Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OUT
YOUR
SOIL
A practical guide
to Green Manures
NON-LEGUMES
MANAGING GREEN 12
MANURE CROPS Buckwheat 27
Chicory 28
When to sow
Cocksfoot 29
What to grow over winter Grazing Rye 30
How to sow and establish Italian Ryegrass 31
Mustard 32
Legumes and inoculation
Perennial Ryegrass 33
Mowing
Phacelia 34
Incorporation Westerwolds Ryegrass 35
Undersowing
4 5
WHY USE GREEN MANURES? WHY USE GREEN MANURES?
Nitrogen management In many situations reducing increase water and nutrient retention (on
Vetch
Lucerne/Alfalfa
Legume
Legume
Large
Large
6–10 mths
2–4 yrs
Fast
Fast
Fix
Fix
The exploitation of legumes can help
farmers make dramatic reductions in
light soils) and improve drainage (on heavy
Short term soil nitrogen boost leaching is more important soils). Organic matter also releases acids Fenugreek Legume Moderate 3–6 mths Fast Fix nitrogen fertiliser costs.
Fast growing green manures such in maintaining soil fertility which make some plant nutrients more Sainfoin Legume Large 2–4 yrs Fast Fix Non-legumes can be used to ‘hold’
Grazing Rye Cereal Large 6 mths Slow Hold nitrogen. They mop it up from the soil
as Persian clover, crimson clover and than fixing nitrogen. readily available to the next crop.
Mustard Brassica Large 2–4 mths Slow Hold and store it then, when incorporated,
fenugreek can be grown in short breaks
Some green manures species are Buckwheat Polygonaceae Moderate 4–6 mths Moderate Hold make this nitrogen available to
between cash crops to boost soil nitrogen.
deep root system are best for preventing particularly good at improving problems future crops.
These annual legumes are often used in Phacelia Borage Moderate 4–6 mths Slow Hold
intensive horticultural systems between leaching. Grazing rye (Secale cereale) – with soil structure. Lucerne, chicory and Perennial Ryegrass Grass Moderate 1–5 yrs Slow Hold
vegetable crops. As legumes will only fix different from perennial ryegrass (Lolium sweet clover have a strong tap root that Italian Ryegrass Grass Moderate 1–2 yrs Slow Hold
nitrogen when the soil is above 8oC they perenne) – is one of the best species for can break through compacted soils or Westerwolds Grass Moderate 6–12 mths Slow Hold
are effective between April and August. this purpose, and mustard is also effective. those with a plough pan. The fibrous root
Chicory Composite Moderate 1–5 yrs Moderate Hold
system of cocksfoot is good at improving
Cocksfoot Grass Moderate 2–5 yrs Slow Hold
soil crumb structure.
Red/White clover, Mixture Large 1–3 yrs Slow Fix &
A further advantage of green manures and Ryegrass Hold
is that they can help prevent soil erosion. Rye/Vetch Mixture Large 6 mths Slow Fix &
The root structure of a green manure can (or Ryegrass/Vetch) Hold
bind soil particles, greatly reducing the loss Mustard, Crimson/Red/ Mixture Large 4–6 mths Fast Fix &
of top soil through wind blow or run off. Persian/Sweet Clover Hold
In addition, a leaf canopy offers very good
Please note: Nitrogen release will be slower with more mature plants. This is particularly noticeable
Organic Matter
protection to the soil during heavy rain as it with short term annuals such as mustard. The decaying remains of plant and
slows down the speed of water movement. animal life form soil organic matter
Improving soil microbiology Ensuring the nitrogen Winter cereals, on the other hand, have which contains vital nutrients such as
a very different nitrogen requirement. nitrogen and phosphate. Each year a
Organic matter is a food source for needs of the next crop Massive amounts of nitrogen released crop uses between 2-5% of the soil’s
microbiological life which thrives in are met from a green manure in the autumn are organic matter and on many farms in
healthy, well aerated soil. When soil is low not beneficial for a newly emerging cereal the UK, especially stockless ones,
on organic matter it is more susceptible Once a green manure is incorporated seedling. This would result in excess winter
levels have become seriously depleted.
to becoming anaerobic which can lead to it releases nitrogen into the soil. The rate growth but a lack of nitrogen when the Nothing improves soil more than
a build up of toxins emitted by soil micro- at which this nitrogen becomes available cereal really needs it in spring and early adding organic matter. Green manures
organisms. Under the right conditions, depends on the type of green manure and summer. In this case, a slower releasing are unsurpassed in this, adding both
these micro-organisms play a key role in its growth stage at incorporation. Fleshy green manure, such as a mature mixture fertility and organic matter after they
nutrient availability and disease containment legumes like vetch release nitrogen quite
A further advantage of
are incorporated. This contrasts with
Long term soil nitrogen enhancement of clover and grass, would be best as
within farming systems. This is an area fast making most of it available in the first costly inorganic fertilisers which only
it would break down slowly, releasing
Slower growing perennial legumes green manures is that that is still little understood and, although few weeks after incorporation. Other plants, nitrogen over a longer period.
contain nutrients, adding nothing to
such as red and white clover, sainfoin soil structure.
and lucerne (alfalfa) are used to add they can help prevent green manures are undoubtedly beneficial, like grasses and grazing rye, are much
there is still much work to be done in slower to release nitrogen. Green manures rich in nitrogen, such
nitrogen to the soil over a long period. soil erosion quantifying this. Carefully planning as legumes, decompose quickly whereas
These crops are relatively slow to establish Knowing this about green manures means
but are persistent, so reduce the need for they can be manipulated to meet the the integration of grasses break down more slowly and
so have a longer term impact on the soil.
resowing. They are most commonly sown in When soil is cultivated in late autumn it is needs of the next cash crop. For example, green manures into the Manipulating mixtures means nutrient
a mixture with grasses, and are often used very important to sow a fast-growing crop cauliflower is nitrogen-hungry over a short
rotation will maximise
release can be phased to meet the needs
for silage or grazing in extensive livestock (such as grazing rye) in order to minimise Left: Sweet clover tap root and nodules period so would benefit from a spring of the next cash crop (see page 16).
systems while they improve the soil. the risk of nitrate leaching. Suitable species Right: Yellow trefoil roots fixing N incorporation of over-wintered vetch. their benefits.
