66 satellites.
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing
data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part. This
will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite. Another system
using this store and forward method is Orbcomm.
DD DIRECT PLUS
DD Free Dish (formerly DD Direct+, known colloquially as Doordarshan DTH)[1] is an Indian free-to-
air digital direct-broadcast television service owned and operated by the state-controlled public service
broadcaster Prasar Bharati (Doordarshan). It is the only free-to-air satellite television service in India. Free
Dish has about 9 million subscribers and its free-to-air service covers 81% of India’s geographical area via 1415
transmitters.
Free Dish is India's satellite television service.
Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major international news-
channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC News, DW-TV and Russia Today.
Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS World were previously included in the Doordarshan DTH.
Free Dish is available in Ku-Band on INSAT-4B having 5 streams of channels with different downlink
frequencies. This Ku-Band DTH service provides the TV coverage throughout the Indian territory (except
Andaman and Nicobar Islands).
Doordarshan DTH satellite slots are much sought after by the Indian private television channels as it
paves the way for obtaining a pan-India viewership. Prasar Bharati adopted the e-auction system for filling slots
in 2011 with a minimum reserve price around Rs. 3 core.
A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided by
Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which is also free to Air. This C-Band DTH service
is available on INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz
SATELLITE USES
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed
into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such
as the Moon.
The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then,
thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some satellites, notably space stations,
have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from more than 50 countries
and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations.
A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite
fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies
and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, and the Sun.
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth
observation satellites, satellites, navigation, weather satellites, and research satellites. stations and
human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the
satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth
orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary.
About 6,600 satellites have been launched. The latest estimates are that 3,600 remain in orbit. Of those,
about 1,000 are operational;[2][3] the rest have lived out their useful lives and are part of the space debris.

Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km),
the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000 km).[4]
Satellites are propelled by rockets to their orbits. Usually the launch vehicle itself is a rocket lifting off
from a launch pad on land. In a minority of cases satellites are launched at sea (from a submarine or a mobile
maritime platform) or aboard a plane (see air launch to orbit).
Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many
tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.
He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multi-
stage rocket fuelled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of hydrogen
and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.
He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground
and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book
described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between
them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as
telecommunications relays.
In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008)
described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. Clarke examined the
logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits and other aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling
satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also suggested that three
geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet. The US military studied the idea of what
was referred to as the earth satellite vehicle when Secretary of Defense James Forrestal made a public
announcement on December 29, 1948, that his office was coordinating that project between the various
services.
History of artificial satellites
Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and
initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far
side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United
States.
Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital
change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement

of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space
Race within the Cold War.
In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling
Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the
most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century." [10] The United States had been considering launching
orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air
Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential
military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the
Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program."[11]
On July 29, 1955, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of
1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch
a satellite by the fall of 1957.
Following pressure by the American Rocket Society, the National Science Foundation, and
the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army and Navy were
working on Project Orbiter, two competing programs: the army's which involved using a Jupiter C rocket, and
the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite. At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the
Vanguard program, whose first attempt at orbiting a satellite resulted in the explosion of the launch vehicle on
national television. But finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 became the
United States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958.
In June 1961, three-and-a-half years after the launch of Sputnik 1, the Air Force used resources of
the United States Space Surveillance Network to catalog 115 Earth-orbiting satellites.
Early satellites were constructed as "one-off" designs. With growth in geosynchronous (GEO) satellite
communication, multiple satellites began to be built on single model platforms called satellite buses. The first
standardized satellite bus design was the HS-333 GEO comm. sat, launched in 1972.
The largest artificial satellite currently orbiting the Earth is the International Space Station.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER DTH SYSTEMS
Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) is a term used to refer to satellite television broadcasts intended for
home reception.
A designation broader than DBS would be direct-to-home signals, or DTH. This has initially
distinguished the transmissions directly intended for home viewers from cable television distribution services
that are sometimes carried on the same satellite. The term DTH predates DBS and is often used in reference to
services carried by lower power satellites which required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter or greater) for reception.
In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to describe the
nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television broadcasts to the home within
several European countries (such as BSB in the United Kingdom and TV-Sat in Germany). These services were
to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions
allocated to each country. Before these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few
channels, really intended for cable distribution, and requiring dishes typically of 1.2m.
SES launched the Astra 1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe receivable on dishes of
just 60-80 cm and, although these mostly used PAL video format and FSS frequencies with linear polarization,
the DBS name slowly came to applied to all Astra satellites and services too.
Terminology confusion

