CLIMATOLOGY

Weather
 This is the state or condition of the atmosphere of any place at any given time with
respect to weather elements.

Climate
 This refers to the state of the atmosphere in a particular area studied over a long period of
time (30 – 40years).
 The elements of weather and climate are the same, but the climatic values represent the
average of the daily readings for each specific area for a period of more than 30 years.

Differences between weather and climate

Weather Climate

Studied over a short period of time (daily or Studied over a long period of time (30 to 40
few minutes to a number of days) years)

Covers a small area (more localised) Covers a wide area

Concerned with all elements More concerned with temperature and rainfall

 Climate studies make it easy to identify areas with similar weather conditions over a long
period of time and then to come up with general climatic types or zones.

Temperature and the Structure of the Earth’s atmosphere

Diagram on p7 fig 1.1 Dynamic?

 The atmosphere is a thin layer/envelop of air surrounding the earth, and it is believed to
extend to a thickness of around 100 kilometres.

 Temperature is the degree of coldness and hotness of the atmosphere.

  The study of weather and climate is based on the changes in the atmosphere.

 The atmosphere is divided into 3 layers namely the troposphere, stratosphere and the
mesosphere.

Zone I
 The troposphere is the lowest layer and it affects people every day. The troposphere is
the area most commonly known as the ‘atmosphere’.

 Most processes that influence our weather and climate take place near the surface within
the troposphere. This is because this layer has different amounts of water in different
states. The states are gas or water vapour, solid in the form of snow and hail stones and
liquid in the form of rain.

 These variations result in change in weather and climate. There is not much change in
weather in the layers above the troposphere because they are very cold, cloudless and
with thin layers of air.

 This zone extends from the surface to a height of 8km at the poles and to about 16km
along the equator.

 This layer or zone is made up of gases (for example, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide), smoke, dust and all the water vapour (90%) in the atmosphere.

 Air is a mixture of several gases in the atmosphere. These gases include nitrogen and
oxygen (these two make up 90% by volume), carbon dioxide (0, 03%), water vapour and
dust (these two are found in varying quantities) and other gases. The carbon dioxide is
important to our weather as it absorbs radiation from the earth and keeps temperatures
steady.

 The water vapour is a source of cloud formation and precipitation and reflects/absorbs
incoming radiation.

 In this zone, temperatures decrease with ascent (increase in height) at a fairly rate of
about 6, 5 degrees Celsius per every km. This rate of decrease is called environmental
lapse rate (ELR). This means the rate at which the atmosphere cools at with ascent. This
 decrease in temperature happens because the earth’s surface, warmed up by incoming
insolation heats the air above it by conduction and convection. This energy is absorbed to
a great extent by atmospheric water vapour, carbon dioxide and very little escapes
directly into space.

 Parcels or air rising also cool at a rate which is not affected by the outside (environment).
The rate at which the ascending (rising) air cools at is called the Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(A.L.R). The A.L.R depends on the properties of the particles of the parcels. If the parcel
is dry (without water vapour) it cools at the rate called Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(DALR). If the parcel is wet/humid (saturated with water vapour), it cools at a rate called
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR).

 The DALR is normally around 10 degrees C/km, whereas the SALR is around 6 degrees
C/km.

 The ELR varies from place to place, time to time depending on existing weather
conditions.

 Above this zone, there is a boundary zone known as tropopause. The tropopause marks
the upper limit to the earth’s weather and climate. At this boundary, temperatures do not
decrease or increase with height, but remain constant.

 The layers above the troposphere have very little influence on the earth’s weather and
climate.

Stable Conditions
 This is a condition when an object falls to its original position.

 This happens when rising parcels are cooling faster than the environment.

 Diagram on p2 My Notes?

 At 2km height the rising parcel (DALR or SALR) is cooler than the environment hence it
is denser. So it sinks to the ground (return to its original position).
Unstable Conditions
 This is a condition when an object continues to rise. This happens when rising parcels are
cooling slower than the environment.

 Diagram on p2 My Notes?

 At 2km height, the rising parcel (DALR or SALR) is warmer than the E.L.R and so it is
less dense than the surrounding. It therefore continues to rise.

Other terms
Adiabatic warming: the rate at which a descending parcel gains heat at.

Adiabatic Cooling: the rate at which an ascending parcel loses heat at.

Zone II
 This is called stratosphere. It extends from the tropopause to a height of about 50km.
This zone contains no air, no water vapour, and no clouds.

 The stratosphere has the highest concentration of ozone gas. Ozone gas is the gas that
absorbs the dangerous ultra-violet radiation/rays emitted from the sun. This is why
temperatures in this zone are generally rising with increasing height.

o The ozone layer is found between 9 km and 55 km above the ground, but is
concentrated in the zone between 18 km and 25 km.

o The ozone gas is formed when the sun’s ultraviolet rays heat ordinary oxygen
(O2).

o On heating, the 02 molecules combine with a third atom (the smallest component
of an element having the chemical properties of the element) to form ozone,
which is 03.

 The upper limits of this zone are marked by a boundary layer called the stratopause. In
this layer temperatures do not change with the increase in height.
Zone III
 This is called the mesosphere. It extends to about 80km. In this zone, temperatures
decrease with height. Above the mesosphere there is a boundary zone called the
mesopause. The zone above the mesosphere is called the thermosphere, which extends
high into space and temperatures increase with height.

The heating of the atmosphere and heat transfer in atmosphere

 The main feature of the solar energy system is the exchanges of energy between the
atmosphere and the earth’s surface.

 Radiation is the heat energy given out by the sun or sent back by the Earth.

 The sun is the main source of the heat energy in the Earth—atmosphere system.

 Solar radiation or insolation is the heat from the sun. This radiation consists of ‘short-
wavelength’ forms of energy. This energy travels in the form of electro-magnetic waves
that are able to pass through empty space.

 This solar radiation (insolation) can be transmitted through substances such as air or
water, and can also be absorbed or reflected. The absorption of solar radiation raises the
temperature of substances that absorb it.

 It is this energy that controls the earth’s weather and climate.

 When the Earth’s surface has sufficiently absorbed the solar radiation, it begins to give
out its own form of radiation, which is called terrestrial (Earth) radiation (long-wave
radiation).

 This radiation from the Earth, as opposed to solar radiation, consists of ‘long
wavelengths’.

 It is this terrestrial radiation that tropospheric gases (for example, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, oxygen and water vapour) can now absorb.

 Due to the Earth’s gravity, most of these gas molecules (the simplest structural units of an
element or compound) are more concentrated in low altitude areas and fewer molecules
 are found in higher altitudes. This means that terrestrial radiation is absorbed more in low
altitude areas, which in turn develop higher temperatures.

 Higher altitude areas, because of low absorption, develop lower temperatures.

 This is the main reason why temperatures decrease with height in the troposphere,
explaining the adage, ‘the higher you go, the cooler it becomes’.

 When the tropospheric gases have sufficiently absorbed the terrestrial radiation, they in
turn begin to re-radiate in all directions.

 However, most of this radiation comes back to the Earth.

 This ability by the troposphere to prevent heat escaping to space by retaining (keeping
within) it within the Earth-troposphere system is what is called the ‘greenhouse effect’.

 If it was not for this ability of tropospheric gases to retain heat, then the average surface
temperature of the Earth would have been –40 o C, making life impossible!

Other forms of heat energy transfer in the troposphere

 The transfer of energy from the sun to the Earth, from the Earth to the atmosphere and
from the atmosphere back to the Earth, leaves the Earth with a surplus of energy.

 To balance this excess, the Earth transfers heat to the atmosphere once again, this time
not by radiation but by these three mechanisms:

o Conduction

o Convection

o Latent heat of vaporisation.

Conduction
 Conduction is when heat is passed along by touching particles such as metals and woods.

 Heat is passed to layers of air that are in contact with the ground. These layers pass on the
heat to subsequent layers with which they are in contact. An example of a good conductor
of heat is an iron rod, whereas a piece of wood is an example of a poor conductor.
Convection
 Diagram on p4 fig. 1.3 Step ahead.

 This is the transfer of heat by air currents in a gas or liquid. An air or convection current
is air moving up and down in a circular motion. Air rises because of heating and descends
due to cooling.

 When the Earth heats the air immediately above it by conduction, the air becomes lighter
in weight and rises into the atmosphere. As the heated air rises, it creates a partial vacuum
(empty space) that is quickly filled up by cooler air from the surrounding area.

Latent heat of vaporisation

 This is the heat that is taken up by water particles when they change from liquid to gas, in
the process of evaporation.

 This heat comes from the water body (the Earth’s surface) and is released into the
atmosphere.

 The water vapour then condenses, which is how clouds, fog and mist are formed.

Horizontal temperature distribution and the factors that affect it

 The heating of the atmosphere varies from place to place and is governed by the ways in
which different surfaces react to incoming radiation.

 The Earth is not flat; it is a sphere made up of mountains and valleys. It consists of the
lands and seas.

 The concentrations of dust, water vapour and clouds, and the movement of wind, also
vary from place to place.

 The factors that affect temperature are:

o Latitude

o Altitude

o Nature of land and sea surfaces

o Aspect

o Length of day and night

o Ocean currents

o Cloud cover
 o Winds

 These factors determine the temperature distribution on the Earth’s surface.

Latitude
 Diagram on p5 fig 1.4 Step ahead.

 The main lines of latitude are Equator, Capricorn, Cancer, and the Arctic and Antarctic
Circle.

 The sun is almost always overhead at the Equator, and at a lower angle in the latitudes
north and south of it.