6 7
WHY USE GREEN MANURES?
Allelopathy
When some green manures, including many
clovers and grazing rye, are destroyed and Silage
incorporated their presence in the soil is Many green manures can be cut for
‘allelopathic’, preventing the germination silage. As with grazing, crops for silage
of weed seeds in the soil. Although this is are most commonly grown as mixtures to
very useful for weed control, it must be give a balanced and high yielding forage
managed carefully as it can also inhibit the (see page 16). Typical mixes include red
establishment of the next crop, particularly and white clover and ryegrass. Short
those that are direct drilled. If drilling a term, single season mixes of vetch and
cash crop next, as long as six weeks must westerwolds ryegrass are also used.
be left between incorporation of the green Cutting time is key with clover and grass
manure and drilling for the allelopathic mixtures as they provide a more palatable
effect to subside. and nutritious silage if cut before flowering.
Pest and disease suppression If cutting a crop for silage some of the
Some mustards (caliente types see page Forage for livestock nutrients in the plant are, of course,
32) have been shown to reduce soil pests exported out of the field to the clamp.
and diseases. However, for them to be Many green manures such as white and This must be taken into account when
effective, the conditions under which they red clover, lucerne and sainfoin provide calculating the benefits of the green
are incorporated are critical and these are excellent high protein forage for livestock manure. On the plus side, cutting the
not easy to control on a farm. To attempt it, while also benefiting the soil. crop and removing the fodder will stimulate
large amounts of biomass must be grown growth and more nitrogen fixation by
A major advantage of using legumes in the legumes in the mix. However, taking
then chopped, incorporated, irrigated and
grazing swards is that they will dramatically silage cuts will always deplete potash and
covered with plastic rapidly to realise
cut the need for nitrogen fertiliser, so saving phosphorus, so levels of these essential
the benefits.
considerable input costs. nutrients should be monitored frequently
and boosted when needed.
Fast growing green Grazing
Legumes are nearly always mixed with
manures are very effective grasses to produce a balanced grazing
at suppressing weeds. sward and higher yields (see page 16). Bloat and Fertility
In recent years perennial ryegrass has There is some risk of bloat with swards
been the most popular species, but there that have a very high percentage of clover,
Blackgrass
are many other grasses that can be so this should be watched. Sainfoin,
Blackgrass is a major issue on many included (such as timothy, cocksfoot however, is bloat free.
arable farms. Growing a two year ryegrass and fescues). Ewes should also be taken off red clover
or ryegrass/red clover green manure will six weeks before and after tupping as
significantly reduce this issue. As blackgrass As livestock have differing grazing habits, the plant contains phyto-oestogens that
is an annual, leaving the green manure in the choice of species for forage is vital. For can affect sheep fertility.
for two years suppresses germination of the example, sheep tend to graze close to the
blackgrass so reducing the population. On ground so the small and medium leaved
Left: Dairy cows grazing red clover
arable farms, using ryegrass in this way can varieties of clover are best, as they tolerate and cocksfoot
also produce a cash crop of excellent quality this. The higher yielding large leaved Right centre: Phacelia
hay or silage. varieties can be grazed by cattle. Top right: Cutting sainfoin for silage
8 9
WILL GREEN MANURES SUIT YOU?
10 11
MANAGING GREEN MANURE CROPS
Incorporation of a green
manure can be done by
rotavating or ploughing.
Legumes and inoculation Sweet clover and crimson clover should Undersowing
only be topped at a moderate height (16-
It is the symbiotic relationship that legumes 20cm), which can be an issue if weeds Undersowing is a very efficient way of
have with Rhizobium bacteria which results are a problem. ensuring that a green manure is established
in nitrogen fixation (see page 7). The as quickly as possible after harvesting a
bacteria take nitrogen from the air and turn Cutting also helps promote lush vegetative cash crop. This is most commonly done with
it into compounds which plants can use. growth and delays the crop going to seed. cereals, although it can work well with
This process only takes place when the Without topping most crops will become other crops too.
soil temperature is above 8oC, so fixation woody and difficult to incorporate.
generally occurs from March till September. When undersowing a cereal it is best
Most legumes will not establish successfully In many species of green manure – such
Ideally it is best to remove cuttings as to use one of the less aggressive green
after the beginning of September as the soil as red and white clover, vetch, crimson
this encourages more nitrogen fixation
in legumes. When leaving the cuttings, the
manure species such as white clover or
yellow trefoil. The green manure should
temperature will be falling quickly. clover, Persian clover and yellow trefoil –
the correct species of bacteria, Rhizobium
rotting material will release nitrogen which be sown into a spring cereal when it is
suppresses nitrogen fixation. In reality this around 15cm high (normally around April).
trifolii, is already in the soil.
is not often practical, but should be done This technique is popular on organic
However, there are some species – such wherever possible. farms as sowing can be combined with
as lucerne, sweet clover and fenugreek – mechanical weeding. The green manure
When cuttings are not removed, a flail
where the correct bacteria is unlikely to be should establish and grow slowly before
mower should be used to distribute the
MANAGING GREEN
present and these need to be ‘inoculated’ the cereal is harvested. Then, once the
cut material evenly.
with Rhizobium meliloti. This culture is cash crop is removed, it will grow much
bought in sachets and mixed with the seed more quickly.
