FM-II CHP 09

29-Apr-19
29-Apr-19
Chapter
9 Fluid Mechanics - II
• External flow Dr Muhammad Sajid
Assistant Professor
characteristics NUST, SMME.
• Boundary layer Email: m.sajid@smme.nust.edu.pk
Tel: 9085 6065
Characteristics
• Drag and lift Reference Text:
Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 6th Ed
By Munson, Young, Okiishi
and Huebsch
Fluid Mechanics - II 2
29-Apr-19
External flow
• Flow over bodies that are completely
surrounded by the fluid.
• Examples:
– The flow of air around airplanes, automobiles,
and falling rain drops, or
– The flow of water around submarines and fish.
1
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29-Apr-19 External flow - Applications

• Aerodynamics:
– The study of external flows produced when an object
such as an airplane flies through the atmosphere.
• Automotive engineering:
– Design of surface vehicles (cars, trucks, bicycles)
considering the fluid force (lift and drag) in-order to
decrease the fuel consumption and improve the handling
characteristics of the vehicle.
• Naval engineering:
– Similar efforts have resulted in improved ships, whether
they are surface vessels (surrounded by two fluids, air
and water) or submersible vessels.
• Civil engineering:
– The proper design of a building must include
consideration of the various wind effects involved.
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External flow - Approaches

• Theoretical
– The information obtained from theoretical
methods is limited due to the complexities of the
governing equations and geometry of objects.
• Experimental
– Much of the information about external flows
comes from experiments carried out on scale
models of the actual objects.
• Numerical
– Computational techniques are also capable of
predicting external flows past objects.
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29-Apr-19 External flow - Classification

• The structure of an external
flow depends on the nature of
the body in the flow.
– Two-dimensional objects
• infinitely long and of constant
cross sectional size and shape
– Axisymmetric bodies,
• formed by rotating their cross-
sectional shape about the axis of
symmetry, and
– Three-dimensional bodies
• that may or may not possess a
line or plane of symmetry.
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External flow – Lift and drag

• A stationary body immersed in a moving fluid
(or a body moving in a fluid) experiences a
force due to the interaction between the body
and the fluid surrounding it.
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29-Apr-19 External flow – Lift and drag

• These forces can be described in terms of
the stresses.
– Wall shear stresses, tw, due to viscous effects
– Normal stresses due to the pressure, p.
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• The resultant force in
the direction of the
upstream velocity is
the drag, D.
D =  Fx =  p cos dA +  t w sin dA
• The resultant force in the direction normal to
the upstream velocity if termed lift, L.
L =  Fy = − p sin dA +  t w cos dA
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29-Apr-19 External flow – Lift and drag

• To calculate the lift and drag from these
integrals we must have an analytical solution
for the distribution of both pressure, p and
shear stress tw on a body.
– difficult!
– usually calculate drag using simplifications or
experimental data.
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• Analytical Analysis in ideal cases
• Consider a Zero thickness flat plate parallel to flow:
– No pressure difference across plate,

– All drag due to shear stresses at the surface.
– “Ultimate” streamlined body.
• If the same plate is normal to the upstream flow stagnation
occurs and there is a significant pressure drop across the
plate which is a source of drag.
p1 p2
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29-Apr-19 Example
• Find the lift and drag produced when Air at
standard conditions flows past a 2m long flat
plate.
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Solution
• The lift is zero
L = −  pdA +  pdA = 0
Top Bottom
Since pressure distribution is same on top &
bottom.
D =  t w dA + t w dA = 2  t w dA
Top Bottom Top
 0.03 
2m
D=2  N / m 2 (3m )dx = 0.509N
x =0  x 
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29-Apr-19 Solution
• Vertical flat plate
– Lift is zero
– Drag is…
 40(1 − y )N / m − (− 30N / m )(3m)dx