 Latitudinal location refers to the location of a place either north or south of the Equator.

 The latitudinal location of a place determines the angle of the sun’s rays, also known as
the sun’s altitude.

 Areas which receive insolation (sun rays) at angles close to 900 have higher temperatures
because the heat is spread over a small area. The Equator is at 00 latitude, and therefore
the angle of the incident (striking) ray from the sun is almost 900. This means that the sun
heats the surface more effectively.

 However, the further a place is from the Equator, the higher the latitude, the lower the
heating effect.

 Also, the heating effect is reduced for high latitude areas because the sun’s rays now pass
through a longer distance in the atmosphere, and therefore there is greater solar radiation
loss by absorption, scattering and reflection.

 Radiation scattering occurs when heat is dispersed within the atmosphere by hitting
continuously against obstacles such as clouds, dust and air. To make matters worse, the
weak insolation is spread over a large surface area.

 Reflection is when heat that reaches a surface or obstacle is turned back.

 From the above diagram the sun’s rays that heat the areas of the Equator only have to
pass through a small distance in the atmosphere, marked B. Also, on reaching the Earth,
the sun’s rays are concentrated on a smaller area around the Equator compared to at the
poles.

 This explains the decrease in temperature as one moves away from the Equator, marked
A. This factor accounts for the permanently cold poles and the constantly hot Equatorial
areas.
Nature of the land and sea surfaces
 The land and sea differ in their ability to absorb and radiate heat energy.

 The land heats up quickly and also loses heat quickly.

 The sea takes time to heat up and also takes times to lose heat.

 The differences are mainly due to the fact that, on land, heat is transferred by conduction,
and also that land surfaces are poor conductors of heat. As a result, the land is heated to
very shallow depths –only 1 m each day.

 The sea can absorb heat down to depths ranging from between 8 m and 10 m, and the
heat is transferred through convection currents.

 Therefore, seas heat up slowly and lose heat slowly.

 As a result of these characteristics, the land is warmer than the sea during the day. At
night, the land loses heat quickly, while the sea loses heat slowly and is therefore warmer
than the land.

 In winter, the seas are relatively warmer than the land masses, whereas in summer, the
land is very hot and the seas are cooler.

 White surfaces/soils reflect a lot of heat. They do not absorb it. Whereas black
soils/surfaces absorb a lot of heat increasing surface temperatures.

Earth’s albedo
 This is the reflective power of the Earth’s surface. Albedo can also be defined as the
amount of heat that is reflected by the Earth.

 Some Earth surfaces reflect back radiation from the sun. The energy that is reflected is
not effective energy (cannot be used by the Earth). The energy that is transmitted or
absorbed is the effective energy as it can later be reradiated.

 Albedos vary over the Earth’s surface. Oceans and dark soils have an albedo of 10%,
urban areas and forests 15%, light coloured deserts 40%, and reflecting fresh snow 85%
and over.

 Deforestation and overgrazing create bare surfaces, which tend to increase the Earth’s
albedo, thus reducing cloud formation and precipitation. This contributes to
desertification.
Altitude
 Altitude is how high a place is above sea level. It can also be defined as the height of an
area above sea level.

 Temperatures decrease with height. Diagram on p5 fig 1.5 Step ahead.

 The height is determined using the sea level, which is regarded as zero metres.

 Generally, low-lying areas/valleys are warm or hot, while mountainous or plateaus are
cool or cold.

 The altitude factor explains why there is snow on top of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
and Mount Kenya, despite the fact that they are located near the Equator.

 This factor also explains the very hot conditions in low-lying areas like the Zambezi
Valley, and the lowveld of southern Zimbabwe in areas like Chiredzi and Beitbridge.

 The higher areas, like Eastern Highlands, experience cool conditions.

Aspect
 Diagram on p6 fig. 1.6 Step Ahead.

 This is the degree to which an area is facing the direction of the sun.

 Aspect is directly linked to the slope of the land and the angle of the sun’s rays as they
strike the surface.

 This relationship is linked to the latitudinal location of the slope.

 Since the sun is nearly always overhead at the Equator, in the southern hemisphere,
particularly south of the Tropic of Capricorn, north-facing slopes receive more solar
radiation than the south-facing slopes.

 In the Northern hemisphere, particularly north of the Tropic of Cancer, south-facing

slopes receive more solar radiation than the north-facing slopes.

 However, south-facing slopes in the Southern Hemisphere and north-facing slopes in the
Northern Hemisphere do not receive direct heat resulting in lower temperatures in those
slopes.

Length of day and night

 Solstice refers to either of the two times of the year when the sun is at its greatest distance
from the celestial equator.
  During the summer solstice (winter solstice in the SH) (June 21), the sun is above the
Tropic of Cancer and the Northern Hemisphere areas experience more hours of sunshine
and fewer hours of darkness. This gives rise to high temperatures in these areas.

 Meanwhile (at the same time but in another place), in the Southern Hemisphere, there are
more night hours and shorter day hours. This gives rise to lower temperatures in countries
in the south, even though they may be at the same latitude distance from the Equator as
their Northern Hemisphere counterparts.

 During the winter solstice (Summer Solstice in SH) (December 22), the sun is directly
above the Tropic of Capricorn, and the Southern Hemisphere areas now experience more
hours of sunshine and fewer hours of darkness, giving rise to high average temperatures
for the south.

 Meanwhile in the Northern Hemisphere, there are more night hours and shorter sunshine
hours, giving rise to lower average temperatures.

 At the North Pole (Arctic Circle), the sun does not set for six months, from March 21 to
September 23, and it does not rise between September 23 and March 21.

 In the South Pole (Antarctic Circle), the sun does not set for six months, between
September 23 and March 21, and does not rise from March 21 to September.

 When the sun does not set at the Poles, it is termed the midnight sun and is caused by
the tilt of the Earth and its revolution around the sun. Iceland is sometimes called the
Land of the Midnight Sun for this reason.

Ocean currents
 Ocean currents over southern Africa and their influence on temperature. Diagram on p7
fig 1.7 Step ahead.

 Ocean currents are streams of either warm or cold waters in the oceans.

 The warm currents flow from the Equator towards the poles and the cold currents flow
from the poles towards the Equator.

 The cold currents are found on the western sides of continents, and the warm currents are
found on the eastern sides of the continents.

 Air blowing over the warm currents will bring warmer conditions to coastal areas and air
blowing over the cold currents will bring cool conditions to coastal areas.

Cloud cover
 Clouds tend to reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface through
reflection, absorption, and shadowing the surface.
  They also trap outgoing radiation from the Earth.

 When there are no clouds, temperatures are very high during the day and low at night.
When there is cloud cover, temperatures are very low during the day and warm at night.

 It is for this reason that the daily temperature range, that is, the difference between the
highest and lowest temperatures in a day, is much larger on a cloudless day.

 There are very high temperatures in deserts because of the lack of clouds during the day,
and very cold conditions prevail during the night because there are no clouds to trap the
outgoing Earth radiation.

Vegetation
 Vegetation absorbs a great part of the sun’s insolation and shadows the ground reducing
surface temperatures.

 Bare grounds receive a complete set of the sun’s insolation which radiate back increasing
surface temperatures rapidly.

Winds
 Wind is air in motion. Wind help distribute the temperature.

 Wind is caused by differences in air density due to differences in air temperature.

 As a general rule, winds that blow from warm places have a warming effect, and winds
from cold places have a cooling influence.

 As a result, winds that blow from the tropics towards the sub-tropical areas, for example,
the north-easterlies towards Zimbabwe, will usually be warm, while winds that blow
from the sub-tropical cold regions towards Equator, for example, the south-easterlies
towards Zimbabwe, will usually be cold.

 Again, winds that blow from the ocean are cool, moist and bring rain. This results in low
temperatures as compared to zones which experience continental hot and dry winds.

Sea and land breezes

 A breeze is a cool and calm wind

 Sea and land breezes are local winds created by the characteristics of the land and sea in
response to incoming solar radiation and outgoing long-wave radiation.

Sea breezes
 Diagram on p16 fig 1.25 a) Step ahead or p55 fig. 5.8 Success kit.
  Sea breezes happen during the day when cool air from the sea blows towards the land.
During the day, the land heats up quickly, heating the air above it and creating an area of
low pressure on the continents.

 On the other hand, the sea is cooler and it cools the air above it, creating an area of high
pressure all over the sea.

 Wind blows from the area of high pressure over the sea to the area of low pressure over
the land (barometric pressure gradient). This is called the sea breeze, since the cool air is
coming from the sea.

 Such winds bring rainfall since they have high humidity levels, and warmer than the
continental environment.

Land breezes
 Diagram on p16 fig 1.25 b) Step ahead or p55 fig 5.8 Success kit.

 Land breezes take place at night when cool air from the land blows towards the sea.

 The breeze forms because land loses heat quickly and therefore cools the air above it to
create an area of high pressure. It will be warmer over the sea because water loses heat
slowly, creating an area of low pressure.

 Cool air will blow from the area of high pressure over the land to an area of low pressure
over the sea. This is called the land breeze, since the cool air is coming from the land.

 Therefore, coastal areas, which are also called maritime lands (zones close to and
influenced by the sea), have, as a result, generally cooler summers because of the sea
breezes that blow from the cooler oceans, and warmer winters than the continental
interiors.

 The zones close to the sea also experience high rainfall because of moist air from the sea.

 This climatic effect of continental interiors is termed continentality

 There are other local winds that are caused by mountains and valleys.

