CHAPTER - III

Methodology of Research
PAGE NUMBERS
3.1. Introduction 118

3.2. Methods in philosophy of education 120

3.2.1. Methods employed in the present study 120
3.2.2. Content analysis 121
3.2.3. Method of induction 128
3.2.4. Method of deduction 129

3.2.5. Concept analysis 129

3.2.6. Interpretative method 130
3.2.7. Critical method 131
3.2.8. Speculative method 132
3.2.9. Comparative method 133
3.3. Process of analysis and interpretation of data 134
3.3.1. Nature of sources of data 134
3.3.2. Memoing 135
3.3.3. Segmenting 136
3.3.4. Coding 137
3.3.5. A Priori codes and inductive codes 137
3.3.6. Categorizing 138
3.3.7. Enumeration 138
3.3.8. Corroboration and validation 138
3.4. Conclusion 139
3.5. References 139

117
 CHAPTER - III
METHODOLOGY OF REAEARCH

"In veins of the knowing subject, as it was conceived by Locke, Hume, and Kant flows no
real blood, but only the diluted juice of reason, by way of thinking activity

Wilhelm Dilthey in Heyting, 2001, p. 6

"Philosophy appeals to the facts, the data of experience. To obtain the necessary
materials it uses as instruments the truths provided by the evidence of the senses and the
conclusions proved by the sciences. It depends on both, as a superior who cannot do his
own work depends on the servants he employs....He therefore judges by his own light of
whatever his servants bring him to supply his needs. For example, one of the most
successful students of bees, Francois Huber, who was blind, interpreted by the light of his
intellect the facts seen by his servant's eyes."

Jacque Maritain, 1979, Pp. 88-89

" abstractions are an important aspect of method. They are the superhighways which
unite the remotest referents into a meaningful whole. Their very abstractness makes it
possible to bring objects, acts, events, situations of the most varied traits into a common
picture, since all entities have at least one trait in common: the fact of existence. Being,
the most abstract of all abstractions, expresses this common Trait."

Heath H. Bawden, 1944, p. 490

3.1. Introduction:

Research in general aims at the discovery of the relationship that exists among the
phenomena of the universe. However, educational research, a distinctive category of
research is the planned activity or activities to discover such relationships in the
phenomena concerned with the theory and practice of education. It may more be
described as the application of the principles and procedures of scientific inquiry to
augment understanding past and contemporary issues related to education and also to
develop a sound and rational base for the practice of education.
118
 Procedurally looking at, research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze
information to increase the understanding of a problem or issue and at general level, it is
consists of three steps:

1. Posing research question/ questions.

2. Collecting data i.e. information for answering those questions.

3. Presenting answer/ answers to those questions.

Amongst the various reasons, categorically speaking, research is important for three
reasons (Creswell, 2012, p.3) namely:

a. Research adds to the existing knowledge: Adding to knowledge means that

educators undertake research for either exploring new data, information and
theory or interpreting the already existing or known data, information or
theory in a new-fangled perspective or newer light.

b. Research improves practice: Improving practice means research offers practicing

educators new ideas to consider as they go about their jobs; thus, from reading
research studies, educators can learn about new practices that have been tried
in other settings or situations. Research also helps practioners evaluate
approaches that they hope to work with those in educational settings for whom
these concern.

c. Research informs policy debates: Policy makers may range from federal
government employees and state workers to local school board members and
administrators, and they discuss and take positions on educational issues
important to their areas. Hence, when policy makers read research on issues,
they are informed about the current debates and stances taken by other public
officials.

119
3.2. Methods in philosophy of education:

Methods in philosophical articulation in educational studies which seems to be a

special category belonging to qualitative research, are expected not only to ascertain
truths, but they are also expected to act as guidelines for answering specific questions
concerning the subject of research. Two major sources from which debates on
philosophical methods seem to stem match the two functions methods should serve
(Heyting, 2001,1).

Firstly, a methodological approach should ascertain verifiable truth of the results

of its application. Because, philosophers - unlike empirical researchers - are not inclined
to simply adopt a specific view of what 'true knowledge' entails, they tend to relate
methodological considerations to fundamental epistemological questions. For that reason,
differing opinions on methodological issues, and consequently a plurality of methods,
seem to be unavoidable.

Secondly, a methodological approach has a duty to ascertain verifiable answers to

specific questions; of course, which questions should be answered by philosophy of
education is not an established matter either.