As a technical matter, DBS (also known by the International Telecommunication Union as Broadcasting
Satellite Service, or BSS) refers only to services transmitted by satellite in specific frequency bands: 11.7-12.2
GHz in ITU Region 3 (Asia and Australia), 10.7 - 12.75 GHz in ITU Region 1 (Europe, Russia and Africa), and
12.2-12.7 GHz ITU Region 2 (North and South America). In 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan
under which each country was allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service.
Over the years, this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage
areas, and reflect digital (rather than analog) technology. At present, numerous countries have brought into use
their BSS Plan allocations.
By contrast, DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a wider range of frequencies (including
standard Ku band and Ka band) transmitted from satellites that are not part of any internationally planned band.
Nonetheless, the term DBS is often used interchangeably with DTH to cover both analog and digital video and
audio services (including video-on-demand and interactive features) received by relatively small dishes (less
than 1 meter). A "DBS service" usually refers to either a commercial service or a group of free channels
available from one orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North
America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, and has become applied to the
entire equipment chain involved.
Commercial DBS services
Astor satellite dishes

The second commercial DBS service, Sky Television plc (now BSkyB after its merger with British
Satellite Broadcasting's five-channel network), was launched in 1989. Sky TV started as a four-channel free-to-
air analogue service on the Astra 1A satellite, serving both Ireland and the United Kingdom. By 1991, Sky had
changed to a conditional access pay model, and launched a digital service, Sky Digital, in 1998, with analogue
transmission ceasing in 2001. Since the DBS nomenclature is rarely used in the UK or Ireland, the popularity of
Sky's service has caused the terms "mini dish" and "digi box" to be applied to products other than Sky's
hardware. News Corporation has a 32% stake in BSkyB.
Prime Star began transmitting an analog service to North America in 1991, and was joined
by DirecTV (then owned by a division of General Motors, GM Hughes Electronics), in 1994. At the time,
DirecTV's introduction was the most successful consumer electronics debut in American history. Although
Prime Star transitioned to a digital system in 1994, it was ultimately unable to compete with DirecTV, which
required a smaller satellite dish and could deliver more programming. Direct TV purchased Prime Star in 1999
and moved all of that provider's subscribers to DirecTV equipment. In a series of transactions consummated in
2003, Hughes Electronics was spun out of GM and the News Corporation purchased a controlling interest in the
new company, which was renamed The DIRECTV Group. In 2008, Liberty Media Corporation purchased News
Corporation's controlling interest in DirecTV.
In 1996, EchoStar's Dish Network went online in the United States and, as DirecTV's primary
competitor, achieved similar success. AlphaStar also started but soon went under. Astro was also started, using a
direct broadcast satellite system.
Dominion Video Satellite Inc.'s Sky Angel launched on a satellite platform in the United States in 1996,
with its DBS service geared toward the faith and family market. It grew from six to 36 television and radio
channels of family entertainment, Christian-inspirational programming, and 24-hour news services. Dominion,
under its former corporate name Video Satellite Systems Inc., was actually the second from among the first nine
companies to apply to the FCC for a high-power DBS license in 1981, and it was the sole surviving DBS
company from the first round of applicants until the sale of their license to EchoStar Communications
Corporation in 2007 and departure from satellite distribution in 2008. Sky Angel, although a separate and
independent DBS service, used the same satellites, transmission facilities and receiving equipment used for
Dish Network through an agreement with Echo star. Because of this, Sky Angel subscribers also had the option
of subscribing to Dish Network's channels as well.
In 2003, EchoStar attempted to purchase DirecTV, but the FCC and U.S. Department of Justice denied
the purchase based on anti-competitive concerns.
As of 2013, India has the most competitive direct-broadcast satellite market with seven operators (six private
DTH and one Government-owned FTA DTH) vying for more than 110 million television homes. Subscribers to
India's six private direct-to-home (DTH) satellite television providers have now reached 56.5 million, according
to the latest figures issued by the Telecom Regulations Authority of India (TRAI)on 31st March 2013.
Free DBS services
Germany is likely the leader in free-to-air (FTA) DBS, with approximately 200 digital FTA channels
(including 18 HDTV channels and various regional channels) broadcast from the Astra 19.2°E satellite
constellation. These are not marketed as a DBS service, but are received in approximately 12 million homes, as
well as in any home using the Sky Deutschland commercial DBS system. All German analogue satellite
broadcasts ceased on April 30, 2012.[1][2]
The United Kingdom has approximately 160 digital channels (including the regional variations
of BBC channels, ITV channels, Channel 4 and Channel 5) are broadcast without encryption from the Astra
28.2°E satellite constellation, and receivable on any DVB-S-compliant receiver (a DVB-S2 receiver is required
for certain high definition television services). Most of these channels are included within the Sky EPG, and an
increasing number within the Free sat EPG.India's national broadcaster, Doordarshan, promotes a free-to-air
DBS package as "DD Direct Plus", which is provided as in-fill for the country's terrestrial transmission network.
It is broadcast from Insat 4B at 93.5°E and contains about 57 FTA channels.
RECEPTION OF DD DIRECT PLUS
DD Free Dish (formerly DD Direct+, known colloquially as Doordarshan DTH)[1] is an Indian free-to-
air digital direct-broadcast satellite television service owned and operated by the state-controlled public service
broadcasterPrasar Bharati (Doordarshan). It is the only free-to-air satellite television service in India. Free Dish
has about 9 million subscribers and its free-to-air service covers 81% of India’s geographical area via 1415
transmitters.