Incorporation
MANURE CROPS
at the time of sowing. It is a relatively simple
process and only needs doing once per crop. The success of undersowing can vary
Incorporation of a green manure can be with site, but in many cases undersown
done by rotavating or ploughing. Before crops perform better than pure stands as
Mowing doing this it is generally best to cut the the cereal acts as a ‘nurse’ crop, protecting
When to sow manure which will prevent overwinter crop with a flail mower (which will chop the green manure in its early stages.
leaching, such as grazing rye. A legume Mowing is an essential part of growing
up the cuttings) as this makes the job
Spring or autumn are the best times to sow would not be the right choice in this most green manures. It is very important
much easier. When sowing the next crop
green manures. This is mainly to ensure instance as the soil will be below 8oC for in weed control, especially when the crop
after incorporation the allelopathic effects
there is sufficient moisture for germination. the majority of the time the green manure is young. Early mowing can make the Top left: Drilling a green manure crop
of some crop residues should be taken
If there is enough rainfall or an irrigation is in the soil, preventing nitrogen fixation. difference between a well-established Top right: Seed and inoculant
into consideration (see page 9). Bottom right: Topping clover
system, summer planting can therefore be green manure and one which is persistently
an option. Most legumes will not establish If the overwinter green manure is going weedy. Most species – including red clover,
successfully after the beginning of September to be followed by a crop to be sown later white clover, lucerne, Persian clover and
as the soil temperature will be falling quickly. in the year, such as vegetable transplants yellow trefoil – can tolerate being topped
in June, then a fast growing legume (such close to the ground to control weeds
If sowing must be done late in the as vetch) would be the best choice as
year, grazing rye is the best option. there will be time for considerable nitrogen However, not all species of green manure
This establishes rapidly and is very good fixation to take place from March onwards. can be mown. It is most likely to kill off
at preventing nitrogen leaching over the fenugreek and vetch. Luckily both of these
winter. It is generally a bad idea to plant crops establish rapidly and compete well
other green manures late as the necessary How to sow and establish against weeds, making mowing unnecessary.
cultivations can increase the risk of leaching.
Green manures can be broadcast or drilled.
If the ground is level, then drilling controls
What to grow over winter seed depth better. However broadcasting Early mowing can make
distributes seed more evenly. The depth of
The choice of green manure to grow over sowing is very important and the correct the difference between
winter is usually determined by plans for sowing depth is given for each green a well-established green
the next crop. If the green manure is going manure later in this guide.
to be followed by an early, spring-sown manure and one which
cereal then it is best to choose a green is persistently weedy.
12 13
CHOOSING A GREEN MANURE CROP CHOOSING A GREEN MANURE CROP
All green manures will add organic matter All green manures will add organic matter
AIM: AIM:
Improve soil structure Fix N Improve soil & fix N Lift N & control weeds
Vetch Mustard Cocksfoot Vetch Sweet clover Red clover Grazing rye/ Red clover Red clover Grazing rye Mustard Perennial
Grazing rye Sweet clover Red clover Vetch Sainfoin vetch mix Vetch Sainfoin Italian ryegrass Phacelia ryegrass
Vetch Chicory Red clover Lucerne Sweet clover Sweet clover Westerwolds Westerwolds Cocksfoot
Westerwolds
ryegrass Red clover Sweet clover Yellow trefoil Sweet clover Lucerne ryegrass ryegrass
Persian clover Sainfoin Crimson clover White clover Phacelia Buckwheat
Lucerne Buckwheat
Fenugreek
14 15
SINGLE SPECIES OR MIXTURE?
SINGLE SPECIES
LEGUMES
Below: Ryegrass
and clover mix
OR MIXTURE?
Crimson
As no one green manure species can offer acts to delay the release of this nitrogen, manures. Incorporation is carried out from
every benefit, it is very common to drill a as it is higher in carbon and acts like a February until late April. Although grazing
mixture. By doing this multiple advantages sponge, holding the nitrogen for longer. rye is the best nitrogen holder, westerwolds
Clover
can be exploited simultaneously. This is especially important when the green ryegrass can be used as an alternative to
manure is to be followed by an autumn- bring the seed cost down.
The strength of mixtures is most obvious sown crops such as winter wheat where
with a grazing rye/vetch mix or clover/grass the highest demand for nitrogen can be six
Summer mixes
[Trifolium incarnatum]
ley where two or more different species or seven months after the green manure
will grow successfully together performing has been incorporated. Diverse annuals mix
quite separate functions, the legumes fixing
nitrogen and the other species improving Cocksfoot There is often an opportunity during
soil structure. warm weather to grow a fast-growing,
For leys that will be in the ground for
annual green manure. These crops add
longer than two years, using cocksfoot
A mixture also offers more weed organic matter, hold surplus soil nitrogen,
instead of ryegrass with the clover will
competition and removes the risk of a suppress weeds and act as a break crop
increase the benefits significantly. The deep
single species failure.
roots of cocksfoot improve soil structure
by interrupting pest and disease cycles. N fixer, short term
Suitable mixtures can comprise up to four
Very short term and competitive green and add massive amounts of organic
or five crops such as mustard, crimson Crimson clover is a short term annual grown to provide
manures like mustard or phacelia are in matter. Another bonus with this species
clover, phacelia and Persian clover. a rapid boost to soil fertility. It is commonly used for short
the ground for only a few weeks and are is its drought resistance. This can mean it
needs topping more often, but this extra breaks in intensive horticultural systems. It also produces
usually sown on their own. Summer green manure mixtures are
management is paid for by the increased a spectacular array of flowers, which is often cited as a
planted from late spring onwards on
organic matter gained. reason for growing it.
Multiple advantages
can be exploited
simultaneously. Sowing rate: 15 kg/ha or 1.5 g/m2 Biomass
Seed of crimson clover is small and should be broadcast or drilled at This crop produces around 3-4t/ha of biomass, less
bare ground or immediately after whole a shallow depth (not more than 10mm). Sowing too deep will reduce than red clover.
crop silage or any early cereal harvest in the germination dramatically. The soil should be rolled after sowing
to increase soil moisture contact with the seed. Nitrogen fixing potential
June or July. A good summer green manure
It is not clear how much N is fixed but according to estimates
will be ready for turning in after only 8 – 10 Ideal sowing time it is between 100-150kg N/ha annually.
weeks and will therefore be incorporated
before the sowing of a winter cash crop. March – May is the ideal time for sowing in the spring. It will
germinate in the summer, but frequently there is insufficient Persistence
These crops give good leaf canopy cover moisture in the soil to allow this. Mid to late August is the best time Being an annual, this crop is finished after flowering, so it is short
to block out light, suppressing weed growth. for an autumn sowing. Establishment is less likely to be reliable if lived. It has often flowered then died back by July – August.