 Winds that rise up valley slopes during the day are known as anabatic winds, while
winds that flow down slopes mostly at night are called katabatic winds

 Diagram on p17 fig 1.28Sstep ahead.

 There are also down-slope winds that bring warm or dry conditions such as the Fohn
winds in the Alps in Switzerland, Chinook winds down the Rocky Mountains in Canada
and the Berg winds descending the Drakensberg Plateau in South Africa.
Weather Elements
 The elements of the air, or atmosphere, which make up the weather are called weather
elements. These are temperature, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, wind direction, wind
speed (strength), humidity, sunshine and cloud cover and cloud type.

 Weather elements are inter-related and greatly influence each other.

 In order to maintain an accurate record of these weather elements, we must measure and
record our findings on a daily basis.

Weather element Instrument

Temperature Six’s thermometer (0C)

Rainfall Rain gauge (millimetres)

Atmospheric pressure Barometer (millibars)

Humidity Hygrometer (0C and %)

Wind direction Wind vane (cardinal points)

Wind speed Cup anemometer (knots)

Sunshine Sunshine recorded (minutes and hours)

Cloud cover and cloud type Eye observation (oktas)

Weather station
 This is where the recording of weather events is done.

 All the weather instruments are part of the weather station

 The main weather station in Zimbabwe is Belvedere in Harare.

  There are, however, weather stations throughout the country which collect information
about the weather and send it to the Harare meteorological station where synoptic maps
that show the weather over the whole country are produced.

 Different communities do also have their own small weather stations because of their
different interests in the weather changes. These include airports, farmers, transport
companies, etc.

The siting of a weather station

Precautionary (taken in advance to protect against possible danger or failure)

measures to be taken in order to obtain accurate records
 All weather stations must have the same conditions, that is, instruments must be kept in
exactly the same way if we are to take recordings which can also be compared.

 The main precaution is to site the weather station in an open area, away from trees and
buildings which might shelter the instruments and give inaccurate readings. Trees
intercept rainfall and block winds.

 It should be away from areas with hard surfaces (e.g. concrete or tar) since these surfaces
will increase in-splashing and are likely to affect rainfall readings. In addition, such
surfaces absorb a lot of heat and this can affect temperature readings.

 The station must be well protected (fenced, gated and locked) to avoid straying animals
and even children from disturbing the instruments. This is also done to protect the
equipment and instruments from theft and vandalism (damage to private or public
property).

 The station must be well maintained.

Stevenson screen
 This is a specially designed wooden box to hold Six’s thermometer, hygrometer and
sometimes barometers. This box protects these instruments from dew, rain and direct
heat, which can cause damage.

 This wooden box is found in a weather station but it is not an instrument.

How is it specially designed to hold these instruments

 It is painted white in order to reflect rays of the sun and excessive heat.

 It is made of wood, a poor conductor of heat.

 It has louvred sides (slated sides) to allow air to freely enter and leave the screen and to
give a true air temperature.
  It is placed above ground (1, 2 metres) so that air temperature and not ground/earth
radiant heat is recorded and because it is easier to read the instruments at about eye level.

 It has stand so that air can circulate right around the box so that true air temperature is
obtained.

 It has metal legs to avoid attacks from termites.

 The door faces south in the Southern hemisphere to avoid the direct rays of the sun
falling on the instruments when the screen is opened.

 The screen is normally placed well out in the open so that air can circulate freely.

 It has a double roof to prevent direct sun rays and other weather elements

 The roof is insulated by the air space.

 The door is locked to protect the instruments from vandalism

Problems experienced by many weather stations in Zimbabwe

 Inadequate equipment

 Lack of trained recorders,

 Irregularity of reading and recording, i.e. most recording are not done at fixed times

 Faulty instruments

 Vandalism and

 Narrow range of weather elements recorded, i.e. few weather elements are recorded in
many weather stations.

Measuring and recording weather

Temperature
 This is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere or amount of heat or cold in
the air (atmosphere).

 A thermometer that can measure maximum and minimum air temperatures over time is
called a maximum and minimum thermometer or a Six’s thermometer.

 Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (0C) and the important measurements are the
minimum and the maximum temperatures.
  A continuous and accurate measuring and recording of daily maximum and daily
minimum temperatures enables us to calculate the following important information on
temperature:

o The average or the mean temperature for a day, which is also called the daily or
diurnal mean temperature. The mean daily temperature is calculated by simply
adding the maximum and the minimum temperatures and then dividing the total
by two:

 Daily mean temperature = maximum temperature + minimum

temperature/2.

o The temperature range, which is the difference between the maximum and the
minimum temperatures in a day. The range of the day is also called daily or
diurnal temperature range.

 Daily temperature range = Highest temperature of the day minus lowest

temperature of the day.

o The mean monthly temperature, which is the sum of the daily mean temperatures
divided by the number of days in a given month:

 Monthly mean temperature = sum of daily mean temperature for the

month/number of days in the month.

o The mean annual temperature, which is the sum of the mean monthly
temperatures divided by 12 for the 12 months of the year.

 Annual mean temperature = sum of monthly mean temperature for the

year/12

o Mean annual range of temperature = subtract the lowest mean monthly

temperature from the highest mean monthly temperature.

 The temperature information described above, when obtained from several stations, can
be used to formulate temperature graphs.

The maximum thermometer

 Diagram on p10 fig. 1.5 Dyna.

 This thermometer records the highest temperature during the day. The thermometer is
filled with mercury and the metal index (indicator) is above the mercury.

 Mercury is used because it has a very high boiling point of about 2500 and is also clear.
  As the temperature rises so the convex meniscus (the curved upper surface of a
nonturbulent liquid in a vertical tube) of the mercury pushes the metal index up the scale.

 When the temperature falls, the metal index remains at the highest point reached during a
24-hour period.

 The instrument is read each day at 8:00 am by looking at the end of the index closest to
the mercury.

 This temperature reading is for the day before not for the moment you read it.

 The metal index may be reset by using a magnet or by tilting the thermometer.

The minimum thermometer

 Diagram on p11 fig. 1.6 Dynamic.

 This thermometer records the minimum temperatures.

 This thermometer contains alcohol and the metal index lies inside the liquid.

 Alcohol is used because it has a very low freezing point of -700C or -115 0 C and it does
not stick to the sides of the glass tube.

 When temperature falls, the concave meniscus of the alcohol pulls the metal index as the
alcohol contracts.

 As the temperature rises, the alcohol flows freely around the indicator leaving it at the
lowest temperature reached.

 The reading is taken on the side of the metal index facing the top or meniscus of the
alcohol.

 Just like the maximum thermometer, the index is reset by a magnet or by tilting the
thermometer so that the indicator slides back to rest against meniscus.

The Six’s thermometer

 This is a piece of equipment which combines the maximum and minimum thermometers
used to measure maximum and minimum temperatures.

 It was developed by a man called Six, hence the name.

 Diagram on p11 fig. 1.7 Dynamic

 The instrument contains two liquids, mercury and alcohol.

  Mercury is used because it has a very high boiling point of about 250 0C and is also clear.

 Alcohol is used because it has a very low freezing point of -70 0C or -115 0C and it does
not stick to the sides of the glass tube.

 In this instrument, mercury is moved up and down the U-tube by the expansion and
contraction of a column of alcohol from the bulb.

 As the temperature rises so the mercury is pushed round the tube and up the right hand
column by the expanding alcohol from the left bulb. As this happens, the metal index on
the right is pushed higher up the temperature scale, and left at the highest temperature
recorded for the day.

 The alcohol heats up and part of it is vaporised to occupy the conical bulb.

 When the temperature falls, the metal index is left behind and the maximum temperature
is read.

 The alcohol in the left-hand tube contracts as temperature falls, so the mercury column is
pulled back into the left-hand limb of the thermometer.

 The alcohol pulls up the metal index in the left-hand tube. The minimum and maximum
temperatures are taken by reading the ends of the indicators nearest the mercury.

Problems in using the instrument

 Failing to identify mercury or alcohol.

 Failure to identify max and min thermometer.

 Reading erroneously, that is, taking the measurement of the max thermometer above the
metal index and that of the min thermometer below the index.

Atmospheric pressure
 Pressure is the weight exerted on the earth’s surface by a vertical column of air.

 The weight varies from place to place and with altitude.

 The pressure decreases with height because of the reduced column of air above a given
point. Diagram on p11 fig 1.12 Step Ahead.

 Person A on top of the mountain experiences less pressure than person B, because A is
carrying a smaller column of the atmosphere than B.
  Pressure decreases with height and, as a result, there is high pressure in low-lying areas
and low pressure on very high mountains.

 Pressure is measured by a barometer, either the mercury barometer or aneroid barometer.

The mercury barometer

 Diagram of the simple mercury barometer on p15 fig. 1.14 Dynamic.

 It has a bulb dipped in a container with mercury.

 The principle behind the mercury barometer is that the weight of a column of air in the
atmosphere is balanced against the weight of a column of the mercury in a glass tube. At
the sea level, the pressure of air is sufficient to support a column of mercury of 76 cm or
760 mm high.

 The weight of air exerted on the mercury in the container displaces mercury up the glass
tube up to a certain height.

 When the force of air is light (low pressure) the weight becomes less and the force
exerted also becomes less. The level of mercury in the container will rise followed by a
drop in the level of mercury column.

 If the pressure increases then the mercury will rise in the tube and if the pressure
decreases then the level will fall.

 The height of the mercury is, therefore, a measure of the existing atmospheric pressure.

 Pressure is measured in millibars (mb) and the 760 mm pressure at the sea level is
equivalent to 1013 millibars.