1m
D=2 2 2 2
x = −1
D = 2.5 N
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• Lift and drag are often expressed in terms of
lift/drag coefficients:
L D
CL = CD =
1 1
U 2 A U 2 A
2 2
– Where U is the
upstream velocity
and A is the frontal
area of the object.
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29-Apr-19 External flow – Re effect

• The Reynolds number Re = VD/
measures the ratio of inertial to viscous
forces occurring in a flow.
• We will consider
– flow over a flat plate at increasing Reynolds
numbers.
– flow over a cylinder at increasing Reynolds
numbers.
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External flow – Re effect

• Low Reynolds number case (Re = 0.1)
Viscous forces not

important
Viscous forces
important
y
U
x
u=u(y)
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29-Apr-19 External flow – Re effect (flat plate)

• Low Re: Mostly
viscous flow
• Moderate Re: Partial

viscous flow around body
• High Re: Viscous

Boundary Layer
near surface
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External flow – Re effect (cylinder)

• Low Re: Mostly
viscous flow
• Moderate Re: Partial

viscous flow around body
• High Re: Viscous

Boundary Layer
near surface
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29-Apr-19 Boundary layer (BL)

• It is the region in which the velocity near the plate
transitions from zero (at the surface) to the free
stream velocity (U).
• As a fluid flows over a body, the no-slip condition

ensures that the fluid next to the boundary is subject
to large shear.
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BL – Thickness
• At what distance from the boundary in
external flow can we begin to ignore the
shear forces imposed by no-slip condition?
• Boundary layer thickness depends mainly on
the Reynolds number, Re.
• There are three main definitions of boundary
layer thickness:
– 99% thickness, d
– Displacement thickness, d*
– Momentum thickness, dm.
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29-Apr-19 BL – 0.99% thickness, d

U
y
d(x)
U is the free-stream velocity
d(x) is the boundary layer thickness when u(y) ==0.99U
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BL – Displacement thickness, d*
• Displacement thickness
y
There is a reduction in the
flow rate due to the
presence of the boundary
layer
UꝎ u
This is equivalent to having a
y
theoretical boundary layer
with zero flow
dd
Match the flowrate in the
shaded region on the left with
UꝎ u the flowrate deficit on top.
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29-Apr-19 BL – Displacement thickness, d*

The areas under each curve are defined as being equal:

Q =  (U − u )dy and Q = δd U
0
Equating these gives the equation for the displacement

thickness:

 u
δd =  1 − dy
0
U
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BL – Momentum thickness, dm
• Momentum thickness
In the boundary layer, the fluid loses momentum, so
imagining an equivalent layer of lost momentum:

M =  ρu (U − u )dy and M = ρU 2δm
0
Equating these gives the equation for the momentum

thickness:

u u
δm =  1 − dy
0
U U
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29-Apr-19 Boundary layer - Thickness Calculation

• The equations for the boundary layer
thickness, displacement thickness and
momentum thickness can only be evaluated
if we have a solution for the velocity of the
fluid as a function of y.
• Requires a solution of the Navier-Stokes

equations ...
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Problem
• Calculate the displacement and momentum
thickness of the boundary layer if the Velocity
𝑢 𝑦
profile in boundary layer is =
𝑈 𝛿
• Here 𝛿 represents the average thickness of
the boundary layer.
 
 u u u
δd =  1 − dy δm =  1 − dy
0
U 0
U U
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29-Apr-19 Solution u y
=
U d
 
 u u u
δd =  1 − dy δm =  1 − dy Put u = d y
U
0
U 0
U U
U U d 
u= y  du = dy  dy = 1 Uy  1 Uy 
 δm = 
du
d d U 1 − dy
0
U d  U d 
@ y = 0, u = 0 & @ y = , u = U