They are easy to establish with many sowing extends too far into September.
Topping regime
species able to grow on the soil surface
without the need for cultivation. The seed Suitable varieties Crimson clover does not take kindly to hard topping, so should
is cheap and the crops are usually very There is limited information on varietal performance. Contea is a be topped 10cm above the ground. This may limit the options for
reliable. One further advantage of these commonly grown variety which gives satisfactory results. weed control.
Long term mixes Winter mixes fleshy annual plants is that incorporation
Frost tolerance Pest and disease problems
is simple. The mixture should be worked
Grass clover mixes Grazing rye or westerwolds ryegrass Crimson clover sown in autumn will survive as small plants through The information on pest and disease tolerance in crimson clover
into the soil at least three weeks before
Growing a mix of red and white clover with and vetch mix frosts over the winter. In spring the growth rate increases and a full is limited. Its tolerance to sitona weevil and downy mildew are
sowing the next cash crop. This will allow
perennial ryegrass is a very good option Growing a nitrogen holder such as grazing for the allelopathic effect to wear off (a canopy will form. similar to red clover. It is not attacked by the same types of stem
for improving soil fertility and structure. rye and a fixer such as vetch together is shorter time with these species than nematode as red clover, so can form an alternative crop in the
To realise its full potential the mix should a good way of improving soil in the months Weed competitiveness rotation to prevent the build up of this soil pest.
with other green manures where plants
be grown for at least one full year before over winter. Grazing rye and vetch are are more woody when incorporated). It Once established, crimson clover rapidly produces a canopy that
incorporation. Red and white clover can excellent companions and can be sown is important to ensure all summer green is effective against weed control. This canopy often recedes at the
fix up to 300 kg N/ha which is released from mid September until mid October, manures are destroyed before setting seed onset of flowering allowing some weed growth, and the plant then
rapidly after incorporation. The ryegrass a later sowing window than other green to prevent weed problems in the next crop. dies away once flowering is finished.
16 17
GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES
Alfalfa
grown on its own and is very good on drought-prone
[Trigonella foenum-graecum] N fixer, very short term soils. It establishes relatively slowly, producing significantly
more biomass in the second and third years. It is particularly
Fenugreek is one of the most rapidly establishing well suited where it will be used as a silage or hay crop
green manures, and produces a quick boost to soil
fertility in just a few months. It is not commonly
[Medicago sativa] as well as a green manure. Lucerne should only be grown
on free-draining, alkaline soil (minimum pH 6.2).
grown but has potential to fill short breaks in
intensive horticultural systems.
Suitable varieties
Currently, the most commonly used varieties are Verko, Mercedes
and Vela, although other lesser known varieties such as Daisy,
Diane, Marshal and Pondus also produce good yields.
Frost tolerance
Foliage of lucerne dies off over the winter, but it survives as a tap
root which resumes growth in the spring.
Weed competitiveness
Sowing rate: 25 kg/ha or 2.5 g/m2 Biomass Lucerne is slow to establish initially, but once it gets going shows
Seed of fenugreek is slightly larger than clover seed, so can be This crop rapidly produces large amounts of biomass. good competition against weeds. It will withstand being topped for
sown deeper (1cm is ideal). The soil should be rolled after sowing weed control.
to increase soil moisture contact with the seed. Nitrogen fixing potential
There is very limited information on N fixation with just one figure Biomass
Ideal sowing time of 30kg N/ha annually. It must be borne in mind that this crop has Lucerne is slow to produce biomass initially but this increases
Fenugreek is generally sown in the spring, March – May is ideal. an extremely short life cycle, so the figure for annual N fixation will over the second and third years with 15t DM/ha possible once
It will germinate in the summer, but frequently there is insufficient be lower than that of a perennial crop. To fix N, this legume requires fully established.
moisture in the soil to allow this. seed inoculation with an effective strain of Rhizobium meliloti at the
time of sowing (see page 13). Nitrogen fixing potential
Suitable varieties There are a wide range of estimates for N fixation in lucerne ranging Topping regime
There is limited information on varieties, with growers frequently Persistence from 125 – 500kg N/ha annually. A typical figure is 150kg N/ha. Lucerne will generally need topping 2 – 3 times per growing season.
just accepting what is available. This crop has a very short persistence, as it will start to flower To fix N this legume requires seed inoculation with an effective The frequency depends very much on season and soil type.
and set seed after a few months. It is only suitable as a short term strain of Rhizobium meliloti at the time of sowing (see page 13).
Frost tolerance green manure. Pest and disease problems
Despite being a Mediterranean crop, fenugreek will show a Persistence Observations suggest that lucerne is slightly more susceptible
surprising resilience to hard frosts. Topping regime Lucerne shows good persistence, and is ideally grown for a period to downy mildew and attack from sitona weevil than red clover.
It is best not to top fenugreek at all as, in most cases, this will kill it. of 2 – 3 years although it can be grown for longer than this. Its It can also suffer from stem nematode and Verticillium wilt. There
Weed competitiveness Its growth is vigorous enough to compete against weeds without the persistence depends on factors affecting survival of the tap roots. should therefore be a four year break between lucerne crops. Some
Fenugreek grows extremely rapidly, so will compete well against need for cutting. It will not thrive on waterlogged soils and poaching or wheel varieties such as Vela have been shown to have good resistance to
weeds. It does have quite an erect growth habit, so may need damage will also impact on its longevity. both of these disorders.
sowing at higher rates on weedier sites to provide adequate Pest and disease problems
ground cover. Fenugreek has few pest and disease problems.
