C HAPTER 2.

M ODERN SOC1ETIES AND COllECTIVE

VtOlENCE: TH E FRAMEWORK OF INTERDtSCIPUNARY
G ENOCIDE Sr UDlES
Io/ihru Dobo,

II di.,,,. Miom on Ih< lopicality cl Intan:h ~rd.ing prncuotS cl "'att vi&-

Im« .nd 8<n""I<Io: att R tU 1>tt<Ua'J' ooday. o;Ino,. Ihl. noo: Imply Ih l wo: h.~
laiIod wllh respcct co • <Io:chi ... chalkng.- roionl by National SOCiali...... rumdy
.he hnpo:nlh-.o ' 0 ..,sutt th' l . uch .tt<:dtl.. Itt not ttPO:' Ied. lhe commltmenl
co a""""'" again"?
Thr: fac •• h.o, ,hc: otudy cI . hc: m~rdcr cl Jcw. and opcctr.c ",her mlnorilicl
In Europt" cln Mimut'l' Impnrtanl ori.nlOlWns 1(If' <Io:mocntiulion cl .od.1
tlfnxlut •• was an import.n. point 01 d.partuTC. "nd not ooly fOT P'>'lt · 194~
Gmnan poIiln H~. primarilyon lhe Iwi. cl lhe changn in inttmalional
poIlrks foUowing 1990. in partkuw Ihc: n<:W !""!tImlry cl violonI cl;;' ..... It h..
h<comr: mon: d<.rly~1 thaI lhe co1kclM phen<>rnma cl vioImc:e arm<JC bc
tn..tod os hiOloticat miSlak... 1I 10 not .offlelenl {o.s...,ribc lhe viol."", In lhe
Balkons or lhe s<nocido: In RWlnd.a .. ...:al.ted TCactlom or •• agw=h-.o ' '''1'.
tIont; morlvated by h.omd.
r. ie """,ibIo CO do:t.nnlno: oImlw or ",-.on idtnlk:al co,,,,... for Indlvldu. 1
I""kknc •• cl vlol."".? \\Ihn cnnKCjuenc •• o;Ino,. Ih. obvi ..... Kpo:litlon and
"'f><atabilUy cl ..... ,i<>Icnc<. ""'" aft.,. Nalional Soclali"m. h .... fot ttl<uu","
cl .. rly rttagnl.l<>n .nd I"""'"""tion cl gra... hum.n righ .. viola,,,,,,,,?
Tb< ... ",h (01" <xpt.rulion.o .. to why thc: global _l<I;y 10 aI"" mnkod by
"".. cl vlol.",,< I. cum:nt ly concen'''' 'od on ,"<mpllio oo.rmlno: part!<ul ..
 •
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 Gt-*:~Inu..SIudic:>.d"'~
wilb • d1."lph .... Ihat um:l l now ha. bc<:n ex, ... mdy cautl"". In tt •• n.ly. l. nf
I$$U<s AlCh • • p<:r>ottulion, tem>rt. m. wu.nd genaci<le. It ...... bo emph.sizcd
tIM: dilemma of porsorW In""h" ..... nt. whleh ",,~Iy hlnders tIM: CTntlnn of
obJtttive enogorles. Sin<:<: the """lologkal'Wrnlch 10. l ubjc<'t n:qui .... the
atobllihmrnt cf • ..,fflclcntly dotachc:d p<:""pcctive• • posith;", "",,1.1 ode""e
deniu me",be,.. of a .ictl m 8""'P .ny pocentbl lor .oclcnliflc #ctlvily - .
taclt yot opparmtly ."Iid ß&IImption. T1w: $OCioIogial ponptttivt I<nds to dl. ·
WItt itaoU from tIM: ronccpt of Up"rlcra: it pmm otandardizcd modod. rnIM:r
th.n In'orpn:tmon . • ntI It I~ primuily !ntelHlnl. in IhfM $01'1:11 (:1(15 tlur UlUl'
tm. tIM: """liI I)1I<>I"t!' of the lndividu al.nd _kty. Ao ..... ult. tIM: vi<l;m os
ouc.h <.n[l(){ bo taken In,o ace""nl. In .""""1 10 ita uton, I." pn:occupatk>n
";Ih 11M: pap<:t,..Ior.1.0do10S}' u.uoUy ",'Old. tIM: on.ly$lo of proce""'" whlch
ClUto \"letims ond with tIM: vletims thc:mschu. sira tim might f>O!'<ibly in"oh"
emotion • • nd uhlel. In contr..t tO ",,,,.reh on OOClally .<t iog p<:rpctUto ...
rrllcct\M.on "",Iilly -.ufftrlng' ,ictlm. t:annot be rypific<l tIM: vletlm .. hOl only
• morg;nolizcd ph.""m.non but . I..., .n a""",.ly.mI dna. MI utmplify the