3.2.1. Methods employed in the present study;

In view of the purposes methodological approaches expected to serve in any

research in philosophy of education, the present study entitled 'A Critique of the
Researches in Philosophy of Education and Quest for a New Paradigm" has been
undertaken by means of employing multiple approaches of research methodology applied
separately as well as sometimes triangulated together. The present study aimed at
exploring the following objectives:

vi) To study the genesis and development of researches in philosophy of education in

India and abroad (see 1.2 & 1.3 of the present study).
vii)To study the present status of researches in philosophy of education in India (see
4.2. along with 2.2. of the 2"'' Chapter).

120
 viii) To mark out the factors responsible for the present condition of researches in
philosophy of education in India (see 4.3 of the 4'*' Chapter).
ix) To make a comparative analysis between the Indian and the western perspectives
in the field of philosophy of education (see table No. 10 of the 5'*' Chapter).
x) To provide with a schema that may make necessary keyhole through which
researcher in the field of philosophy of education can peer in and experience
successful engagement of ideas analyzed in a new way (see 4.4. of the 4'^
Chapter).

And, For obtaining the first and second objectives of the study, content analysis of
documentary sources at meta-level reflection, enumeration of data, quantitative analysis
of data by means of using Excel - 2003 have been employed.

For obtaining the forth objective, Qualitative-Comparative Analysis (QCA) has

been adopted.

For procurement of the third & the fifth objective, mechanics of Concept
Analysis, Interpretative Method, Critical Method, Qualitative Comparative method.
Speculative Method, Analytical Method, Criticism (Internal and External), and
Triangulation of philosophical Methods have been adopted. For arriving at major
conclusions, the present research before collecting data posed 10 questions, answers to
which have been sought throughout the whole study. Throughout the whole process of
analysis and interpretation relevant techniques like memoing, segmenting, coding,
triangulation etc. were duly followed.

3.2.2. Content analysis:

Content analysis is mainly concerned with the classification, organization and
comparison of the content of document/ documents. Since this method is concerned with
the classification, evaluation and comparison of the content of communication of
document, it is sometimes referred to as 'documentary analysis' or 'information analysis'
also. The content can be analyzed on two levels; manifest level and interpretative level.
Manifest level is the basic level of analysis which aims at the descriptive account of the

121
data, that is what was actually said with nothing read into or nothing assumed about it.
Interpretative level is the latent level of analysis. It is connected with what was actually
wanted to be meant in the document.
The present research being a qualitative type of study in the domain of philosophy
of education, the present researcher was aware of the fact that the analysis of data,
gathered by a wide variety of methods and techniques has to be on a holistic perspective
and studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally, non-manipulatively and
inconspicuously with openness to whatever emerges without predetermined constrains on
outcomes.
Steps followed in the Content analysis: Now, an attempt has been made to
describe the steps which were involved in the process while pursuing the present
research.
a. Defining the unit of analysis:
A large amount of documentary sources related to the researches in philosophy of
education in India and abroad was taken into consideration as the unit and the whole
material was taken as comprehensive enough to provide meaning through some content at
least and which was directed towards exploring the research scenario in the field of
educational philosophy in India and abroad.
Where used?
i. In the 2"** Chapter of the present study.
ii. And in 4.1. of the present study for example.
b. Specifying variables and categories:
After defining the unit, the present researcher conducted its analysis so as to
create reproducible data for scientific treatment and generalization beyond the specific set
of symbolic material analyzed. For converting symbolic material into objective data, it is
necessary to specify the 'variables' explicitly in terms of which description was to be
made.
Where used?
j. 4.2.2. Representation of the Trends of the types of Research,
ii. Table No. 2. Decade- wise enumeration of types of research.

122
 iii. Table No. 3, Delineation of the coverage of Research Problems,
iv. Bar Diagram No. 4, Delineation of coverage of great educationists in biographical
and comparative researches (in number) for example.
c. Frequency, Direction and intensity:
After the unit is defined and variables along with their categories to be employed
specified, the material was analyzed according to the frequency, direction and intensity.
Where used?
• Pie charts No. 8-14 for example.
d. The Contingency Analysis:
The contingency analysis aims at considering the content within which the unit is
found. Here the favorableness or the un-favorableness of a single unit has been studied so
that its real meaning might not lost.
Where used?
• For example, graph no. 2 in the 4"" Chapter of the present study shows that there has
been a considerable quantitative upsurge (in number) in the researches in
philosophy of education, but graph no. 3 enumerates that percentage-wise looking
at the has always been a considerable decline in terms of even quantity in
comparison with the total decade-wise increasing volume of research. Two graphs
are shown below. Unless two enumerations are taken careful notice of, there
remains every possibility to be falsified while arriving at any conclusion as regards
real picture of philosophical researches in quantitative terms.