18 19
GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES
0 cm 1
Clover [Trifolium pratense]
[Trifolium resupinatum]
20 21
GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES
Suitable varieties
Sainfoin
There are no varieties available. Seed is sold as ‘commercial’
N fixer, medium term which means it is not a particular cultivar. Seed can contain both
white and yellow types.
Sainfoin is a perennial with an erect growth habit,
producing characteristic pink flowers. It is extremely Frost tolerance
[Onobrychis viciifolia] palatable to animals and has a very good nutritional Sweet clover will survive over winter as a tap root and by the end
balace. It can be grazed, or fed as hay or silage. of the winter leaves will be absent.
It is suitable for the large area of chalk and limestone
Weed competitiveness
soils in England.
Sweet clover has an erect growth habit, resulting in an open
canopy that is not suited to competing on soils with high weed
Sowing rate: 70 kg/ha or 7.0 g/m2 Biomass burdens. It also does not favour being cut too low to the ground,
Sainfoin seed is large and should be drilled to a depth of 2cm. This crop produces up to 15t DM/ha once it is established. which restricts the options for early weed control.
The soil should be rolled after sowing to increase soil moisture
contact with the seed. Nitrogen fixing potential Biomass
There is very little information on the N fixing potential If this crop establishes well, it is one of the most prolific
Ideal sowing time of sainfoin, although it is thought that it fixes slightly less than for producing biomass rapidly.
Sainfoin is traditionally sown as a spring crop, so ideal sowing red clover.
time is April – May. Adequate moisture is essential for good Nitrogen fixing potential
establishment, so sowing later in the summer may be less reliable. Persistence Sweet clover can fix large amounts of N, around 150kg N/ha.
This crop has the potential to persist for 3 – 4 years, provided its To fix N this legume requires seed inoculation with an effective
Suitable varieties tap roots are not damaged. It is best to avoid heavy grazing and strain of Rhizobium meliloti at the time of sowing (see page 13).
There is limited information on varieties, although the EU ‘Healthy poaching which can reduce the population of viable tap roots.
Hay’ project collected 355 samples, many of which are being Persistence
evaluated for their potential. Topping regime As this is a biennial, it will die off after flowering. It can set seed
Sainfoin will generally need topping 2 –3 times a season, and come back in subsequent crops and, although the plants are
Frost tolerance although this may vary considerably with season and soil type. very conspicuous, they tend to be in relatively small numbers, so
Sainfoin is extremely tolerant to frosts. their impact on the next crop is limited. However, volunteers should
Pest and disease problems not be allowed to contaminate subsequent cereal crops. Even a
Weed competitiveness Sainfoin can be susceptible to crown rot, which can reduce very small amount can cause a coumarin taint, which can lead to
Sainfoin can be slow to get going, but produces enough ground the persistence of the crop. rejection of malting barley.
cover to compete against weeds once it is well established.
22 23
GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES
0 cm 1
N fixer, medium to long term
White clover is one of the most tried and tested of all the
green manure species. It does not establish rapidly but
[Vicia sativa] [Trifolium repens] once it gets going it produces respectable amounts of
biomass over an extended period. It is commonly used
for medium to long term leys, especially where livestock is
grazed. The less aggressive varieties are also particularly
suitable for undersowing in cereal or vegetable crops.
N fixer, short term Medium leaved varieties: can be grazed by cattle or lightly grazed
by sheep, also good for a cutting mix. Varieties include AberHerald,
Vetch (also known as winter tares) is very popular, AberConcorde and Crusader.
providing a rapid fix of nitrogen. It is particularly good
at competing against weeds. Large leaved varieties: most productive and best suited to cutting
or non intensive grazing. Varieties include Alice and Barblanca.
Frost tolerance
The leaf cover of white clover will die back over the winter, and
Suitable varieties the plant over-winters as an underground stolon structure. This
Early English is a commonly grown variety. Other varieties are sown structure should be tolerant of all but the most severe frosts.
but it is important to use winter types when sowing in the autumn.
Weed competitiveness
Frost tolerance White clover is slower to establish than some green manures and
Winter vetch has good frost tolerance and will maintain a canopy will benefit from early topping to control weeds. However biomass
over the winter. increases later in the season and in subsequent years, offering good
weed control. The larger leaved varieties are more aggressive against
Weed competitiveness weeds than the smaller.
Vetch is extremely competitive against weeds, forming an
aggressive canopy rapidly. When incorporated, the residues also Biomass
have an allelopathic effect, inhibiting germination of new seeds This crop produces a slightly less annual biomass than red clover
(see page 9). This effect persists for around six weeks, and an at around 7t DM/ha, but persists for a greater number of years.
adequate interval should be left if drilling direct sown crops after It may be mixed with grass which increase biomass to 13t+ DM/ha.
incorporating vetch.
Nitrogen fixing potential
Biomass Estimates for N fixing potential of white clover vary very widely
This crop rapidly produces large amounts of biomass. from 50 to 450kg N/ha annually. A typical figure is 150kg N/ha if
Sowing rate: 10 kg/ha or 1 g/m2 cut and mulched.
Nitrogen fixing potential Clover seed is small and should be broadcast or drilled at a shallow
Estimates of annual N fixation range from 100 – 250kg N/ha. depth (not more than a few mm). Sowing too deep will reduce the Persistence
A typical figure is 150kg N/ha. germination dramatically. The soil should be rolled after sowing to White clover is one of the most persistent of the green manure
increase soil moisture contact with the seed. crops and will commonly last for 7– 8 years. It proliferates through
Persistence an underground stolon structure, so even if one part becomes
Being an annual, this crop is finished after flowering, so it is short Ideal sowing time damaged the crop can regenerate.
lived. It has often flowered then died back by July – August. March – May is the ideal time for sowing in the spring.