 Pressure readings from various weather stations can be used to construct weather maps
which can be used for forecasting.

 Isobars, which are lines on a map that join areas of the same pressure, are drawn to show
the areas of high and low pressure.

Disadvantages of the mercury barometer

 It is very large and cumbersome (difficult to handle or use)

 Mercury must be at least a metre long

 They break easily.

 They do not produce a continuous reading of a given day therefore readings must be
taken constantly.
Advantage
 It is very accurate.

The relationship between pressure and temperature

 Diagram on p11 fig. 1.13 Step ahead.

 Pressure is proportional (properly related in size, degree) to the density or weight of the
air, and the density of the air is directly related to the temperature of the air.

 If the weight of the air increases pressure will increase also and the opposite is true.

 A cold mass of air is dense or heavy, and will therefore sink and exert more pressure on a
surface, causing high pressure.

 A warm air mass is light or less dense, and therefore less pressure will be exerted on a
given surface.

 From the given relationship, places that experience high temperatures are associated with
low pressure, and areas with low temperatures are associated with high pressure.

 Areas of low pressure are associated with rising air and areas of high pressure are
associated with cold, descending air.

Pressure distribution on the Earth

 Pressure distribution is influenced by temperature and air movement

Temperature
 Diagrams on p11 fig. 1.14 Step ahead.

 Temperature is the main factor that determines the distribution of pressure either locally
or on a global scale.

 On a global scale, the Equatorial area, theoretically (in theory; according to the assumed
facts), will form a low-pressure belt associated with the high temperatures and the rising
air.

 The Polar would, on the other hand, form high-pressure areas associated with the cold,
sinking air.

 When the air rises, it is replaced by inflowing air. The rising air expands and cools, and
becomes dense, and therefore sinks, forming a downward flow opposite the rising flow.

 The sinking air reaches the Earth’s surface and spreads.

  A high pressure-system is associated with descending air moving out (diverging) at the
surface.

 A low-pressure system is associated with converging air at the surface.

Air movement
 Diagram on p12 fig. 1.15 Step ahead.

 Air moving out of the Poles destined for the Equator, gradually finds itself occupying
more and more space as it crosses larger and larger areas.

 As it finds more space, it expands (increases in volume). This expansion reduces the
density of the air and results in low pressure that is well developed at 600 north and south
of the Equator. These two pressure belts are called the temperate low-pressure belts.

 In the same way, air rising at the Equator spreads out towards the Poles. Since the
Equator has the largest surface area of the earth, air moving out of it gradually finds itself
occupying less and less space.

 The air therefore contracts (decreases in volume), resulting in an increase in density,

which translatyes to an increase in pressure.

 This produces two high-pressure belts at 300 north and south of the Equator.

 Therefore, the Earth has seven pressure belts. It has three low-pressure belts and four
high high-pressure belts.

Cross-sectional view of global pressure patterns and wind movement

 Diagram on p12 fig 1. 16 Step Ahead

 The Equatorial low-pressure belt (caused by the high temperatures): This belt is
accompanied by a surface convergence of air, followed by vertical ascendance of the air
and high-level divergence by the rising air. This area of low pressure along the Equator is
known as the doldrums.

 The two Polar high-pressure belts (caused by low temperatures): These two belts are
accompanied by high-level convergence of air, followed by vertical descent of the air and
surface divergence by the sinking air.

 The two temperate low-pressure belts (caused by air movement): These two belts are
accompanied by surface convergence of air, followed by vertical ascendance of the
converging air and high level divergence by rising air.
  The two subtropical high pressure belts (caused by air movement): These two belts are
accompanied by high-level convergence of air, followed by vertical descent of the air and
surface divergence by the sinking air.

Wind systems and factors affecting them

 Wind is air in motion.

 Wind is caused by differences in air density due to differences in air temperature.

Pressure cells
 These are pressure systems i.e. high pressure and low pressure zones.

 Wind blows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

 In a pressure cell, winds will blow inwards in an area of low pressure and outwards in an
area of high pressure.

In the Northern Hemisphere

A
 Diagram on p14 fig. 1.21 Step Ahead.

 In a low-pressure cell, winds blow inwards.

 Due to rotation, the winds will be deflected to the right, resulting in the wind blowing in a
generally anticlockwise direction.

B
 Diagram on p14 fig. 1.21 Step Ahead.

 In a high-pressure cell in the Northern Hemisphere, the winds are deflected to the right as
they blow outwards, and the resultant general wind pattern is a clockwise direction
around a high-pressure.

In the Southern hemisphere

C
 Diagram on p14 fig. 1.21 step ahead.

 The winds are deflected to the left as they try to blow inwards into a low-pressure area.
This results in the winds blowing in a clockwise direction.
D
 Diagram on p14 fig. 1.21 Step ahead.

 In an area of high pressure, in the Southern hemisphere, as the air blows outwards, it is
deflected to the left, resulting in an anticlockwise direction.

Cyclones or depressions
 These are low pressure cells at the centre.

 They are characterised by rising air parcels, cloudy conditions, rainfall conditions (heavy
thunderstorms and cyclonic rainfall).

 The following abbreviations assist in identifying cyclones:

o C—cyclones

o N—northern hemisphere

o A—anticlockwise

o C—cyclones

o S—southern hemisphere

o C—clockwise

Anticyclones
 These are areas of high pressure (high pressure cells) that are characterised by descending
cold air mass (air parcels).

 The winds tend to blow outwards from the centre.

 They are generally associated with calm/stable/settled conditions, low wind speeds
because air will be dense, low temperatures, high pressures, cloudless conditions (clear
skies)/sunny weather, fair weather (light rains), stratus clouds, surface temperature
inversion (surface air cooler than the overlying air), radiation fog and mist—mist found
in highlands and fog in lowlands, frost, dew long dry spells and droughts (dry weather),
low or cool temperature, low humidity.

 The following abbreviation can help to identify those areas of high pressure:

o A—anticyclone

o N—northern hemisphere

o C—clockwise
 o A—anticyclone

o S—southern hemisphere

o A--anticlockwise

Isobars showing low pressure and high pressure areas

 Diagram on p15 fig. 1.15 Dynamic.

Humidity
 This is the vapour content (amount of water vapour in the atmosphere) of the atmosphere.

 Vapour is the invisible gaseous state of the water.

 The major source of water vapour is evaporation.

 Evaporation is the process in which water is turned to vapour by heating.

 Humidity varies from time to time and from place to place.

 Humidity in the atmosphere determines the possibilities of rainfall formation.

 Temperature determines the amount of water vapour in the air or what the atmosphere
can hold. Generally, warm air tends to hold more water vapour than cold air.

 When air holds the maximum amount of water vapour at a particular temperature, it is
then referred to as saturated air. This means that air is filled with water and cannot hold
any more. This usually happens when rain is about to fall.

 Compared to warm air, cold air can only hold a small amount of water vapour before it
becomes saturated.

Absolute humidity
 This is the exact/actual amount (weight) of water vapour that a given volume of air
contains. It is expressed in grammes per cubic metre.

 Absolute humidity is usually the highest around the Equator and decreases towards the
Poles. It is higher during the day than at night, and is greater in summer compared to
winter.

Relative humidity
 This is the ratio between the actual or the absolute humidity of a given mass of air against
the maximum amount of water vapour that this air can hold at the same temperature.
  This is expressed as a percentage.

 The formula is as follows:

o Relative humidity = weight of amount of water in the air/the maximum amount of

water vapour the air can hold times 100/1

Dew point temperature

 This is the critical (exact) temperature at which the air being cooled becomes saturated.
Any cooling beyond this dew point temperature results in condensation.

 Condensation is the process in which water vapour turns into visible water
particles/liquid (tiny droplets of water), which could be in the form of clouds. If the
cooling goes on to below 00C (freezing point), this liquid water will turn into a solid (tiny
particles of ice).

 Condensation is brought about by the cooling of an air mass.

 Condensation does not occur in clean air, but when there is tiny microscopic particles
known as hygroscopic nuclei/condensation nuclei particles.

 These particles enable and speed up the rate of condensation. These are mainly in the
form of dust, smoke and salt, which attract the water vapour to create small water
droplets that are then visible. These particles serve as centres around which condensation
occurs.

 Clouds are suspended tiny water droplets that result from the process of condensation.

 If condensation takes place close to the Earth’s surface, dew, mist or guti forms.

Measuring humidity
 Diagram on p14 fig. 1.13 Dynamics

 Relative humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer (the wet and dry bulb
thermometer).

 The instrument consists of two mercury thermometers.

 The dry bulb thermometer is similar to the simple maximum thermometer and can be
used as the standard of measure of air temperature.

 The wet bulb thermometer on the other hand has on its bulb a piece of cotton material
(muslin/plain-woven cotton fabric) which is kept continuously moist by a wick (any piece
of cord that conveys liquid by capillary action) connected to a small bottle or jar of
distilled water.
  If the surrounding air is saturated, with a relative humidity of 100%, then there will be no
evaporation from the wet bulb. The thermometers will then have the same reading.

 When air is relatively dry, that is, if there is only a small amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere, the humidity will be low.

 Evaporation will then proceed at quite a rapid rate and the temperature of the wet bulb
will drop, leading to a great difference between the recorded temperatures of wet and dry
bulb thermometers.

 The wet bulb is cooled by evaporation resulting in the contraction of the mercury in the
wet bulb.

 The difference in temperature between the thermometers gives us readings in degrees

Celsius. This difference in temperature is known as the depression of the wet bulb.

 The greater the difference the lower the relative humidity.