Free Dish currently offers around 59 television channels and 25 radio stations. Major international news-
channels in the Doordarshan DTH are France 24, NHK World, ABC News, DW-TV and Russia Today.
Channels such as BBC World News, CNN and KBS World were previously included in the Doordarshan DTH.
Free Dish is available in Ku-Band on INSAT-4B having 5 streams of channels with different downlink
frequencies. This Ku-Band DTH service provides the TV coverage throughout the Indian territory (except
Andaman and Nicobar Islands). Doordarshan DTH satellite slots are much sought after by the Indian private
television channels as it paves the way for obtaining a pan-India viewership. Prasar Bharati adopted the e-
auction system for filling slots in 2011 with a minimum reserve price around Rs. 3 core.
A separate DTH service in C-Band with a bouquet of 10 channels has also been provided by
Doordarshan exclusively for Andaman, which is also Free to Air. This C-Band DTH service is available on
INSAT-4B with downlink frequency of 3925 MHz
RECEIVER INSTALLATION—(In technology)
 The listening device part of a telephone

o The handset that sometimes contains the above device
o The headset (audio) that can also contain the above device.
 AV receiver, part of a home theater system
 Digital media receiver
 Receiver (firearms), which houses the working parts of the firearm
 Receiver (modulated ultrasound), a device that converts a modulated ultrasonic wave into usable
information
 Receiver (radio), an electronic device that converts a signal from a modulated radio wave into usable
information
o Tuner (radio)
 Television set
o Tuner (television)
 Tuner (electronics)
 Receiver (video game), a first-person shooter
 In receivership, a person appointed as a custodian of another entity's property by a court of law or a

creditor of the owner, pending a lawsuit or bankruptcy
 Metropolitan Police Receiver, formerly the chief financial officer of the London Metropolitan Police
 Receiver of Wreck, an official of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency of the United Kingdom, who is
concerned with the management of wrecked ships and boats
 Wide receiver, an offensive position in American and Canadian football leagues