If undersowing a spring cereal, it should be sown in April or May. Topping regime
Topping regime It will germinate in the summer, but frequently there is insufficient White clover should be mown regularly whenever it attains a height
It is best not to top vetch at all, as it does not recover well. Its moisture in the soil to allow this. Mid to late August is the best time of 30cm but can be cut before this if weeds are a problem. The
growth is vigorous enough to compete against weeds without the for an autumn sowing. Establishment is less likely to be reliable frequency of mowing will vary widely between sites and seasons.
Sowing rate: 85 kg/ha or 8.5 g/m2
need for cutting. if sowing extends too far into September.
Seed of vetch is larger than clover seed, so should be sown deeper, Pest and disease problems
(1-2 cm is ideal). The soil should be rolled after sowing to increase Pest and disease problems Suitable varieties A lot of breeding effort has gone into varieties of white clover and,
soil moisture contact with the seed. Generally vetch has few pest or disease problems. Sitona weevil There is more variety choice for white clover than any other green as such, many have good tolerance to the common pests and
can attack it during its early stages, but this generally has little manure. The growth habits of varieties vary considerably, and are diseases such as Sclerotinia and stem nematodes.
Ideal sowing time
effect on the subsequent success of the crop. Pigeons can sometimes grouped into small, medium and large leaved types. These are used
March – May is the ideal time for sowing in the spring. It will set back the development of the crop if there is little else for them for different purposes:
germinate in the summer, but frequently there is insufficient to eat. There is a suggestion that growing vetch results in fewer
moisture in the soil to allow this. September is the best time for slugs in the subsequent crop, although further work needs to be Small leaved varieties: best for hard grazing by sheep. Varieties
an autumn sowing. It can be reliably sown later than clovers. done to verify this. include AberAce or S184.
24 25
GREEN MANURE PLANTS LEGUMES
Yellow Trefoil/
Black Medick N fixer, short to medium term
Yellow trefoil (or black medick) is a short-lived annual/
NON-LEGUMES
[Medicago lupulina]
biennial with a low growth habit making it a common
Buckwheat
choice for undersowing.
Weed suppressor and
P provider, short term
[Fagopyrum esculentum]
Buckwheat does not fix nitrogen but is a very rapidly
Sowing rate: 10 kg/ha or 1 g/m2 Biomass
growing annual crop. It is good at scavenging for
Seed of yellow trefoil is small and should be broadcast or drilled at This crop produces a slightly smaller annual biomass than
phosphate in the soil which it then takes up and makes
a shallow depth (not more than a few mm). Sowing too deep will red clover.
available to subsequent crops after incorporation.
reduce the germination dramatically. The soil should be rolled after
sowing to increase soil moisture contact with the seed. Nitrogen fixing potential
Although there is very little scientific information on the N fixing
Ideal sowing time potential of this crop, practical experience from growers suggests
March – May is the ideal time for sowing in the spring. If it is that it is as good as white clover.
to be undersown in a spring cereal, it should be sown in May. It
will germinate in the summer, but frequently there is insufficient Persistence
moisture in the soil to allow this. Mid to late August is the best time This is a short-lived plant which will die off after flowering. However,
for an autumn sowing. Establishment is less likely to be reliable if it sets large quantities of viable seed very rapidly, making the crop
sowing extends too far into September. behave as if it were perennial. Although seeds may come back as
weeds, they are rarely a major problem.
Suitable varieties
There is limited information on varieties and, particularly on organic Topping regime
units, growers frequently just accept what is available. Virgo Pajbjerg Yellow trefoil should be mown regularly whenever it attains a height
is the only variety currently used in the UK. of 20cm. The first cut may be before this if there is a severe weed
problem. Mowing is important to maintain the viability of a yellow
Frost tolerance trefoil crop. The frequency of mowing will vary widely between sites.
Yellow trefoil will survive over the winter and flower the following year. On a dry sandy soil, it may only need cutting twice in the season.
However, on fertile soil in a warm wet summer, it may need cutting
Weed competitiveness more often.
Yellow trefoil shows reasonable competition against weeds. It is not
the most rapidly growing of species but its low growth habit is good Pest and disease problems
for covering the ground and smothering weeds. The information on pest and disease tolerance in yellow trefoil is
limited. Observations on the variety Virgo Pajbjerg suggest that it is
slightly more susceptible to sitona weevil and downy mildew than
red or white clover, but neither of these is considered serious.
Sowing rate: 70 kg/ha or 7 g/m2 Biomass
Buckwheat seed is relatively expensive and as it is a short-lived Buckwheat grows vigorously and will produce relatively large
green manure it has limited commercial appeal. amounts of biomass if allowed to grow throughout the summer.
26 27
GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES
[Cichorium intybus]
This herb has roots capable of penetrating to great
depth. The main root looks like a long thin carrot and
there are many pencil-like projections from it. These
roots will break through plough pans and leave the soil
aerated, aiding drainage and crop root development.
Cocksfoot
Weed competitiveness There are generally few pest and disease problems with chicory.
Initially weeds can be a problem during establishment, but this
N holder, medium to long term
is a long term crop and most annual weeds will disappear once Cocksfoot does not fix nitrogen but is a good store
a mowing or grazing regime becomes established. of it. It is usually sown with red clover as a ley for
[Dactylis glomerta] around four years, providing good grazing. Its root
structure is excellent for improving soil and it grows
well in drought-prone areas.
28 29
GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES
0 cm 1
N holder, short term
[Lolium multiflorum]
Grazing rye does not fix nitrogen but is one of the most
effective crops for reducing leaching over the winter.
Suitable varieties
There is a wide range of varieties available.
Frost tolerance
Italian ryegrass will grow through the winter, but frost tolerance
is improved if surplus growth is removed in the autumn.
Weed competitiveness
Italian ryegrass grows very rapidly so is competitive against weeds.
As it benefits from early cutting this can also help combat weeds.
Biomass
Italian ryegrass produces large amounts of biomass over a
growing season. Yields can be as high as 15t DM/ha.