Hygrometrical tables /conversion chart /centigrade scale

 These tables tell us the actual humidity in percentages.

Dry bulb Wet bulb

20 0C 22 0C 24 0C 26 0C 28 0C 30 0C 32 0C 34 0C

20 0C 100%       

25 0C 65% 80% 95%     

30 0C 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 100%  

35 0C 24% 30% 35% 45% 57% 70% 32% 95%

 The actual humidity could be found in a given table (centigrade) where figures are given
as percentages.

 The resultant figures give what is known as relative humidity.

 E.g. if the temperature shown by the dry bulb is 350C and the wet bulb is 28 0C, the
depression of the wet bulb is 70C, then the relative humidity is 57%.
Points to note
 Evaporation takes place when air is dry. If the air is dry a lot of evaporation takes place
causing a big difference between the thermometer readings.

 Therefore, a big difference shows that humidity is low (air is dry), a small difference,
humidity is high (air is moist), no difference then humidity is very high (air is saturated)

 NB: if the air is saturated there is no evaporation taking place.

 In order for this instrument to give accurate readings, it must be kept in a Stevenson
screen and the container must be regularly refilled with distilled water.

Wind measurement and recording

Wind direction
 Wind direction is measured by a wind vane.

 Diagram on p15 fig. 1.22 Step ahead.

 A wind vane is sited on an open place exposed to full wind.

 It is common to see this instrument on top of buildings or high poles.

 The arrow of the wind vane points to the direction from which wind is blowing.

 The arrow pointing to the south-east therefore, gives us a south-easterly wind.

 When winds blow from the same direction for a long period of time, they are called
prevailing winds.

 Zimbabwe is mainly affected by either the south-east or the north-east winds.

Wind rose
 Diagram on p17 fig. 1.16 Dynamic.

 A wind rose is not an instrument but a chart which shows the number of days wind blew
in a certain direction in a month.

 The number of days is shown by a box.

 The number written in the centre of the wind rose shows the number of days when there
was no blowing wind (calms).
Wind speed
 Wind speed is determined by the pressure gradient. Pressure gradient is the difference in
pressure between 2 given points. If the difference is high pressure gradient is said to be
steep resulting in strong winds of great speed.

 A steep pressure gradient is shown by isobars that are closely spaced. Where the isobars
are close together, there is a strong pressure gradient and the wind is strong and where the
isobars are further apart, the winds are much lighter.

 The law of gradient says winds blow from high pressure cells to low pressure cells.

 Wind blows almost parallel with the isobars and its speed is closely related to the
closeness of the isobars.

 Wind speed is measured by a cup anemometer.

 Diagram p15 fig. 1.22 Step ahead.

 The speed is observed by the rate at which the cups revolve in the wind.

 The cups catch the wind and this spins the shaft which is connected to a meter.

 The meter records the wind speed in kilometres per hour.

The Beaufort scale of wind force

 This is used to classify or estimate wind speed.

Beaufort Scale Equivalent speed at 10m above ground

Force Description Observed effects of the wind knots Metres per Description
/Num /wind type second in forecasts
ber

Mean Mean k.p.h.

0 Calm Calm; smoke rises vertically 0 0.0 <1 Calm

1 Light air Direction of wind shown by 2 2.4 1-5 Light

smoke drift, but not by wind
vanes

2 Light breeze Wind felt on face; leaves 5 2.4 6-10 Light

rustle; ordinary vane moved by
wind
3 Gentle Leaves and small twigs in 10 4.3 12-19 Light
breeze constant motion; wind extends
light flag

4 Moderate Raises dust and loose paper; 15 6.7 20-29 Moderate

breeze small branches are moved

5 Fresh breeze Small trees in leaf begin to 20 9.3 30-36 Fresh

sway; crested wavelets form
on inland waters

6 Strong Large branches in motion; 25 12.3 37-49 Strong

breeze whistling heard in telegraph
wires; umbrellas used with
difficult

7 Near/moder Whole trees in motion; 30 15.5 50-60 Strong

ate gale inconvenience felt when
walking against wind

8 Gale Breaks twigs off trees; 35 18.9 61-73 Gale

generally impedes progress

9 Strong gale Slight structural damage 45 22.6 74-86 Severe gale

occurs (chimney pots and
slates removed). Slight damage
to buildings.

10 Whole gale Seldom, experienced inland; 50 26.4 87-100 Storm

trees uprooted; considerable
structural damage occurs

11 Storm Very rarely experienced; 60 30.5 101-120 Violent

accompanied by wide-spread storm
damage

12 Hurricane Very serious damage through Above _____ >121 Hurricane

affected areas 65 force

Sunshine
 Sunshine refers to the length of time of cloud-free periods.
  The number of hours of sunshine that a place receives in winter and in summer is
different and so seasons affect this element of weather.

 Sunshine is recorded by a sunshine recorder.

 Diagram on p13 fig. 1.12 Dynamic.

 It is measured in hours indicating the time sunshine was received in an area.

 The recorder has a glass sphere surrounded by a metal frame. On the frame is attached a
sensitive card (sun dial).

 The sphere focuses the sun’s rays on the card.

 As the sun moves across the sky it burns a trace on the card.

 At the end of the day the card is taken out and the length is measured in hours and
minutes.

 This information is represented on maps by lines called isohels. Isohels are lines that join
areas with same sunshine hours.

 The knowledge of sunshine hours is important to tourists and farmers. A tourist who
comes from very cold areas where the number of sunshine hours experienced is less
would be interested to visit areas with more hours of sunshine.

Measuring rainfall
 Diagram on p158 fig. 11.11 unnamed text or on p22 fig. 14 Study guide.

 Rainfall is measured with a rain gauge.

 A rain gauge is a straight-sided container with a flat bottom that collects rain as it falls. It
has a funnel at the top and a collecting jar inside.

 These are made of copper or PVC (a polymer of vinyl chloride) plastic. These prevent
these parts of the rain gauge from rusting because they do not corrode.

 The cylinder is set firmly in the ground. The standard gauge has a rim 127 millimetres or
5 inches in diameter. The rain passes down through the funnel into the collecting jar.

 When the collecting can is filled to the brim, overflow collects into an overflow can.

 The water from the jar is poured into a graduated measuring cylinder from which the
reading can be made directly. Rainfall is expressed in millimetres (mm).

 Readings are normally taken once a day in the morning.

  It is important that the reading should be taken at the same time each day so that the
period over which the rain is collected remains constant.

 Continuous recording of rainfall provides us with important information that can be

plotted on maps or used to draw rainfall graphs. Maps show isohyets which are lines
joining places with equal precipitation totals.

Precautions that are taken to ensure accurate measurements of rainfall

 A rain gauge must be placed in an open space, away from buildings, trees, and grass must
be kept short so that there is no runoff dripping from these objects into the gauge or
blockages of rain fall from getting into the gauge.

 It should have a concreate stand to support it upright and to avoid being toppled by heavy
rains.

 The outer case is sunk in the ground to prevent the sun’s heat from evaporating any of the
rain collected in the glass jar.

 The funnel rim must be about 0, 3 metres above the ground to avoid water splashing in
the gauge.

 The rain gauge must be kept in protected, fenced and secure weather stations to avoid
vandalism and disturbances by animals.

 The gauge should be cleaned regularly, particularly at the end of the dry season when
dust and leaves may have collected inside.

Important information provided by rainfall measurement

 Daily rainfall is the amount that falls each day and is recorded in the rain gauge.

 Monthly precipitation/rainfall is rainfall that is recorded for each day of the month and
added.

 Mean annual rainfall is the average of the annual rainfall totals over a period of thirty-
five years.

Precipitation
 This refers to any form of water falling from the atmosphere i.e. it could be in gaseous,
liquid or solid form.

 Liquid water – relief, convectional and frontal

 Solids – snow, hail and ice.

  Gases – mist and fog

Forms of precipitation

Dew
 This is formed when condensation takes place on the surface.

 Conditions: In the previous (preceding) there must have been strong insolation, followed
by extremely cold nights with clear skies—all the terrestrial heat is lost to the atmosphere
until surface temps get to 00C or below. Thermals condense on the ground. Water
droplets are deposited on vegetation and other surfaces.

 NB: Clouds have a blanketing effect i.e. reflect terrestrial heat so much that the surface
temps remain warm above 00C. Therefore dew can’t be formed.

Fog
 Formed when condensation takes place close to the ground due to low surface temps.

Types of fogs
 Advection fog: it is formed when warm air passes over a cold surface. Warm air is then
cooled from below making it to be stable. It then forms low level clouds such as stratus.

 Radiation fog: formed when the ground loses a lot of terrestrial heat so much that
surface temps drop to 0 0C. This causes air masses to condense on the surface forming
clouds. Fog often disappear early in the morning when temp increases dissipating
(Breaking up) the clouds.

Hail
 This is precipitation in ice-crystals. Received from clouds of great vertical extent, from
extremely cold temps.

 Usually formed if the atmosphere is very unstable, with strongly convective currents.

Snow
 Form of rainfall which is in white flakes. Snow is deposited on/it accumulates on
vegetation or buildings or mountains.

 It is received in zones whose temps are above the snow line i.e. Arctic and Antarctic and
Mountain summits.

 Low temp force water vapour to condense into white flakes on the surface. It results in
formation of perma-frost surfaces—surfaces with frozen water.
  Snow line is the line around 0 0C height where snow is formed.

Drizzle
 Rain with small droplets usually from low level clouds such as stratus clouds. Sometimes
it rains for several hours.

Shower
 Rain with relatively big droplets usually received from passing cumulus clouds. It lasts
for a few minutes.