123
 Graph No. 1

Decade-wise graphical enumeration of researches in philosophy of

education

' Philosophy of Education

»J>' ^' d^' o^"^' ^' .J

S^' S? -^

Graph No. 3.
Decade-wise graphical enumeration of researches in Philosophy of
education in comparison with total reserach (in percentage)
18.00%
16.00% -16.67%
14.00%
12.00%
10.00%
8.00% 7.74%
6.00%
4.00%
2.00% •2%- •r55^ 1.40%
0.00%
*? <b^ <§" 5^^ .#
.^ K* *^ c^V
/ ^
^^ ^^' •^ -^ -^ .#'
'^ -^

e. Sampling:

As is known to all qualitative researchers, one of the major and practical problems
in content analysis is sampling. The unit which a researcher analyses must be
representative of the total material with which he is concerned, so that the results can be
generalized. Invariably a researcher undertakes the analysis of a specific content in order
to reveal something about the universe of data than just that symbolic material with
which he deals. In any given study, the universe of symbolic materials, that is to be
selected depend upon the purpose of investigation.
124
 For example, the objective is to compare the editorial content of 'Times of India'
against some established standard or norms, the universe under consideration should be
all editorial content appearing in all issues of 'The Times of India' over a certain period
of time. After the specification of the universe, proper procedures for drawing a
representative sample of that universe may be employed (Koul, 2009, p. 283).

Where used?

Likewise, in the present research by the universe under consideration i.e. 'the
researches in philosophy of education' all the researches (180 in number which hold
2.03% of the total research in education) abstracted in the six surveys in researches of
education in India under the category 'philosophy of education' over a certain period of
time have been taken as sample. After the specification of the universe, proper procedure
for drawing a representative sample for proving some particular point has been decided.

f. Constructing the Content analysis Outline:

i. Specify needed data:

Where used?

For example in the present research primarily titles, coverage, typology, methodology
used and major findings have been the needed data under consideration.

ii. Map out plans for Tabulation:

Where used?

It has been planned that the objective specification be enumerated through pie
charts, bar diagrams, columns etc.

iii. Layout the skeleton of the outline:

Where used?

Two examples below:

125
 Table No. 3
Delineation of the coverage of Research Problems
1941-50

Biographical Thematic Comparative

Table No. 4.

Enumeration of methods used in Indian researches

1941-50
SI. Name of the Main Focus of Methodology Adopted
No. Researcher & the Research
Year Problem

iv. Fill in Categories for each variable:

According to Cartwright, a researcher should use a system which is exhaustive with

mutually exclusive categories. The system is exhaustive if there is a category in
which to place every relevant items which may be found in the content. Its categories
are mutually exclusive if there is one and only one place to put an item within that
system of categories (Cartwright, 1970, p. 458).

Where used?

For example, under the category, '4.2.3. Delineation of the coverage of Research
Problems' some other relevant items like, 'Who are enjoying lion's share?', 'Is anyone
an Educational philosopher?' etc. have been placed.

V. Establishing Procedure for Unitizing Material:

Cartwright is of the opinion that specific working definitions to be used in the content
analyzing should be formulated in such a way that various coders can all unitize the same
material in same way.

126
 Where used?

For one example, in 4.2.2, category where the Indian researches have been
categorized into Biographical, Thematic and Comparative researches, working definition
of Biographical research has been put forward as follows: "This type of research
advances on the basis of the ideas and thoughts of individual thinker/ thinkers and in
such type unlike Seshadri's classification, study of the educational philosophy of
systems (for example educational ideas of the Upanishads or the Bhagavat Gita or any
Indian school of philosophy etc.) has purposefully been excluded since these type of
studies venture to deliberate upon specific themes instead of the thoughtfulness of
individual thinkers. This prominent trend in the philosophy of education consists of the
evaluation of educational doctrines of the celebrated savants.
Biographical research in not proposed to be associated with a precise definition
but to indicate various, often interrelated approaches to the study of individuals and their
coherent and consistent thoughts. It is "an exciting, stimulating and fast moving field
which seeks to understand the changing experiences and outlooks of individuals in their
daily lives, what they see as important, and how to provide interpretations of the accounts
they give of their past, present and future" (Roberts, 2002, p. I).
In some research methodology books (e.g. in Lokesh Koul's book), this type of
research has been termed as 'bibliographical' research that falls under historical research.
According to Koul, "Bibliographical research aims at determining and presenting
truthfully the important facts about life, character, and achievements of important
educators. In Indian context one may study the contributions of Gandhi, Tagore and other
leading educationists and their influence on current educational practice and thought"
(Koul, 2009, p. 94). But, the present researcher feels that philosophy of great educators
itself deems to belong to philosophy of education (even though the educational ideas of
those personalities be dealt in a historical perspective) as the educationists' ideas demand
to be explore from epistemological, ontological as well as axiological perspectives;
hence, categorizing those studies under biographical category under the typology of
philosophy of education seems doing justice to the problem."