Sowing rate: 180 kg/ha or 18 g/m2 into consideration when sowing direct drilled crops after grazing rye Nitrogen fixing potential
Grazing rye seed is large and should drilled to a depth of 2 – 3 cm. and an interval of six weeks should be left.
Italian ryegrass does not fix N but is effective at reducing leaching
The soil should be rolled after sowing to increase soil moisture provided there is a well established canopy.
Biomass
contact with the seed. It is sown at a high rate, making it an
expensive crop to establish, so particular care should be taken Grazing rye rapidly produces large amounts of biomass. Persistence
to ensure that sowing conditions are optimal. Italian ryegrass has a shorter persistence than perennial ryegrass,
Nitrogen fixing potential
Ideal sowing time Grazing rye does not fix N but is one of the best crops for preventing generally only lasting from 1–2 years, depending on conditions.
it leaching over the winter. Persistence can be reduced by drought.
Grazing rye is usually sown in the autumn in order to establish
over-winter cover. It has an advantage over legumes in that it will Topping regime
Persistence
still grow successfully if sown in September or October. This is Italian ryegrass needs topping or grazing regularly to prevent
useful if a cash crop is still being harvested in autumn. Grazing rye is a short lived cover crop, and is normally incorporated
in March after an autumn sowing. it seeding and becoming stemmy and difficult to incorporate. It
Suitable varieties benefits from being cut or grazed earlier than perennial ryegrass.
Topping regime Frequency depends on soil fertility and growing conditions.
There is limited information on varieties
Grazing rye may need topping in March or early April, either for Pest and disease problems
Frost tolerance weed control or to prevent it flowering and becoming stemmy.
Italian ryegrass is susceptible to a number of pests and diseases,
Grazing rye is extremely tolerant to frost. including mildew, and ryegrass mosaic virus. It can also build up
Pest and disease problems
Weed competitiveness There are generally few pest and disease problems with grazing rye. pest problems such as leather jackets, slugs and wireworms that
can pose problems in subsequent crops.
Grazing rye establishes very quickly and competes against weeds
effectively. The residues, when dug in, have an allelopathic effect
against germination of seed (see page 9). This should be taken
30 31
GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES
[Lolium perenne]
Sowing rate: 20 kg/ha or 2 g/m2 Biomass Sowing rate: 35 kg/ha or 3 g/m2
Seed of mustard is small and should be shallow sown at not Mustard rapidly produces large amounts of biomass Ideal germination depth is 1-2cm. The soil should be rolled after
more than a few mm or surface broadcast. sowing to increase soil moisture contact with the seed.
Nitrogen fixing potential
Ideal sowing time Mustard does not fix N but is effective at preventing it leaching. Ideal sowing time
Either autumn or any time after March as a short term crop. Ideal times are April or September when there is adequate moisture
Persistence for establishment.
Suitable varieties Mustard has a very short persistence and can start to flower after
There are many varieties of mustard available. Caliente type 4 – 6 weeks. Suitable varieties
mustards have been bred to reduce various soil borne pests and There is a wide range of perennial ryegrass varieties available, with
diseases (see page 9). Their effectiveness depends very much on Topping regime many bred especially for their palatability and digestibility. Varieties
growing conditions and the manner in which they are incorporated. It is not usual practice to top mustard, except immediately prior that seed later in the season are best for green manuring as these
to incorporation. are less likely to create issues for the next crop. Varieties include
Frost tolerance Calibra, Twystar, Aberdart and Tivoli.
Mustard’s frost tolerance is relatively poor, with leaves breaking Pest and disease problems
down after a few mild frosts. This can be useful as it allows the Mustard will suffer from all the pests and diseases normally Frost tolerance
crop to be easily incorporated. associated with growing brassicas. If sown in spring, flea beetle Perennial ryegrass will withstand most frosts throughout the winter.
can hamper the establishment, although most crops will grow
Weed competitiveness through this. As with all brassicas, pigeons can cause devastation Weed competitiveness
Mustard is vigorously competitive against weeds from an early at any stage. It is important to bear in mind that mustard is Annual and perennial weeds may be a problem during
stage, and most mustard crops have very few weeds. susceptible to clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae) so should be establishment, but the crop will gain a competitive advantage
grown in the brassica part of the rotation. when mown.
Biomass
Perennial ryegrass produces around 13t DM/ha of biomass over
a growing season.
Persistence
Perennial ryegrass will persist for at least 5 – 6 years.
Topping regime
Perennial ryegrass needs topping or grazing regularly to prevent
it flowering and becoming stemmy and difficult to incorporate.
Frequency depends on soil fertility and growing conditions.
32 33
GREEN MANURE PLANTS NON-LEGUMES
Westerwolds
Ryegrass
[Lolium westerwoldicum]
Suitable varieties
There are many varieties available. Hellen, Mendoza and Lifloria
are commonly sown.
Frost tolerance
Phacelia
Most varieties of westerwold ryegrass are tolerant to frost.
N holder, weed suppressor, short term
Weed competitiveness
Phacelia does not fix nitrogen but is a very rapidly Westerwolds ryegrass establishes very quickly and competes
growing annual nitrogen holder crop for growing over against weeds effectively.
[Phacelia tanacetifolia] the summer. It is particularly good at attracting bees,
Biomass
hoverflies and wasps into the area.
Westerwolds ryegrass rapidly produces large amounts of biomass.
If left in situ for the spring and summer (after an autumn sowing)
it can produce 15t DM/ha.
Sowing rate: 10 kg/ha or 1 g/m2 Biomass
Nitrogen fixing potential
Seed of phacelia is small and should be shallow sown at not more Biomass production is less prolific than in other green manures
than a few mm or surface broadcast. as much of the canopy comprises a fine leaf structure. Westerwolds ryegrass does not fix N but is one of the best crops
for preventing it leaching over the winter.
Ideal sowing time Nitrogen fixing potential
Persistence
Any time after March. Phacelia does not fix N but is effective at preventing it leaching.