Torrential
 Heavy rainfall from massive clouds such as cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds.
Torrential rains are often continuous lasting for several hours/days.

 They are often associated with fronts or doldrums.

Clouds
 Clouds are suspended tiny water droplets or tiny ice crystals that float in the air. They are
rain bearing features, normally found in the troposphere.

 Mists, fogs are also forms of ground-level or near ground-level clouds because they are
also made of tiny water droplets floating in the air.

 These have no particular shape. The mist and fog found over some mountain summits are
really low-lying clouds passing over the mountains.

 Cloud cover and type is not measured by an instrument but is only estimated by an eye.

 Clouds can be represented on weather maps.

 Places of the same cloudiness are represented by lines called isonephs.

 Cloud cover is shown on the daily weather map using oktas (fractions of eight)

Importance of clouds in weather studies

 They determine the current weather conditions e.g. the presence or absence of clouds can
cause temperature variations.

 They indicate the type of weather that is likely to occur e.g. the clouds can bring rain and
thunderstorms.
Cloud formation
 Clouds are formed when air is cool below dew point temperature and vapour condenses
into water droplets which become visible above condensation level.

 A variety of atmospheric processes are involved in the formation of clouds.

 The heating of the earth by solar radiation causes evaporation from land and water bodies
as well as transpiration from the tree to take place. Evapotranspiration, the combined
process of water loss through evaporation and transpiration supplies water vapour into the
atmosphere.

 Water vapour rises because it is warmer and therefore less dense or lighter than the
surrounding air.

 Where an air parcel rises and does not fall back to its original place, the atmosphere is
said to be unstable. In a stable atmosphere, a rising parcel of air would fall back to its
original place.

 The rising parcel of air cools adiabatically, that is, it cools on its own. However, as long
as the temp of rising air is greater than that of the atmosphere, it will continue rising. The
parcel of air will finally reach the dew point (the temp at which condensation occurs.

 Dew point marks the beginning of condensation and cloud formation. This point or level
is the base of the cloud.

 The air parcel does not cease rising because of condensation. It continues to rise until its
temp is equal to that of the surrounding air and there it forms a cloud top.

 Diagram on p23 My Notes.

 If the rising parcel of air quickly reaches saturation and condensation, its cloud base
would be close to the ground. This depends on relative humidity of the air parcel. If the
two air parcels A and B have 70% and 60% relative humidity respectively rise and cool at
the same temp, A would reach condensation first because it would quickly reach
saturation and therefore its cloud base would be lower than that of B. B will have to rise
higher than A before reaching condensation.

Cloud colour
 Some clouds are dark; others grey while others are white.

 The colour differences are a result of different cloud thickness and their ability to allow
sun’s rays to pass through them.
  Thick clouds allow a limited amount of sun’s rays to pass through them, therefore they
have a shadow below.

 Thin clouds on the other hand allow a lot of sun’s rays to pass through, as a result they
appear white.

Classification of clouds (types of clouds)

 Clouds are classified based on their appearance, shape (form) and heights of their bases.

Group Height Types of clouds

High clouds 6 000-12 000 m Cirrus

Cirrocumulus

Cirrostratus

Medium clouds 2 000-6 000 m Altocumulus

Altostratus

Low clouds 2 000 m and below Stratocumulus

Stratus

Nimbostratus

Clouds of great vertical extent 1 500-1 200 m Cumulus

Cumulonimbus

 The names of the clouds reveal the nature of the cloud.

o The term cirrus and the prefix cirro means curly or feathery indicate high clouds,
whilst alto indicates medium height clouds.

o Cumulus and cumulo stand for a heap of clouds and stratus or strato are layered
clouds.

o Nimbus means rain-bearing.

 In naming a cloud, the altitude prefix is usually used e.g. cirrostratus means a layered
cloud at a high altitude.

 Diagram on p20 fig. 1.31 Step ahead.

High level clouds
 Because of the extremely low temp at this height, the clouds are composed of ice crystals.

Cirrus clouds
 These are made of tiny ice crystals.

 They are white, fibrous, patchy, wispy (faint or shadowy) and feather-like, and are very
high clouds. Cirrus clouds may form the top of a cumulonimbus.

Cirro-stratus
 This cloud looks like a thin white layer, almost transparent that gives the sun or moon a
halo (a circle of light around the sun or moon)

Cirro-cumulus clouds
 Composed of ice crystals, globular or rippled (like ripple in the sand) in appearance.

Middle level Clouds

 Most of these clouds are in sheet form or in layers.

Altocumulus
 The cloud occurs in layers or patches. They are bumpy or globular and have water
droplets and a flattened base.

Altostratus
 It forms a sheet of grey or watery looking clouds, partly or totally covering the sky.

Low level clouds

Stratus clouds
 These are grey and layered (forms a uniform layer), and are usually found at the lower
levels. Stratus clouds usually bring dull weather at times they are accompanied by
drizzle.

Strato-cumulus
 It takes the form of a layer with an undulating base, or is composed of rolls in a line. It
can also be said to contain heaps in a linear form called globules.

Nimbostratus clouds
 These are rain-bearing clouds that are dark grey in colour with multi layers, and that can
produce continuous rain and dull weather conditions. They are also dense and shapeless.
Fog
 A stratus cloud, lying close to the gro\und. It often reduces visibility.

Cumulus clouds
 These are white cotton wool-like clouds that are massive (large) or heaped, and generally
globular in shape. It has a flat base.

 It forms in an unstable atmosphere and usually gives rainfall of a showery type.

Cumulonimbus clouds
 These are clouds of great vertical extent. They are white at the top and grey or black in
the lower sections. The lower part of a cumulonimbus cloud falls in the low cloud group.
The lower part is dense and dark.

 They have summits that can be called anvil heads (spread out tops).

 These clouds are associated with heavy rains, lightning and thunder.

Rainfall
 Rain refers to large drops of water that fall from clouds.

Formation
 Rain is formed as a result of condensation and cloud formation.

 Clouds are made of tiny water droplets floating in the air. If these small droplets join
together or coalesce, they form larger drops.

 The drops then fall to the ground as rain due to gravity.

 Some clouds are made of tiny ice crystals and these crystals will join to form larger
crystals, which then fall to the ground as hail or the ice crystals will melt as they fall to
the ground, becoming rain.

The main stages/processes in the formation of all rainfall types

 Rising (due to either light air rising over colder air, heated air rising, or air forced up a
mountain or barrier)

 Expanding (results from reduced pressure exerted on the rising air parcel)

 Cooling (due to air occupying a larger area and using heat energy to expand outward)

 Condensation and cloud formation (suspended water droplets)

  Coalescence (large droplets formed by smaller ones joining)

 Rainfall (large drops fall through the air to the ground as rain, which can overcome
updraughts in the air)

Types of rainfall
 There are three main types of rainfall: convectional rain, relief or orographic and frontal
(cyclonic rain)

 Rainfall is classified or grouped according to the way the air rose.

 In convectional rain, air rises by convectional uplift. In relief rain, air rises by orographic
uplift (along a physical barrier) and in cyclonic, air rises by a frontal uplift.

Convectional rainfall
 Diagram on 21 fig. 1.25 Dynamic or p60 fig. 6.5 Success Kit or p21 fig. 1.32 Step ahead.

 This rain is initiated by the sun heating the ground.

 The hot ground surface heats the moist air above it. The heated air becomes lighter, rises,
expands and cools. The rising air parcels are called thermals or updraughts.

 As it keeps on rising, it is cooled to below dew point temperature, which results in

condensation of the water vapour in the air.

 At ground level, cool air from the surrounding area moves to replace the rising air, filling
up the partial vacuum created.

 At upper levels, the cooled air also descends, thereby completing the convectional
currents.

 This type of rainfall is found mainly in the Equatorial areas (between 00 – 100 north and
south), the surrounding tropical latitudes and on continental interiors in summer, where
intense heat is experienced.

 Convectional rainfall is associated with heavy rains, hail, floods, lightning and
thunderstorms. It is also mainly associated with the tropical areas where trade winds
converge, that is, ITCZ. It migrates with the migration of the sun.

 The clouds responsible are the thick cumulonimbus type, which develop mainly in the
afternoons, by which time the ground has been sufficiently heated.

 In Zimbabwe, convectional rainfall mainly affects the northern areas especially in the
summer season.
Relief or orographic rainfall
 Diagram on p21 fig.1.33 Step ahead.

 This type of rainfall occurs as a result of warm, moist air being forced to rise over a
physical barrier such as a mountain or a high ground.

 As the air rises, it expands, cools and then the moisture in it condenses and rain is
formed. The cooling is a result of increase in altitude.

 Most of the rain falls on the windward side of the mountain where the wind first moves
up-slope.

 The side of the relief feature where warm moist air rises is the windward side.

 When the air descends on the other side of the mountain (leeward side), the pressure on it
increases.

 The air is compressed, heats up creating a rain shadow effect where little or no rain fall.
This side does not receive rain because the winds reach this area when they are dry.

 The leeward side is said to be in the rain shadow. It experiences hot and dry winds.

 In Zimbabwe, this type of rainfall occurs mostly in the Eastern Highlands.

 Warm moist air from Mozambique, driven by the south-east trade winds, is forced up the
Eastern Highland, producing rain on the windward slopes facing Mozambique.

 Chipinge and the Save valley lie in the rain shadow and hence experience dry conditions.

Farming activities on the leeward side

 Irrigation schemes are used

 Drought resistant crops such as sorghum and millet are grown e.g. Chiredzi, Save valley.