127
 vi. Tryout the Analysis Outline and Unitizing Procedure:
The analysis outline and unitizing procedure on a sample of material should be given a
tryout in order to discover what modifications are needed.
Where used?
Every step of content analysis tryout and modification has been made for several
times.
vii. Mechanics of coding:
It has been appropriately applied in this research. It will be discussed in a bit
details in the present chapter afterwards.

3.2.3. Method of Induction:

Induction is the process by which one conclude that what is true of certain
individuals of a class is true of the whole class or what is true at certain times will be true
in similar circumstances of all times.
Induction is of two types: Perfect and imperfect. Perfect induction is the
establishment of a universal proposition, on an examination of all the particular instances
covered by it. While imperfect induction is the establishment of a universal proposition,
on an examination of some particular only.
In induction, the premises are derived from experience. And the aim of induction
is formal and material truth. In induction the conclusion is always more general than the
premises.
Where used?
For example, this method has been used to arriving at the following findings:
i) There has neither been any symptom exposing the fact that Indian researches in
philosophy of education have been consciously engaged in any paradigm-
premises of the West, though there has been some imitation of it on other issues,
nor could it develop any Indian paradigm or theoretical framework of its own.
ii) As against the highly rich opportunities and prospects of researches in India and
in comparison with the empirical educational studies, the output has been proved
to be meager in terms of quantity as well as quality in the field of philosophy of
education.
128
3.2.4. Method of Deduction:
Deduction is the opposite of induction. Here the premises are assumed to be true.
And the conclusion can be more general than the premises.
In a deductive system, a set of propositions is assumed, which stands for all the
propositions of the system.
Where used?
For example, this method has been used in the following aspects of the present
study:

i. The pervasive philosophical activity in the form of inventive debates and

dialogues in India that prevailed before the advent of colonialism,
subsequently showed substantial decline and at this backdrop, this need not
come as a surprise that researches in philosophy in general and philosophy of
education in particular have not emerged as a vibrant, intellectual activity.
ii. As against the increasing effect of the globalized market forces the 'low market
value' of philosophy as a knowledge field in post-independent India seems to
have affected the researches in philosophy of education too.
iii. Curriculum at PG courses of Education in most of the universities are yet to be
framed contributing to create an ambiance befitting to philosophical research.

3.2.5. Concept Analysis:

A researcher in philosophy of education can make explicit the mechanics of concept
analysis with different aspects of education. Conceptual analysis raises some basic
questions which clearly fall outside the preview of observational and experimental
methods though philosophy of education can never afford to be ignorant of empirical
findings. Steps of this technique is as follows:
i. Elucidation the concept.
ii. Formulation of defining characteristics of the concept by identifying the logically
necessary conditions to the extent possible.
iii. Mapping of the boundaries of the concept.