 A type of midfielder in Australian rules football
 A person who receives goods in a distribution center
TV/RADIO C HANNELS ON DD
Doordarshan is an Indian public service broadcaster, a division of Prasad Bharati. It is one of the
largest broadcasting organizations in India in terms of the studio and transmitter infrastructure. Recently, it has
also started broadcasting on Digital Terrestrial Transmitters. On September 15, 2009, Doordarshan celebrated its
50th anniversary.
The DD provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and regional
India, as well as overseas through the Indian Network and Radio India. For the London Olympics, live telecasts
of the opening and closing ceremonies of the games were broadcast on its national channel. DD sports channel
has provided round the clock coverage of sport events.
Doordarshan had a modest beginning with an experimental telecast starting in Delhi on 15 September
1959, with a small transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission started in 1965 as a part
of All India Radio.
Doordarshan began a five-minute news bulletin in the same year in 1965. Pratima Puri was the first
newsreader. Selma Sultan joined Doordarshan in 1967 and later became a news anchor.
The television service was extended to Bombay (now Mumbai) and Amritsar in 1972. Up until 1975,
only seven Indian cities had a television service and Doordarshan remained the sole provider of television in
India.
Television services were separated from radio on April 1, 1976. [2] Each office of All India Radio and
Doordarshan were placed under the management of two separate Director Generals in New Delhi. Finally, in
1982, Doordarshan as a National Broadcaster came into existence. Krishi Darshan was the first program telecast
on Doordarshan. It commenced on January 26, 1967 and is one of the longest running programs on Indian
television.
Nationwide transmission

National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year, colour TV was introduced in the Indian
market with the live telecast of the Independence Day speech by then prime minister Indira Gandhi on 15
August 1982, followed by the 1982 Asian Games which were held in Delhi. Now more than 90 percent of the
Indian population can receive Doordarshan (DD National) programmers through a network of nearly 1,400
terrestrial transmitters. There are about 46 Doordarshan studios producing TV programmers today.
Channels
Doordarshan operates 21 channels – two All India channels - DD National and DD News, 11 Regional
language Satellite Channels (RLSC), four State Networks (SN), an International channel, a Sports Channel DD
Sports and two channels Rajya Sabha TV & Lok Sabha TV for live broadcast of parliamentary proceedings.
On DD National aka (DD-1), Regional programs and Local Programs are carried on time-sharing
basis. DD News channel, launched on 3 November 2003, which replaced the DD Metro formally known as
(DD-2) Entertainment channel, provides 24-Hour news service.
The Regional Languages Satellite channels have two components – The Regional service for the
particular state relayed by all terrestrial transmitters in the state and additional programs in the Regional
Language in prime time and non-prime time available only through cable operators. DD-Sports Channel is
exclusively devoted to the broadcasting of sporting events of national and international importance. This is the
only Sports Channels which telecasts rural sports like Kho-Kho, Kabbadi etc. something which private
broadcasters will not attempt to telecast as it will not attract any revenues.
Active Doordarshan
It is an Interactive Service of Tata Sky to show TV Channels of Doordarshan which are not available on
Tata sky as normal channels. Active Doordarshan channels are DD Kashmir, DD Podhigai, DD Punjabi, DD
Sahyadri, DD Chandana and DD Gujarati.
DD has its own DTH service called DD Direct Plus. It is free of charge.
International broadcasting
DD India is broadcast internationally via satellite. It is available in 146 countries worldwide; however,
information on receiving this channel in other countries is not easily available. In the UK, DD-India was
available through the Euro bird Satellite on the Sky system on Channel 833 (the logo is shown as Rayat TV).
The timing and programming of DD-India international is different from that of India. Transmissions via Sky
Digital (UK & Ireland) ceased in June 2008 and those viaDirecTV in the United States in July 2008.
 In 2004, it censored the airing of a controversial documentary on Jayaprakash Narayan, one of the
opposition leaders during the Emergency.[7]
 During Operation Blue Star, only government sources were used for reporting the story. Here
Doordarshan was complicit in the production of a video that claimed acts of violence which when
investigated by independent journalists were found to be false.
Commercial viabilityOnce private television channels were allowed in 1991, Doordarshan has seen a steep
decline in viewership in homes with cable and satellite television, which in 2002 was just at 2.38% for DD
National.
 While it earns significant advertising revenue due to the compulsory feed given to it by the highest
bidder to national events including cricket tournaments, [9] there has been a proposal to give it funds by