y y
 δm =  1 − dy
 u d
U
 δd =  1 −  du 0
d d
0
UU 
y y2
2 U
 δm =  − dy
u d d d2
 δd = u − 0
U 2U 0 
y2 y3
 δm = − 2
d  U2  2d 3d
 δd =  U −  0
U 2 U  d d2 d3 d
 δd =  δm = −  δm =
2 2d 3d 2 6
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Problem
• Calculate the displacement thickness and
momentum thickness of the boundary layer if
the velocity distribution is:
u 3 1  y   y
2
= −   
U  2 2  d   d
 
 u u u
δd =  1 − dy δm =  1 − dy
0
U 0
U U
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29-Apr-19 Solution u 3 1  y   y
2
= −   
U  2 2  d   d

 u
δd =  1 − dy
0
U
1  3 1  y   y
 2
 δd =  1 − −   U dy
0
U  2 2  d   d
 
 3y y3  3y2 y4
 δd =  1 − + dy  δd = y − +
0
2d 2d 3  4δ 8δ 3 0
3d 2 d 4  3 1 3
 δd = d − +  δd = d 1 − +   δd = d
4δ 8δ 3  4 8 8
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Solution u 3 1  y   y
2
= −   
U  2 2  d   d

u u
δm =  1 − dy
0
U U
1 3 1 y

 y  1  3 1  y 2  y 
2
 δm =   −    U 1 −  −    U  dy
0
U  2 2  d   d  U  2 2d   d 
    

 3 y y  3 y y 
3 3
 δm =   −  1 − +  dy
0
2d 2d 3   2d 2d 3 

 3y 9 y2 3y4 y3 3y 4 y6 
 δm =   − 2 + 4 − 3 + 4 − 6 dy
0
2d 4d 4d 2d 4d 4d 
3 9 3 1 3 1  39
 δm = d  − + − + −   δm = d
 4 12 20 8 20 28  280
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29-Apr-19 Flow separation

• It occurs when the boundary layer travels
against a pressure gradient such that the speed
of the boundary layer relative to the object
approaches zero.
• Result:
– The fluid flow becomes detached from the surface of
the object, and takes the forms of eddies and
vortices.
• Effects:
– Increased drag, particularly pressure drag which is
caused by the pressure difference between the front
and rear surfaces of the object.
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Flow separation
• Boundary layer separation occurs when the portion of the
boundary layer closest to the wall or leading edge reverses in
flow direction.
• As a result, the overall boundary layer initially thickens and is
then forced off the surface by the reversed flow at its bottom.
• The velocity profile in the boundary layer, picture represents

reverse flow which shows separated flow.
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29-Apr-19 Flow separation – Turbulent BL
• Increased momentum transport due to turbulence from the free stream

flow to the flow near the wall makes turbulent boundary layers more
resistant to flow separation.
• The photographs depict the flow over a strongly curved surface, where
there exists a strong adverse (positive) pressure gradient.
• The boundary layer has a high momentum deficit.
• In the case where the boundary layer is laminar, insufficient momentum
exchange takes, the flow is unable to adjust to the increasing pressure
and separates from the surface.
• In case where the flow is turbulent, the increased transport of
momentum (due to the Reynolds stresses) from the free-stream to the
wall increases the streamwise momentum in the boundary layer. This
allows the flow to overcome the adverse pressure gradient. It eventually
does separate nevertheless, but much further downstream.
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Tripping the boundary layer
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29-Apr-19 Flow separation

• Aerodynamics:
– The pressure field modification results in an
increase in pressure drag, and if severe enough
will also result in loss of lift and stall.
• Hydraulics:
– Flow separation produces an increase in the flow
losses, and stall-type phenomena such
as compressor surge.
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Flow seperation
• Architecture:
– Another effect of boundary layer separation is shedding
vortices, known as Kármán vortex street.
– When the vortices begin to shed off the bounded surface
they do so at a certain frequency. The shedding of the
vortices then could cause vibrations in the structure that
they are shedding off. When the frequency of the
shedding vortices reaches the resonance frequency of
the structure, it could cause serious structural failures.
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29-Apr-19 Flow separation - Applications