 Cattle ranching or wildlife farming e.g. Gonarezhou.

Frontal or cyclonic rainfall

 Diagram on p22 fig. 1.34 Step Ahead.

 This is formed as a result of the convergence of winds.

 It occurs in the temperate regions where warm tropical air meet cold air masses forming a
front.

 This rainfall type can also be called depression rain.

  Two types of fronts are formed in a temperate depression, and these are the warm front
and the cold front.

 In a warm front, warm air gradually rises over cold, denser air. As the warm air rises, it
expands and cools, and then the moisture condenses, resulting in the formation of rain.

 The warm front is associated with light rains that fall over a long period of time.

 The cloud types: low level nimbostratus to high cirrocumulus.

 Along the cold front, cold air undercuts and forces the warm air up. As the warm air is
forced up, it expands, cools and then the moisture in it condenses to produce rain.

 The cold front is associated with clouds of great vertical extent known as cumulonimbus,
and heavy but shortlived thunderstorms.

 Cyclonic rainfall can be prolonged, lasting over a week and soaking soils very wet.

Distribution
 Most common on the south-western part of South Africa, especially Cape Town Area.

 In Zimbabwe, this rain is associated with ITCZ.

Rainfall distribution in Zimbabwe

 On a map, rainfall distribution is shown by isohyets. Isohyets are lines that join areas
with the same amount of rainfall.

 Generally, Zimbabwe receives its highest rainfall in the Eastern Highlands due to the
prevailing moist south-east trade winds and the orographic effects of the Eastern
Highlands.

 There is a general decrease in rainfall from the eastern part of Zimbabwe towards the
west because the moist air streams from the Indian ocean get progressively drier as they
cross the land mass and mountains.

 There is also a general decrease of rainfall moving southwards due to the reduced
influence of the ITCZ.

 The ITCZ, at its most southerly position, reaches the latitude of Masvingo (200). This
means that areas to the north generally receive higher rainfall.

 The wettest region is the NE quadrant (quarter) while the SW portion is the driest.
Air masses and related weather systems
Origin of an air mass
 An air mass is a very large body of air with fairly uniform (same) characteristics of
temperature and humidity, pressure and wind speed.

 It covers very large areas i.e. they are extensive.

 Air masses move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure in a horizontal
direction.

 Air masses are caused by air that rests undisturbed for a long time, upon either land or
water surfaces that have uniform temperatures and humidity.

 The naming of air masses depends on source regions. Areas where air masses are created
are called source regions.

 The source region determines the characteristics of the air masses. The source region
could be the seas and oceans or land masses.

 Air masses that originate from water surfaces are moist, that is, they have high humidity.
Those from the land are dry.

 The air masses from the water surfaces are called maritime air masses and those from
the land are called continental air masses.

 The source regions could be the Poles or tropics. These source regions determine the
temperature of the air masses.

 Those from the Poles are called and are called Polar air masses, and those from the
tropics are warm or hot and are called tropical air masses.

 The Polar and tropical source regions could be land or sea surfaces.

Types of air masses

 Air masses are classified into four main categories

Polar continental (Pc) air masses

 These originate from cold continental masses of the higher latitudes.

 The air masses are cold and dry since they are from the land.

Polar maritime (Pm) air masses

 These are formed over cold seas in the high latitudes. The air masses are cool and moist.
Tropical continental (Tc) air masses
 These originate from land in the tropics, especially in deserts. The air masses are hot or
warm and very dry.

Tropical maritime (Tm) air masses

 These form over oceans in the tropics. The air masses are warm and moist.

Other types of air masses

Arctic air masses

 These originate from the North Pole and they are cold and stable.

Antarctic air masses

 These originate from the South Pole and are cold and stable.

Equatorial air masses

 These originate from the Equator and are hot, humid and unstable.

Stable and unstable air masses

 The cold air masses are regarded as stable since they are heavy and tend to have sinking
air.

 The warm air masses are regarded as unstable since they are associated with less dense
air that tends to rise, initiating up currents.

Fronts
 A front is a zone or imaginary line separating two or more air masses. They are formed
by the convergence of winds.

 Air masses usually don’t mix up readily because of differences in temperature, humidity
and density. They form a front. The formation of a front is called fronto-genesis.

 The zone at the belt of the convergence zone is called frontal surface.

 When air masses mix up, fronts disappears and that is called frontolysis.

Naming fronts
 It depends on the air mass which is mobile.

Warm fronts
 Diagram on p18 fig. 1.19 Dynamics
  These are formed when warm air mass is moving towards cold air mass.

 When these air masses meet, the warm moist air which is less dense is forced to rise up
the dense cold air.

 Upon reaching condensation clouds are formed resulting in rainfall. Heavy rains also
follow.

 Warm fronts have a thick band of up to 300 km.

 It has a gentler slope/gradient than a cold front.

Weather associated with a passing warm front

 Before the arrival of the front, the sky will be clear and temperature will be low.

 Suddenly cirrus clouds emerge followed by stratus, altocumulus, nimbostratus and other
thick rain bearing clouds.

 Nimbostratus clouds bring heavy showers which last for a day or less.

 Late long light to heavy rains are received from thick low level clouds.

 Rain showers are experienced due to low level clouds.

 Steady or low intensity rainfall is experienced due to type of cloud-nimbostratus.

 Small droplets of rain are experienced due to gradual gentle ascent.

 Low clouds are formed as warm air steadily rises over cold air.

 Long duration of rainfall is as a result of slow ascent and cooling.

 After long light to heavy rains, the sky clears off, the temperature rises suddenly.

 The weather becomes clear, moist and warm.

Cold fronts
 Diagram on p18 fig. 1.18 Dynamic.

 These are formed when cold air is advancing toward a body of warm air and undercuts it.

 Cold air is denser. Instead of rising over warm air, it lifts it off the ground at a sharp
angle, forming a cold front which slants towards the cold air and opposite the wind
direction. A bulge is formed and the gradient is steep.
  If the speed of the cold air is fast, it causes rapid up draughts of warm air resulting in
heavy rains accompanied by thunderstorm.

 It is associated most with cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds compared to cirrus and
nimbostratus clouds in the warm front.

 Since the slope of the cold front is very steep, the frontal band is very narrow i.e. area
under influence of the cold front.

 The frontal band is usually around 50 km or less.

Weather associated with a passing cold front

 Before the arrival of the front low pressure, high temperature and cloudless skies will be
the existing weather conditions.

 As the front advances, cumulus and stratocumulus clouds are seen.

 Cumulonimbus clouds accompanied by lightning and thunder bring heavy rainfall.

 Hailstorm is experienced due to clouds of great vertical extent

 High intensity rain falls due to huge CuNi clouds

 Rain falls in large raindrops due to super cooling.

 The cloud is huge due to rapid condensation caused by fast rising air

 Short duration of rain is caused by limited cloud extent.

 As the front crosses the point, temperature falls rapidly, pressure increases and last rains
are received.

 The sky clears off.

Stationary fronts
 Formed when the advancing air stops moving because of obstruction.

Occluded front
 Formed when two fronts are in succession i.e. following each other. In some cases warm
front will be following cold front or the other way round.
Types of occluded fronts

Cold occlusion front

 Diagram on p58 Success kit or p14 My notes.

 Formed when the cold front catches up with the warm front. The warm front is lifted off
the ground.

Warm occlusion front

 Formed when the cold front is lifted off the ground by the warm front.

 Diagram on p14 My notes.

Depressions (temperate cyclones)

 A temperate depression is an area of low pressure in the temperate areas associated with
the collision of Polar air masses and tropical air masses (from the sub-tropical high
pressure zone).

 These air masses meet around the 400-600 latitudes north or south of the Equator resulting
in the creation of fronts.

 Depressions are characterised by warm and cold fronts.

Formation of a depression
 They are created as a result of the friction between the cold, dry, dense Polar air mass and
the warm, moist, less dense tropical air masses. These air masses meet in the mid-
latitudes forming depression rainfall.

 They are normally formed over the North Atlantic ocean

Stages in the formation of a depression in the Southern Hemisphere

 Diagram on p25 fig. 1.37 Step ahead.

 At stage 1, cold and warm air masses converge along the temperate belt and there is a
state of balance and so we have an undisturbed Polar front.

 With time, a bulge or wave of warm air is created by friction as shown in stage 2, and
pressure drops at the tip of the wave where warm air is trapped. The trapped warm air
moves in an opposite direction of the cold air.
  The low pressure so formed is characterised by a closed system of isobars, and since the
system is found in the Southern Hemisphere, a clockwise circulation of winds blowing
around the centre of the system is created as shown in stage 3.

 Once matured, the whole system begins to move from west to east.

 At this stage, clear fronts are created. As the tropical air moves, it rises over the cold
polar air, creating a warm front marked W.

 At the rear of this front there is a section or wedge (triangular in cross section) of tropical
warm air masses called a warm sector (S).

 As the cold air pushes the warm air in the warm sector, it forces itself underneath the
warm air, creating a cold front, marked C.

Cross-section of a depression
 Diagram on p25 fig. 1.38

 Feature W is a warm front.

o Before the arrival of the depression pressure will be high, temperature low, winds
blowing in an easterly direction.

o The approach of a warm front is heralded by the arrival of high cirrus clouds,
which gradually thicken to become nimbostratus as the front part touching the
ground approaches.

o This area experiences warm air that is rising and then moisture condensing to
form light rains of long duration (heavy shower rains) and generally dull weather.

 Feature S is a warm sector.

o This is associated with low pressure, increased temperatures, clear skies and
warm, fine weather conditions (calm condition).