129
 iv. Appraisal of the educational statements and arguments.
V. Justification of the educational prescriptions & preferences.
vi. Validation of the educational theories.
Where used?
For example, with the intention of exploring the meaning of paradigm and
meaning of the term 'new paradigm' in the 4'*^ chapter this method has been used.
3.2.6. Interpretative Method:
According to John Mclntyre 'Qualitative research' can thus be framed within a
specific tradition, such as Weberian social theory, which seeks to interpret social action
in terms of the subjective meanings of participants. Such a tradition frames the problems
of an interpretive method in particular ways and provides particular understandings of
research practice, a set of concepts which may act as reference points or 'touchstones' for
the researcher. It may be argued that 'good' interpretive research is contingent on the
ways in which a researcher works with material at hand, with highly situated
understandings of their own activity. I assume that these 'understandings' give play to a
range of pragmatic and other values including creativity, documentary thoroughness,
procedural methodically, reflexivity of analysis, descriptive richness, textual elucidation,
conceptual power, participant validation and so on. Much more could be said about these
and other values, but it is worth noting that they appeal chiefly to practice not too vague
philosophical generalizations about methodological axioms or dogmas about how the
meaning of 'quality' in qualitative method (Mclntyre, 1998, p. 2).
The ground for an interpretive method goes back to the decision to frame a
problem in interpretive terms. Precisely what these 'interpretive terms' are half the
difficulty. If one is tempting to 'phenomenology' in so framing an approach, then what
theorizations of 'phenomenology' are meant? How do these set up parameters for
framing the 'problematic' of inquiry? This is not simply what 'problem' is defined for
research, because in 'making' a problem the researcher is already prefiguring relevant
theory and method (Mclntyre, ibid, p. 5).
Where used?

130
 In several instances by posing questions like the following this method intended
to come at any conclusion.
4.2.1. Quantitative Representation: where do researches in philosophy of
education stand?
Research question No. 8. Can there be a quest and be built up a new paradigm in
terms of formulating questions and research problems in philosophical inquiry in the field
of educational studies?
4.2.1. Thematic research, a. Is there any attempt of theory building in thematic
studies? Etc.
3.2.7. Critical Method:
Using the critical method, philosophy appraises things in the light of clear and
distinct ideas, seeking to safeguard people from fanaticism, hypocrisy, intolerance etc.
Briefly speaking, it aims at emancipating people from narrow-mindedness. The critical
method focuses on the need to examine a claim from all possible perspectives, with a
view to establishing its truth and applicability, with the highest degree of objectivity
possible within the restrictions of human finitude and subjectivity. Here, philosophers
seeks to make a clear distinction between the way things appear to be and the ways the
things are, and also between the way things are and the way they ought to be. Insights
from epistemology are crucial in this undertaking (Oduor, 2010, p. 100).
Where used?
For example, a portion from the 4'*^ chapter may be quoted which clearly
evidenced to have employed critical method:
"If putting the above in a nutshell percentage-wise, it becomes evident that in case
of 16.11%% from among 180 studies abstracted in the second chapter of the present
study, there had not been any mentioning as regards the methodology employed by the
researcher while pursuing the studies. This may designate to either any one of the
following three reasons:

a. Either the abstracts have not been ornamented by the mentioning of the
methodological issue, though it might so happen that sophisticated
methodology was employed in the studies;
131
 b. Or, where, as regards methodology, it has been like "the works of
Ambedkar were collected through his writings, speeches, letters and
essays written by him in journals, his interviews with important persons
and the debates and speeches in the Constituent Assembly and Parliament"
(Rajhans, 1996, p. 4), it may be taken as implied that methods like content
analysis or documentary analysis, discourse analysis were perhaps
employed in such researches.
c. Or the researcher didn't bid much importance on the methodological
question." (See 4.2.4. of the 4"^ Chapter).

3.2.8. Speculative Method:

To speculate is considered to be one of the functions of philosophical reflections.
The benefit of this kind of speculation is clearly not to provide immediate, workable
advice, but to ask important questions and hypothesis about possible answers without
regard for the constrains of emergency. Given to Burbules and Wamick, speculative
thinking may foster new categories or perspectives on familiar problems, or help generate
a new vocabulary for talking about educational problems. This method may help to
illumine the unspoken and unexamined assumptions that drive daily practice by
considering what it might look like to think and act in a radically different way. There is
no practical way of doing this without entertaining ideas that may be seen as
controversial, surprising, strange, and even repugnant to some existing values and
practice (Burbules and Wamick, 2006, Pp. 497-98).
Where used?
For example, this method has been used to arriving at the following conclusions:

i. Western paradigms' viability of benevolence for Indian researchers in philosophy

of education is to be carefully judged.

ii. To rejuvenate researches in philosophy of education significant debates and

dialogues in contemporary Indian philosophy are to be encouraged and

132
 cultivated by organizing seminars and symposiums and even educationists are
to nurture a genuine test for philosophical inquiry in its truest sense.

iii. And lastly, philosophical inquiry in the field of education is to come closer to the
living reality in the new paradigm, instead of being confined to the ancient
legends and needs to make stronger its links with developing policies in
Indian as well as global trends of education. (See 5.2.3. of the present
research).