• To design surfaces which delay flow separation
and keep the local flow attached for as long as
possible.
• Examples:
– Fur on a tennis ball,
– Dimples on a golf ball,
– Turbulators on a glider, which induce an early
transition to turbulent flow regime;
– vortex generators on light aircraft, for controlling the
separation pattern;
– leading edge extensions for high angles of attack on
the wings of aircraft.
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Drag and lift - Objectives

• Have an intuitive understanding of the various
physical phenomena such as drag, friction and
pressure drag, drag reduction, and lift.
• Calculate the drag force associated with flow over
common geometries.
• Understand the effects of flow regime on the drag
coefficients associated with flow over cylinders
and spheres
• Understand the fundamentals of flow over airfoils,
and calculate the drag and lift forces acting on
airfoils.
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29-Apr-19 Motivation
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Motivation
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29-Apr-19 External Flow - Review

• External Flows
– Bodies and vehicles in a state of motion (or at rest with flow over
them) experience fluid-dynamic forces and moments.
• Examples:
– aircraft, automobiles, buildings, ships, submarines, turbomachines.
• Fuel economy, speed, acceleration, maneuverability,
stability, and control are directly related to the
aerodynamic/hydrodynamic forces and moments.
• General 6DOF motion of vehicles is described by 6
equations for the linear (surge, heave, sway) and angular
(roll, pitch, yaw) momentum.
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Fluid Dynamic Forces and Moments
Ships in waves present one of the most Airplane in level steady flight: drag = thrust
difficult 6DOF problems. and lift = weight.
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29-Apr-19 Drag and Lift
• Fluid dynamic forces are

due to pressure and
viscous forces acting on
the body surface.
• Drag:
– component parallel to flow
direction.
• Lift:
– component normal to flow
direction.
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Drag and Lift

• Lift and drag forces can be found by
integrating pressure and wall-shear stress.
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29-Apr-19 Drag and Lift

• In addition to geometry, lift FL and drag FD forces
are a function of density  and velocity V.
• Dimensional analysis gives 2 dimensionless
parameters: lift and drag coefficients.
• Area A can be
– Frontal area (drag applications),
– Plan-form area (wing aerodynamics), or
– Wetted-surface area (ship hydrodynamics).
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Example: Automobile Drag

Scion XB Porsche 911
CD = 1.0, A = 2.5 m2, CDA = 2.5m2 CD = 0.28, A = 1 m2, CDA = 0.28m2
• Drag force FD=(1/2)V2(CDA) will be ~ 10 times larger for Scion XB

• Source is large CD and large projected area
• Power consumption P = FDV =(1/2)V3(CDA) for both scales with V3!
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29-Apr-19 Friction and Pressure Drag

• Fluid dynamic forces are
comprised of pressure and
friction effects.
Friction drag • Often its useful to decompose,
– FD = FD,friction + FD,pressure
– CD = CD,friction + CD,pressure
Pressure drag
Friction & pressure drag
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Streamlining
• Streamlining reduces drag
by reducing FD,pressure, at
the cost of increasing
wetted surface area and
FD,friction.
• Goal is to eliminate flow
separation and minimize
total drag FD
• Also improves structural
acoustics since separation
and vortex shedding can
excite structural modes.
56
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29-Apr-19
29-Apr-19 CD of Common Geometries

• For many geometries, total drag CD
is constant for Re > 104
• CD can be very dependent upon
orientation of body.
• As a crude approximation,
superposition can be used to add
CD from various components of a
system to obtain overall drag.
• NOTE: There is no mathematical
reason (e.g., linear PDE's) for the
success of doing this.
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CD of Common Geometries
• Typical values of CD for low Reynolds
number flows past some simple objects
58
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29-Apr-19 Example
• A small grain of sand, diameter D=0.10 mm
and specific gravity SG=2.3 settles to the
bottom of a lake after having been stirred up
by a passing boat..
• Determine how fast it falls through the still
water.
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Example - Solution
• Where
• Because of the size of the object we assume

that the Re<1 with Cd=24/Re (table)
60
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29-Apr-19 Example - Solution