imposing a license fee to own a television in India like the BBC. However this is unlikely to be imposed
keeping in view the financial constraints of the average Indian.
DIRECT PLUS
Dolby Digital Plus, also known as Enhanced AC-3 (and commonly abbreviated as DD+ orE-AC-3,
or EC-3) is a digital audio compression scheme developed by Dolby Labs for transport and storage of multi-
channel digital audio.
It is a successor to Dolby Digital (AC-3), also developed by Dolby, and has a number of improvements
including support for a wider range of data rates (32kbit/s to 6144kbit/s), increased channel count and multi-
program support (via sub streams), and additional tools (algorithms) for representing compressed data and
counteracting artifacts.
While Dolby Digital (AC-3) supports up to 5 full-bandwidth audio channels at a maximum bit rate of
640kbit/s, E-AC-3 supports up to 15 full-bandwidth audio channels at a maximum bit rate of 6.144 Mbit/s.
The full set of technical specifications for E-AC-3 (and AC-3) are standardized and published in Annex
E of ATSCA/52:2012,[1] as well as Annex E of ETSI TS 102 366 V1.2.1 (2008-08), published by the Advanced
Television Systems Committee.
Technical details and Specifications
 Coded Bit rate: 0.032 to 6.144 Mbit/s

 Audio Channels: 1.0 to 15.1 (i.e. from mono to 15 full range channels and a low frequency effects
channel)
 Number of Audio Programs per bit stream: 8
 Sample Rate: 32, 44.1 or 48 kHz
 Bit Depth: up to 24 bits per channel.
Structure
A Dolby Digital Plus service consists of one or more sub streams. There are three types of sub streams:
 Independent sub streams, which can contain a single 5.1 program. Up to eight independent sub streams
may be present in a Dolby Digital Plus stream. The channels present in an independent sub stream are the
traditional 5.1 channels: Left (L), Right (R), Center (C), Left Surround (Ls), and Right Surround (Rs)
channels, as well as a Low Frequency Effects (Life) channel.
 Legacy sub streams, which contain a single 5.1 program, and which correspond directly to Dolby Digital
content. At most a single legacy sub stream may be present in a DD+ stream.
 Dependent sub streams, which contain additional channels beyond the traditional 5.1 channels. As
dependent sub streams have the same structure as independent sub streams, each dependent sub stream may
contain up to five full-bandwidth channels and one low-frequency channel; however these channels may be
assigned to different speaker placements. Metadata in the sub stream describes the purpose of each included
channel.
All DD+ streams must contain at least one independent sub stream or legacy sub stream, which contains
the first (or only) 5.1 channels of the primary audio program. Additional independent sub streams may be used
for secondary audio programs such as foreign language soundtracks, commentary, or descriptions/voiceovers
for the visually impaired. Dependent sub streams may be provided for programs that have additional soundstage
channels beyond 5.1.
Storage of transform coefficients