3.2.9. Comparative Method:

The emphases of comparative research on diversity (especially, the different

patterns that may exist with a specific set of cases) and on familiarity with each case
make this approach especially well-suited for the goals of exploring diversity,
interpreting cultural or historical significance, and advancing theory. The comparative
approach is better suited for addressing patterns of diversity than either of the other two
strategies. Diversity is most often understood in terms of types of cases. The typical goal
of a comparative study is to unravel the different causal conditions connected to different
outcomes - causal patterns that separate cases into different subgroups. One common
outcome of comparative research is the finding that cases that may have been defined as
"the same" at the outset are differentiated into two or more categories at the conclusion of
the study. Comparative researchers focus explicitly on patterns of similarities and
differences across a range of cases. Several basic features of the comparative approach
make it a good strategy for advancing theory. These features include its use of flexible
frames, its explicit focus on the causes of diversity, and its emphasis on the systematic
analysis of similarities and differences in the effort to specify how diversity is patterned
(Charles, 1994, Chapter. 5).
Where used?
Table No. 10 may be a classic example of using comparative method, a little
segment of that comparative analysis shown below:

Issues Researches abroad (in the Indian Researches

English speaking world)

133
 All researches, be ihey quanliiative or
qualitaiive, and what to speak of
philosophical research in education, have
so far been undertaken by researchers'
being con.sciously rooted in some .sort of
paradigm i.e. an ideological network that
contains researchers' epislemological,
ontological, axiological and
methodological premises.
On paradigm /
theoretical
• Positivist & post positivist
framework Present paradigms.
question. status • Interpretive/ Phenomenological/
Hcrmeneutic Paradigms.
• Critical paradigms.
• There has neither been any
symptom exposing the fact that
Indian researches have been
consciously engaged in any
paradigm-premises of the West,
though there has been some
imitation of it on other issues.
• Nor could it develop any Indian
paradigm or theoretical framework
of its own.
As such no paradigm followed or
developed yet.

• Constructivist paradigm. • Either it may imbibe Western

• Mixed method paradigm (Hall. paradigms as they are.
Possibilities 2012. P.I-6) • It may try to Indianized Western
paradigms.
• It may develop paradigms having
purely Indian on the basis of Indian
schools of philosophical thoughts.

3.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data:

3.3.1. Nature of Sources of data:

180 Research abstracts (all belonging to the area of philosophy of education)

provided in the documentary sources as follows mainly were carefully reviewed,
critically analyzed and rigorously tried to be interpreted.

1. Buch, M. B. (Ed.). (1974). A survey of research in education. Centre of advanced

Study in education. Baroda. India.
2. Buch, M. B. (Ed.). (1979). Second survey of research in education (1972-78). Society
for Educational Research and Development. Baroda. India.
3. Buch, M. B. (Ed.). (1986). Third survey of research in education (1978-83). NCERT.
New Delhi.
4. Buch, M. B. (Ed.). (1991). Fourth survey of research in education (1983-88). Vol. 1&
2. NCERT. New Delhi.
5. Sharma, A. K. (Ed.). (1997). Fifth survey of research in education (1988-1992). Vol.
1. NCERT. New Delhi.

134
6. Kumar, Krishna (Ed.). (2006). Sixth survey of research in education (1993-2000).
Vol. l.NCERT. New Delhi.
Other secondary sources were also widely used.

These documentary sources were analyzed on the basis of meta-level reflection,

quantitative analysis and enumeration by means of using Excel - 2003 (pie charts, bar
diagram, columns, graphical representation etc.).

3.3.2. Memoing:

Unfortunately the human mind tends to forget much that has been experienced or
observed at quite a rapid rate. When doing research some means is needed to overcome
this tendency. Memoing is the act of recording reflective notes about what the researcher
(fieldworker, data coder and/or analyst) is learning from the data:

• Memos accumulate as written ideas or records about concepts and their

relationships.
• Memos may differ substantially in style and manner.
• They are notes by the researcher to herself/himself about some hypothesis
regarding a category or property and especially relationships between categories.
• Memos are contributing substantially to the qualitative research process and its
credibility.

The analysis is mostly simultaneous or parallel and often entails recurring phases
of data collection, coding, memoing and sorting. Memos help the researcher to achieve an
analytical distance from the raw data and force the researcher to conceptualize.

• Memoing involves total creative freedom.