• From 1,2 and 3
• Denisty of water is 999kg/m3 and viscosity is

1.12x10-3 N.s/m2.
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Flat Plate Drag
• Drag on flat plate is solely due to friction created

by laminar, transitional, and turbulent boundary
layers.
62
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29-Apr-19
29-Apr-19 Effect of Roughness

• Similar to Moody Chart for
pipe flow
• Laminar flow unaffected by
roughness
• Turbulent flow significantly
affected: Cf can increase by
7x for a given Re
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Effect of Surface Roughness
65
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29-Apr-19 CD of Common Geometries (2D)
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29-Apr-19
CD of Common Geometries (2D)
67
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29-Apr-19 CD of Common Geometries (3D)
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29-Apr-19
CD of Common Geometries (3D)
69
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29-Apr-19 CD of some objects of interest
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CD of some objects of interest
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29-Apr-19
29-Apr-19 Problem 9.39

• Find the drag coefficient of a 5m Dia parachute
if is used to drop loads with an average vertical
speed of 3 m/s.
– The weight of the load & parachute is 200 N.
• Solution
𝐹𝐷
– Drag Coefficient, 𝐶𝐷 = 1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴
2
– At constant velocity equilibrium, 𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷
𝑊
– So, 𝐶𝐷 = 1 ,
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴
2
200
–  𝐶𝐷 = 1 𝜋 ,  𝐶𝐷 = 1.84
2
1.23 32 4 52
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Problem 9.71
• A 0.30m Dia cork ball (SG = 0.21) is tied to
an object on the bottom of a river.
• Estimate the speed of the river current.
– Neglect the weight of the cable & the drag on it.
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29-Apr-19 Solution
FB
T
W
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29-Apr-19
Lift
• Lift is the net force (due
to pressure and viscous
forces) perpendicular to
flow direction.
• Lift only occurs when
there exists asymmetry
in the flow field around
an object and is largely
A=bc is the planform area.
due to pressure forces
• Lift coefficient
• Dimensional analysis yields

CL = f (shape, Re, Ma, Fr,  )
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29-Apr-19 Computing Lift

• Potential-flow approximation
gives accurate CL for angles
of attack below stall:
boundary layer can be
neglected.
• Thin-foil theory:
superposition of uniform
stream and vortices on mean
camber line.
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Computing Lift
• The vectorial sum of all the elementary
forces acting on the airfoil.
• The resulting force is vertical and directed at

a right angle with respect to the uniform flow.
• The intensity of the big vector is the lift force.
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29-Apr-19 Effect of Angle of Attack

• Thin-foil theory shows that
CL≈2 for  < stall
• Therefore, lift increases
linearly with 
• Objective for most
applications is to achieve
maximum CL/CD ratio.
• CD determined from wind-
tunnel or CFD.
• CL/CD increases (up to order
100) until stall.
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Effect of Angle of Attack

• The lift is zero when the effective angle of
attack , is zero and increases as the
effective angle of attack increases.
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29-Apr-19 Effect of Foil Shape

• Thickness and
camber influences
pressure distribution
(and load distribution)
and location of flow
separation.
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29-Apr-19
End Effects of Wing Tips

• Tip vortex created by
leakage of flow from high-
pressure side to low-
pressure side of wing.
• Tip vortices from heavy
aircraft persist far
downstream and pose
danger to light aircraft.
Also sets takeoff and
landing separation at
busy airports.
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29-Apr-19
29-Apr-19 End Effects of Wing Tips