Westerwolds ryegrass is a winter-hardy annual. If it runs to seed
Suitable varieties Persistence it will stop growing.
Cultivars are imported from Europe and Balo is a common strain. Persistence over the summer is good, and it will continue producing Topping regime
leaves and flowering until it is killed off by the first frosts.
Frost tolerance Westerwolds ryegrass will need topping or grazing either for
Phacelia has poor tolerance to cold and will break down after Topping regime weed control or to prevent it flowering and becoming stemmy.
a moderate frost. Phacelia generally does not need topping. Pest and disease problems
Weed competitiveness Pest and disease problems There are generally few pest and disease problems
Phacelia has a fine leaf structure but nonetheless grows vigorously This crop is generally free from problems with pest and disease. with westerwolds.
showing good weed suppression.
34 35
GROWTH
Legumes
HEIGHTS Non-Legumes
Sweet Clover
Chicory
1m 1m
90cm 90cm
Lucerne/Alfafa
Italian Ryegrass
Sainfoin
Fenugreek
Grazing Rye
Buckwheat
80cm 80cm
70cm 70cm
Cocksfoot
Ryegrass
Crimson Clover
60cm 60cm
Persian Clover
Perrenial Ryegrass
50cm 50cm
s
Red Clover
Mustard
Westerwold
Phacelia
Vetch
40cm 40cm
30cm 30cm
20cm Clover 20cm
l w
e oil
hite
Y llo
Tref
Wh
Ye
Crimson clover Lucerne Red clover Sweet clover White clover Buckwheat Chicory Perennial Ryegrass Mustard Italian ryegrass
This can reach a The crop will attain This will reach a height This can grow to a This will reach a This will reach After leaf development Ryegrass can easily Depending on the This can easily attain
height of 70cm if a height of at least of at least 60cm if left height of over 2m height of 20 –30cm, a height of up at around 60cm, the attain a height of over cultivar, a mustard a height of over 1m,
not cut. 1m if not mown, unchecked. Allowing if left uncontrolled, depending on leaf to 90cm. plant quickly bolts to 80cm, but should be canopy will attain a but should be topped
but should be cut the crop to produce although at this stage size. Allowing the crop produce a flowering topped before this height of 50 – 70cm before this to maintain
before this to avoid too much plant it will have become to produce too much head at 100 – 150cm. to maintain palatability before flowering. Once palatability and prevent
an abundance of material runs the risk woody and difficult plant material runs This is unsightly, and prevent it becoming it flowers, the height it becoming tough and
woody material. of smothering the crop to incorporate. the risk of smothering although the flowers tough and difficult to can be at least 1m. difficult to incorporate.
if cut and mulched. the crop if cut and attract many insects. incorporate.
mulched.
Persian clover Fenugreek Sainfoin Vetch Yellow trefoil Grazing Rye Phacelia Cocksfoot Westerwolds
This will reach a This will This will grow to a This will grow to a This will reach a This will attain This grows to around This will attain a height This ryegrass will
height of at least grow to a height height of around 1m. height of around 50cm, height of 20 – 30cm a height of at 40 – 50cm. of at least 80cm. attain a height of at
60 – 70cm if left of around 1m. or higher if grown in if not mown. least 1m. least 80cm.
unchecked. It is conjunction with a cereal
normally mown (eg grazing rye or oats)
at this point. to provide support.
36 37
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge Defra and HDC who funded much of the
work over the last 15 years that formed the basis of this booklet.
We would like also to acknowledge input from Stephen Briggs
(Abacus Organic Associates), Peter Knight (Vegetable Consultancy
Services) and Roger Hitchings (Organic Research Centre). Thanks
should also go to Duchy College, IBERS, Warwick HRI and the many
farmers who participated in trials. Thanks to NIAB for supplying
some of the photographs in this publication.
AUTHORS EDITORS
Francis Rayns BSc PhD Ian Wilkinson
Francis is currently Horticulture Research Manager at Garden Ian is the Managing Director of Cotswold Seeds where he has
Organic (formerly known as HDRA). He has been involved in a worked for over 25 years. He has a particular interest in legumes
large number of projects (funded by Defra, HDC, WRAP, the EU and and their application in modern farming systems and is associated
private companies) concerned with fertility management, particularly with the promotion of red clover in the UK. He trained in Farm and
in organic field vegetable systems. This has included studies of the Grassland Management at Berkshire College of Agriculture.
effects of a range of green manures, composts, animal manures
and other soil amendments. He has worked to develop computer
models for rotational planning and has been responsible for long
Isabel Milner
term experiments to compare the effects of different rotations on Isabel works at Cotswold Seeds, advising farmers and growers
soil quality and crop performance. on grass and forage crops and coordinating communications for
the company. She graduated with a First from the Royal Agricultural
Anton Rosenfeld BA MSc PhD College’s Graduate Diploma in Agriculture in 2010 after a 15 year
career in the media, mainly working at the Guardian and
Anton is currently Research Officer at Garden Organic. He has Observer newspapers.
worked in a number of projects concerned with sustainable
strategies for vegetable production and also projects focusing on
uses of green manures and composts to build soil fertility funded
by Defra, HDC and WRAP. He has worked closely with growers both
in the UK and overseas and is currently coordinating a project to
develop a resource of knowledge and varieties for growing exotic
vegetables. He also delivers training on a range of horticultural
topics including soil fertility.
Cotswold Seeds Garden Organic
Cotswold Seeds was founded in 1974 and deals with over Garden Organic, the UK’s leading organic growing charity, has
8,000 farmers throughout the UK. The company has a specialist been at the forefront of the organic horticulture movement for
interest in grass and legumes and offers advice on growing and 50 years and is dedicated to researching and promoting organic
managing these crops to those working in the livestock, arable gardening, farming and food.
and horticultural sectors. The company is also involved in a wide
range of research projects across the EU.
www.cotswoldseeds.com www.gardenorganic.org.uk