 Feature C is a cold front.

o In this front, cold air undercuts and forces warm air up to form clouds of great
vertical extent, such as cumulonimbus clouds that are associated with shortlived
thunderstorms (heavy torrential rainfall).

o As the cold front passes, there is very cold and dull weather,

 As the depression moves from west to east, the cold front is faster than the warm front,
and former should eventually catch up with the latter, forming occlusion.
  The distance between A and B can range from a few kilometres to more than a 1 000 km,
and the warm sector can be as wide as 80 km.

The cross section of the occluded front of stage 4

 Diagram on p26 fig. 1.39 Step ahead.

 The occluded front occurs when the cold front catches up with the warm front and cold
air forces the warm air up.

 The occluded front is associated with dull weather, which brings cold weather and
continuous rainfall due to the combination of cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds.

 Other conditions that are usually associated with occluded front are fog, light rain,
drizzle, falling pressure, light winds, temperature drops, and overcast skies.

 Wind direction changes from easterly to westerly. Temperature falls, pressure increases.
The rains stops, the sky clears off.

 The depression is over.

Tropical cyclones
 Tropical cyclones or depressions are rotating, extreme low pressure systems that form in
tropical latitudes (100-250 north or south) over oceans.

 The tropical cyclones are known by various local names.

o On the eastern coast of North America (Atlantic ocean) they are known as
hurricanes, in the seas of China and in Japan (Asia) as typhoons, in the Indian
ocean and eastern coasts of Africa as cyclones and in the northern part of
Australia as Willy-Willies.

 Cyclones are named using female names and in alphabetical order e.g. Domoina, Emily,
Gloria.

 Tropical cyclones are associated with strong winds that spiral (go round) towards the
centre in an anti-clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.

 They are usually accompanied by gusty winds of greater force, dark and thick clouds,
heavy thunderstorm and lightning.

Cross-section of a tropical cyclone

 Diagram on p26 fig. 1.40 Step ahead.
  The winds spiral upwards (the air rapidly rises/gusty winds) in an area called a vortex,
which surrounds the centre or the eye of the cyclone. An eye is a calm area in the centre
of a cyclone with upper air divergence.

 The towering cumulonimbus clouds are associated with heavy rains and thunder.

 The air keeps the cyclone afloat to reduce ground friction.

 Air sinks in the eye to maintain calm conditions but if the air blows inwards violently the
cyclone will die.

 Cyclones vary in diameter from 50 km to about 750 km. the size of the eye varies
between 15 km and 30 km across.

 The wind speeds can reach 200 km per hour.

Weather associated with the tropical cyclones

 The approach of a cyclone is usually accompanied at first by calm conditions, high
temperature and high humidity.

 Strong warm moist easterly winds prevail thereafter.

 As the vortex approaches, thick and dark clouds and gusty winds (strong and destructive)
are experienced.

 The arrival of the vortex (front vortex) is accompanied by violent winds of greet speed
and heavy torrential (pouring in abundance) rains with thunder and lightning. It also
reduces visibility.

 After several hours, rains stop signalling the eye.

 When the eye of the cyclone arrives, calm conditions are experienced. The eye
experiences calm spiralling winds, high temperatures, and lowest pressure is recorded.
The eye lasts for a few hours.

 The arrival of the rear of the vortex is characterised by violent winds, dark and thick
clouds with heavy rainfall accompanied by thunder and lightning, but the winds will be
blowing in an opposite direction to that of the front of the vortex.

 Pressure increases gradually until the cyclone passes until the clouds disappear and the
rain stops.
Where are they formed and why are they formed there
 Tropical cyclones form over sea surfaces with temperatures above 27 0C. These areas
provide the heat, energy and the constant supply of moisture that will provide intense
condensation and convection.

 A continued supply of moisture keeps the rising air around the vortices unstable, causing
it to rise to great heights.

 They also need an inward flowing and rapidly rising air in order to form.

 They are also found on the eastern side of continents where winds blow onto the land
across warm currents.

 They are also stronger over the oceans because of the friction-free surface that allows a
rapid and continuous supply of warm moist air into the vortex.

 Seas enhance enough water in the atmosphere needed by the cyclones.

 Cyclones generally move in a westerly direction, dying out as they reach the land because
there is less warm moist air and more friction on the rough land surface.

 Friction with the ground reduces the speed of movement and gives off heat that
destabilises the system.

 The western margins/coastal areas receive dry winds and experience stable conditions
resulting in desert formation.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

 This is broad low pressure zone where air masses with different characteristics meet and
mix without any boundaries resulting in rainfall. It forms along the thermal equator
within the tropics of cancer and Capricorn.

 It migrates within the tropics following the apparent movement of the overhead sun
(thermal equator).

 The rainfall formed as a result of this meeting is called convergence rainfall.

 Convergence rainfall is seasonal. It follows the low pressure belt along the thermal
equator.

 These seasonal changes are vividly evident over land but remain subtle over oceans. This
is because the land quickly responds to high insolation levels by producing high
temperatures, ideal conditions for ITCZ locations.
  The seas, on the other hand, respond slowly to high insolation levels. This is why
temperatures remain subdued over oceans, creating high pressure (anticyclones) cells that
block the movement of the ITCZ and prevent it following the apparent position of the
sun.

The ITCZ in winter (July)

 Diagram on p27 fig. 1.42 Step ahead or p17 My Notes.

 In the northern hemisphere, the ITCZ is experienced between July and September.

 In winter the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer. That creates a belt of low pressure
along this area.

 Strong insolation from the sun heats both the land and the oceans (Indian/Atlantic). The
land is a good heat conductor/absorber and so heats up faster than oceans.

 A low pressure cell develops over the continental interior. Moderate pressure cells
develop over oceans. The southern Africa will be having high pressure due to low
temperatures.

 Winds are then forced to blow from HP cells to LP cells. These winds are the N.E trade
winds from the Indian Ocean, and NW (recurved N.E) from the Atlantic and the dry and
dust Harmattan winds from the Sahara desert.

 These winds converge with the SE, SW trades (Zaire winds) from south bringing
convergence rainfall along the ITCZ low pressure zone over central Northern Africa.

The ITCZ in Summer (January)

 Diagram on p27 fig. 1.42 Step ahead or p18 My Notes.

 In the southern hemisphere, the ITCZ occurs between October and March.

 Because of different thermal capacities, low pressure develops over continents leaving
oceans in high pressure cells.

 North easterlies and the prevailing ‘traditional’ south easterlies converge over the ITCZ
over Central Africa.

 Recurved NW monsoons (Congo air) and SW trade winds bring rain on the western half.

 Usually the influence of the ITCZ is felt on the Northern part of Zimbabwe excluding
Matabeleland region.
Weather conditions associated with the ITCZ
 The direct sun causes very high temperatures.

 Excessive heating by the sun causes an intense low-pressure belt.

 North westerlies, north east and south-east trade winds converge to replace air that has
been heated and forced to rise over the ‘thermal Equator’ by the great heat from the sun.
These are very moist air masses, and therefore the relative humidity values are very high.
(This normally happens over central southern Africa).

 Heating and convergence force the moist air masses to rise, expand, cool and condense
creating towering cumulonimbus clouds.

 Rainfall torrential accompanied by thunder and lightning results.

 Floods and high speed winds usually occur.

 Diurnal temperature ranges are low due to the greenhouse effect of the clouds. (This is
because of warm nights and subdued daytime temperatures).

Air masses that affect Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular

 Diagram on p61 fig. 6.7 Success kit.

 Rainfall in Zimbabwe is mainly influence by three air masses. These are:

o The North East Trade wind

o The South East Trade wind, and,

o The Congo wind

 A trade wind is a wind that blows from one region to another.

 These three air masses meet over Zimbabwe resulting in relentless rains in February.

South East trade Winds

 These originate from the Indian Ocean in the horse latitude between latitude 25 – 350.

 They form part of a usually returning equatorial air flow from the subtropical high
pressure but towards the equator trough or the ITCZ.

 The air mass reaches Zimbabwe on the South Easterly parts.

 This accounts for the high rainfall received in the eastern Highlands in Zimbabwe. The
wind will be forced to rise by the Eastern Highlands, causing Orographic rainfall.
  They bring drizzle and light showers.

 They cause cloudy conditions in winter and clear weather in summer.

Zaire or Congo air or North west trade winds

 They are also known as the South Atlantic air mass.

 The winds originate from the Atlantic Ocean towards Angola and Namibia from Zambia
to Zimbabwe.

 It forms as a result of the re-curving of South Easterly winds as they approach equator.
The re-curving can be explained by the temporary migration of the ITCZ southwards,
forming a depression over southern parts of Zambia.

 The wind picks up moisture in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Congo equatorial basin,
hence Congo air.

 They are associated with the ITCZ which brings rainfall to Zimbabwe as they have
moved from the Atlantic and rainforest of Congo.

 The Northern part of Zimbabwe benefit from this air mass.

North East monsoon

 Monsoon means seasonal hence the wind blows during the summer.

 NE Monsoons are a common current which result from high pressure in the Arabian Sea.
Since they are a maritime air mass, they carry much moisture.

 The contribution of this air to Zimbabwe’s climate depends on the route it takes to reach
Zimbabwe. If it takes the continental route, it loses much moisture in the East African
Highlands, but if it takes the oceanic route, it brings more rain.

 They bring more rainfall in the Northern part of Zimbabwe in December and early
January.

 This usually results in more rain in Centenary, Mvurwi, Concession, Murewa, Macheke
and Marondera