• Tip effects can be
reduced by attaching
endplates or winglets.
• Trade-off between
reducing induced
drag and increasing
friction drag.
• Wing-tip feathers on
some birds serve the
same function.
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Problem
• The pivot of a wind turbine
with two hollow
hemispherical cups (dia
0.08m) is stuck as a result
of some malfunction.
• For a given wind speed of
15m/s the maximum
torque applied on the pivot
is to be determined.
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29-Apr-19 Solution
• Convex side
• Concave side
• Moment
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29-Apr-19
Problem
• A ping-pong ball (dia 0.042m)is
suspended in air by an upward air
jet as shown.
• Determine the velocity of the air jet.
• What will happen after a
disturbance displaces the ball from
its position in the air jet slightly.
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29-Apr-19
29-Apr-19 Solution
• Drag force = Weight – Buoyancy force
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴
• 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝜌𝑔𝑉
2
• Solving for velocity, 𝑉 = 5.92Τ 𝐶𝐷
• Also, 𝑅𝑒 = 2886 × 𝑉.
• Therefore, 𝑅𝑒 = 2886 × 5.92Τ 𝐶𝐷
• Comparing with figure for Drag on smooth
sphere, we observe that for Re in the range of
10^4, CD varies from 0.48 to 0.5.
• This gives us velocities of jet in the range of
8.47 to 8.65 m/s.
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END OF CHAPTER 9
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29-Apr-19

29-Apr-19 External flow - Applications

External flow - Approaches

29-Apr-19 External flow - Classification

External flow – Lift and drag

29-Apr-19 External flow – Lift and drag

External flow – Lift and drag

29-Apr-19 External flow – Lift and drag

External flow – Lift and drag

– No pressure difference across plate,

 40(1 − y )N / m − (− 30N / m )(3m)dx

External flow – Lift and drag

29-Apr-19 External flow – Re effect

External flow – Re effect

Viscous forces not

29-Apr-19 External flow – Re effect (flat plate)

• Moderate Re: Partial

• High Re: Viscous

External flow – Re effect (cylinder)

• Moderate Re: Partial

• High Re: Viscous

29-Apr-19 Boundary layer (BL)

• As a fluid flows over a body, the no-slip condition

29-Apr-19 BL – 0.99% thickness, d

U is the free-stream velocity

d(x) is the boundary layer thickness when u(y) ==0.99U

29-Apr-19 BL – Displacement thickness, d*

Equating these gives the equation for the displacement

Equating these gives the equation for the momentum

29-Apr-19 Boundary layer - Thickness Calculation

• Requires a solution of the Navier-Stokes

29-Apr-19 Flow separation

• The velocity profile in the boundary layer, picture represents

29-Apr-19 Flow separation – Turbulent BL

• Increased momentum transport due to turbulence from the free stream

Tripping the boundary layer

29-Apr-19 Flow separation

29-Apr-19 Flow separation - Applications

Drag and lift - Objectives

29-Apr-19 External Flow - Review

Fluid Dynamic Forces and Moments

29-Apr-19 Drag and Lift

• Fluid dynamic forces are

Drag and Lift

29-Apr-19 Drag and Lift

Example: Automobile Drag

CD = 1.0, A = 2.5 m2, CDA = 2.5m2 CD = 0.28, A = 1 m2, CDA = 0.28m2

• Drag force FD=(1/2)V2(CDA) will be ~ 10 times larger for Scion XB

29-Apr-19 Friction and Pressure Drag

Friction & pressure drag

29-Apr-19 CD of Common Geometries

• Because of the size of the object we assume

29-Apr-19 Example - Solution

• Denisty of water is 999kg/m3 and viscosity is

Flat Plate Drag

• Drag on flat plate is solely due to friction created

29-Apr-19 Effect of Roughness

Effect of Surface Roughness

29-Apr-19 CD of Common Geometries (2D)

CD of Common Geometries (2D)

29-Apr-19 CD of Common Geometries (3D)

CD of Common Geometries (3D)

29-Apr-19 CD of some objects of interest