• A memo is purely an instrument to capture the outflow of ideas, insights and
observations.
• When the researcher writes the thoughts down they become concrete and they are
recorded.
• Each researcher develops her/his own style.
135
 • Memos evolve and increase in complexity, density, clarity, and accuracy as the
data analysis progresses.
• Memos written later may negate, amend, extend and/or clarify earlier written
ones.
• Memos keep the researcher imbedded in the empirical reality and contribute to the
trustworthiness of qualitative research. Trustworthiness is synonymous with
reliability in quantitative research. For this reason, regardless of time constraints,
memoing should never be regarded as superfluous. It is a very important element
of qualitative data analysis.

Diagrams are graphic memos and play a very important conceptual role.
Diagrams are visual devices that depict something. They illustrate the density and
complexity of the qualitative analysis. A diagram helps the researcher to discover gaps
and flaws in the relationships of categories and of the logic. Often diagrams are preceded
by listings, especially early in the analysis process. These listings provide a foundation
for diagrams.

There are several versions of personal computer software packages available for
qualitative data analyses that lend themselves to memoing. There are also blogs on the
internet that the inexperienced user may access for tips and ideas regarding the use of
such software. Some programs further enable the researcher to graphically display and
examine both hierarchical and relational connections among codes (Memos and
memoing,?, retrieved on 10.09.2012).

3.3.3. Segmenting:

It involves dividing the data into meaningful analytical units. When a researcher
segments text data, he reads the text data line by line identifies the segments that bring
meaning to him in his research.

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3.3.4. Coding:
Coding is the process of making segments of data (usually text data) with
symbols, descriptive words, or category names. It is tags or labels for assigning units of
meaning to the descriptive or inferential information compiled during a study.
Segmenting and coding go hand in hand because segmenting involves locating
meaningful segments of data and coding involves marking and labelling those segments
with codes.
Where used?
Throughout the whole process of data reduction, data display and interpretation in
the 4'*^ chapter this process entailing memoing, segmenting etc. have been scrupulously
followed.
3.3.5. A Priori Codes and Inductive codes.

There are many different types of codes that are commonly used in qualitative
data analysis.

Researchers may decide to use a set of already existing codes in the data. These
are called a priori codes. A priori codes are codes that are developed before examining
the current data.

Where Used? For example in the present research a priori codes are Thematic and
Comparative research.

Many qualitative researchers like to develop the codes as they code the data.
These codes are called inductive codes. Inductive codes are codes that are developed by
the researcher by directly examining the data.

Where used? For example in the present research inductive code in Biographical
research; this has been inducted by the present researcher.

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3.3.6. Categorizing:

It is the process of reducing the Ust of codes into few categories or themes.
Categories or themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the
data base.

3.3.7. Enumeration:

Enumeration is the process of quantifying data, and yes, it is often done in

"qualitative" research. Enumeration helps researchers to communicate concepts such as
'amount' or 'frequency' when writing up the results. Words or code frequencies can help
researchers to determine the importance of words and ideas. Listing frequencies can also
help in identifying prominent themes in the data.

Where used?

In the present study, such enumerations have been done through numerous tables,
graphs, pie charts, bar-diagrams, columns, figures etc.

3.3.8. Corroboration, validation and triangulation:

Throughout the process of data collection and analysis the researcher needs to
make sure that his findings and interpretation are accurate. Corroborating is the act of
comparing data/ document/ text/ to each other to determine whether they provide the
same information to reach the same conclusion. Triangulation includes the followings:

• As a normal consequence of integrated approach, triangulation came into being as a

concept that is often taken up in qualitative research when issues of quality are
discussed. Triangulation includes researches taking different perspectives on an
issue under study or more generally in answering research questions. These
perspectives can be substantiated by using several methods and/ or in several
theoretical approaches. Both are or should be linked.

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 • Triangulation refers to combining different sorts of data both qualitative as well as
quantitative against the background of the theoretical perspectives that are applied
to the data.

• Triangulation allows a principal surplus of knowledge e.g. triangulation may

produce knowledge at different levels, which means they go beyond the knowledge
made possible by one approach and thus contribute to promoting quality research.

Where used?

For maintaining the good quality of this study the following methodological
procedure of triangulation has been followed throughout the analysis and interpretation
process:

a) Triangulation of qualitative/ quantitative methods for catching social reality.

b) Triangulation of objective facts/ subjective attitude.

c) Triangulation of observation at present/ historical documents.

d) Triangulation of inconspicuous observation / results of planned observation.

3.4. Conclusion:

Thus, all the methods to be followed in a qualitative research particularly in the

philosophical studies have been tried to be scrupulously followed in the present study.