At the heart of both Dolby Digital and DD+ is a Modified discrete cosine transform, which is used to
transform the audio signal into the frequency domain; within each block up to 256 frequency coefficients may
be transmitted. Coefficients are transmitted in a binary floating-point format, with exponents transmitted
separately from mantissas. This allows for highly efficient coding.
Exponents for each channel are encoded in a highly-packed differential format, with the deltas between
consecutive frequency bins (other than the first) being given in the stream. Three formats, or exponent
strategies, are used; these are known as "D15", "D25", and "D45". In D15, each bin has a unique exponent, in
D25 and D45, delta values correspond to either pairs or quads of frequency bins. Audio blocks other than the
first in a sync frame may additionally reuse the prior blocks exponent set (this is required for channels that use
the Adaptive Hybrid Transform).
The decoded exponents, along with a set of metadata parameters, is used to derive the bit allocation
pointers (BAPs), which specify the number of bits allocated to each mantissa. Bins which correspond to
frequencies in which human hearing is more precise are allocated more bits; bins which correspond to
frequencies that humans are less sensitive to are allocated fewer. Anywhere between zero and 16 bits may be
allocated for each mantissa; if zero bits are transmitted, a dither function may be optionally applied to generate
the frequency coefficient.
Algorithm
Dolby Digital Plus, like many loss audio codec, uses a heavily-quantized frequency-domain
representation of the signal to achieve coding gain; this section describes the operation of the base transform as
well as various optional "tools" specified by the standard, which are used to achieve either greater compression
or to reduce audible coding artifacts.
Modified discrete cosine transform
Both Dolby Digital and DD+ encoder converts a multichannel audio signal to the frequency domain
using the Modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), with a switchable block length of either 256 or 512
samples (the latter is used with stationary signals, the former with transient signals). The frequency domain
representation is then quantized according to a psycho-acoustic model and transmitted. A floating-point format
for frequency coefficients is used, and mantissas and exponents are stored and transmitted separately, with both
being heavily compressed.
Adaptive hybrid transforms (AHT)
For highly-stationary signals, such as long notes in musical performance, the Adaptive Hybrid
Transform (AHT) is used. This tool is unique to Dolby Digital Plus (and unsupported in Dolby Digital), and
uses an additional Type II Discrete cosine transform to combine six adjacent transform blocks (located within a
sync frame) into an effectively longer block.
In addition to the two-stage transform, a different bit-allocation structure is used, and two ways of
representing encoded mantissas are deployed: use of vector quantization, which gives the highest coding gain,
and use of gain-adapted quantization (GAQ) when greater signal-fidelity is required. Gain-adaptive quantization
may be independently enabled for each frequency bin within a channel, and permits variable-length mantissa
encoding.
Coupling
As many multichannel audio programs have high degrees of correlation between individual channels, a
coupling channel is typically used. High frequency information which is common among two or more channels
is transmitted in a separate channel (one that is not reproduced by a decoder, but only mixed back into the
original channels) known as the coupling channel; along with coefficients known as "coupling coordinates" that
guide the decoder on how to reconstruct the original channels.
Dolby Digital Plus supports an more elaborate version of the coupling tool known as Enhanced
Coupling (ECPL). This algorithm, which is considerably more expensive to process (both for encoders and
decoders) allows phase information to be included in coupling coordinates, allowing for phase relationships
between channels that are coupled to be preserved.
Spectral extension
Dolby Digital Plus provides another tool for high frequencies. As high frequency components are often
harmonics of lower-frequency sounds, Spectral Extension (SPX) allows high frequency components to be
synthesized algorithmically from lower-frequency components. This tool is also unique to Dolby Digital Plus,
and unsupported in Dolby Digital.

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CBCS : SEMESTER - V : CORE ELECTIVE : GROUP - B

(TO SELECT ONE ELECTIVE IN GROUP B) ; HOURS PER WEEK - 5

SATELLITE , CABLE AND DTH SYSTEMS

UNIT I : SATELLITE SYSTEMS :

Geo - Stationary Satellite – Satellite Communication System – Satellite Electronics –

UNIT II : CABLE TV SYSTEMS :

Cable Signal Sources – Cable Signal Processing – Cable Signal Distribution –

UNIT III : DIGITAL SATELLITE TV:

Digital Satellite Transmission – Digital Satellite Reception and Decoding – DTH TV –

UNIT IV : DTH WORKING :

UNIT V : DISH INSTALLATION

1. Modern TV Practice – R.R. Gulati – NAI – IIIrd Edition

satellite and cable Page 1

In a communications context, a satellite is a specialized wireless receiver/transmitter that is launched by a

satellite and cable Page 2

 GEOCENTRIC ORBIT (GEO)

Geostationary orbit development

Arthur C Clarke's Geostationary Orbiting Satellites Concept

Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator

Geostationary satellite drift

satellite and cable Page 4

Geostationary orbit coverage

Geostationary satellite coverage

Geostationary orbit and path length / delay

Advantages and disadvantages of geostationary orbit satellites

satellite and cable Page 5

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

satellite and cable Page 6

In telecommunication, a transponder is one of two types of devices. In air navigation or radio

satellite and cable Page 7

satellite and cable Page 8

INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL DIRECT BROADCASTING SATELLITE:

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satellite and cable Page 10

satellite and cable Page 11

satellite and cable Page 12

satellite and cable Page 13

DOMESTIC BROAD COASTING SYSTEM:

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satellite and cable Page 15

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satellite and cable Page 17

CABLE SIGNAL SOURCE:

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Digital terrestrial TV signals require a special digital processor.

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1. Suppressed Sync Pulses and Inverted Video

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DIGITAL SATELLITE RECEPTION AND DECODING:

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How does DTH work

A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre,

How does DTH really differ from cable TV

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