3.5. References:

1. Bawden, H. Heath. (1944). Method. The Journal of Philosophy. Vol. 41. No. 18.
August 1944.

2. Burbules, Nicholas C. & Wamick, Brayn R. (2006). Philosophical Inquiry. In

Judith L. Green at el. (Ed.). Handbook of complementary methods in educational
research. Lawrence Erlbaum associates. New Jersey.

139
3. Cartwright, Dorwin. (1970). Analysis of qualitative material. In Leon, Festinger
and Daniel, Katz (Ed.). Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences. Amerind
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Indian Edition. New Delhi.

4. Creswell, John. E. (2012). Educational Research. 4'** Vol. PHI Learning Private
Limited. New Delhi.

5. Heyting, Frieda. (2001). Methodological tradition in philosophy of education. In

Lenzen & John White (Ed.). Methods in Philosophy of Education. Routledge.
London & New York.

6. http://psychsoma.co.za/qualitative_inquirv growt/2010/Q3/memos-and-
memoing.html
7. Koul, Lokesh. (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4'*' Edition. Vikash
Publishing House PVT LTD. New Delhi.

8. Maritain, Jacques. (1979). An Introduction to Philosophy. Sheed and Ward.

London.

9. Mclntyre, John. (1998). Arguing for an interpretive method. In J.Higgs (Ed.).

Writing Qualitative Research, Centre for Professional Education Advancement
Series. Hampden Press. Sydney.

10. Oduor, Reginald. M.J. (2010). Research methodology in philosophy within an

interdisciplinary and commercialized African context. Thought and Practice: A
Journal of Philosophical association of Kenya (PAK). New Series, Vol. 2. No. 1.
June, 2010.

11. Ragin, Charles. (1994).Using Comparative Methods to Study Diversity.

12. Roberts Brain. (20020. Biographical research. Open University Press.
Buckingham.

13. www.comparative qualitative analysis.htm. Retrieved on 06.06.2012.

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 CHAPTER-IV
Analysis and Interpretation

PAGE NUMBERS

4.1. Introduction 144

4.2. Enumeration of Present Status of research - Data reduction and
data display 145

4.2.1. Quantitative representation: Where do researches in

philosophy of education stand? 145

4.2.2. Representation of the trends of the types of researches 160

4.2.3. Delineation of the coverage of research problems 168
4.2.4. An appraisal of researches from methodological angle 184

4.2.5. A Deliberation on the 'Major Findings' 209

4.2.6. 'The question of 'Swaraj in Ideas' 212
4.2.7. Some observations on the present status of researches in
philosophy of education 213
4.3. Probing the factors responsible for the status
as per enumeration 215
4.3.1. Some commonsense penetration into the issue of
qualitative scantiness 215
4.3.2. Research for career advancement 218
4.3.3. Philosophy demands clarity and articulation
which is not that easy 219
4.3.4. Researches in most cases failed to go beyond studying the

141
 Hoary past 219

4.3.5. Waning in philosophical pursuits 219

4.3.6. Philosophical articulation at low ebb 224

4.3.7. Absence of bridge between 'pure philosophers' and educationists 226

4.3.8. Education could not be developed as a corroborating

sub-discipline of philosophy 226

4.3.9. Compulsive negligence towards philosophy of education and

Its methodology 230

4.3.10. Scantiness in journal outputs 236

4.4. Quest for a new paradigm in researches in Philosophy of

Education 237

4.4.1. A brief outline of the major paradigms of research in action

in the English speaking world 238

4.4.2. Western paradigms' viability of munificence for Indian

Researches in philosophy of education 241
4.4.3. A brief outline of the Indian approaches/ paradigms for exploring
Indian philosophy of education 242
4.4.4. Some essential propositions as regards the typology of
Researches in philosophy of education 245
4.4.5. Some necessary suggestions concerning the coverage/ exposure
Of researches in philosophy of education 251
4.4.6. Thematic researches are to structure schemes for evolving
an Indian philosophy of education 253
4.4.7. Thematic studies are to develop pedagogy in Indian
perspective to withstand the challenges of the 21 *' century 255
4.4.8. Some necessary propositions as regards using sophisticated
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 Philosophical methods in educational exploration 256
4.4.9. As regards using philosophical methods: Few deductions 272

4.4.10. Three general propositions for rejuvenating researches

In philosophy of education 273

4.5. References 279

143