idcil. or tIM: r.orms of • oockry.
Sound .,.;loIogIcil gel\OCidc J"alC. reh nccds 10 bn:ak ,,1th ,IM:.. tnditiofU.I
roncrpU: IMrcad of ronsidcring gcnocidc ro bo a ""'''' n:aclion 10 cconornlc IM
,cehnological <k>-.:1opmento. oociologl.ol ...... reh muSl acknowkdge tIM: SI.tu.
of gcnocldc u an Indopendent _i.1 pIM:nomennn. In thio <onIUI. hoWt\'Cf.
0p'p"""hc:s In. ""od oI08), of viokra" (T roI:hud. 1'l97: Gay 1991: Lkh,mbnge.
.nd l odl k. nl.o. 199~: Rl'ltlgen . od Sancr .d•. 1978) muS! abo bo .rltk.lI)'
uomlnnl., An anolrtlcil ""p",",eh 10 'iol.ne. thot "'!lords 1I 0" gene ....1 phe-
nom.non p<:rv.lding Ih•• nlire hlSlor)' of monlo:.iod donia tIM: cxiste""" of src '
dflt ch2lYtcristicl of violera as " .. U as 11M: .Ingulanry cf .ach occum:ncc. FOT
lhis ... non. ,hc onal)"lical d lstlntrlon o belw..,n grnn<:kk "nd other lorm. 01
mass e",il\Clion - lor CXI"'l'le, notuni d l.",,,,..,. .rbltr"'1' killing•. war ond
other oymboH< or cullural act&..r .-Iok"". (Horowilz 1998) - modc prima. il)"
br gcnocide researeb... who u.. a _ loIogk:>lp"f$pttlive muSI bc sub;'<t . 0
mlld.m. rnrcnli.dplin. ry l.... me"''Ooo 10. genockle "'$l<>reh make uso cf ana·
Iytl< model' I'TOpnscd t.y hlstoric.l ......."h on 'po<:h ·m.klng I..u • • (IlcU ·
Flilkoff 1996) .nd 0Y'I.ms of pow., ( Horowllz 1\197. K"f>C' 1981. Chilk .nd
I. Th< ..udy 01 p<Iprt""""' biogr>phia ond gcr><nI,1ono1 ' ........ I.. iono 01 ,h< pnprtn.
nn' "",mnrIeo 10 cu ... mly broonI"I! (cl, IlDb<ru 11>98. W.hot. Montan ond PI.t
..'"
~
Cliopra 2 1.1'" Soxi<tlt.~ ... c..rkmv< Vio/cIoa
Jon...oon 1990)I,.od Ihc:y also IOCOf1l'lrat~ Influenas Irnm n:.ocareh on .odo..
logit:iI and hiSloricil minorit"" (M.1son 1991). aocW connkt (Dobknwskl 000
Wollim. nn cds. 1998) and pn:judk<: (lt ...... r 1992).
C"",p~r~ll .. G<~",rd. R...~r<h
In mon: ICCCnl ci ....... It ;q>peon thal with 11M: definition .. conflkt. In PO"
tlcu1nly rhc: e.cabU.h..... nt of an "ct bnlc coofIkt: .n .xpbnotion IOT ,IM: <'IIUJ'llC1
01 modern .. d.y "Iolene. hOl boen found. To sp". k nf enn Rlct 1110 "nume
opposing partners, ",rioIIa'" mItI"",. foiled cnmmunication ... I<tIinnshlpa. pölnu
of ...,.I.tlon or tumlng points of aell""o. However. In the lnalysis of modcm
politlcs of viol.""e •• tIM: ...... 11 of eompcring grQllP ",btlonshipo or <:Kol.dng
e""Riets. il I. difftcult 10 take inlO ocoounl .ode",,,," 10 achle"" n31ion.al ..lf ..
dc!<rmlnotlon. n.alioruliSlIc rnovomcnts or natl"",,1 homogmizlttinn poll,la;. To
w hot utonl. ir any. In Intcr ·olhnic o r Inrc , <ullural .0nIHct .• ", Iho", two
oppooing!lfOUP" lhat can bo ddlnnl. In Ibo ....... woyf Can I1 ....11)" bo IlI$Ilmcd
. hat cthnic ronlllcts n:sull lrom .n nciI..1on of failed rommunkotlonl T w hot °
tlItonlls Ir ovcrIooI<~ 11m although tIM: polltics .. viole""" ein "I'P""" 0 !lfOUI'-
tIM: motl,""""" ßO'I orirnt~ I""'ards their ....1characrcristics but .... IM:, ogainst
11M: lItigmatlzlng eharac:tcristicl 0 ..1gn<d In lIM:ml
Ethnlciry ond n:g!oniI <ultu ... "PP'"
'0 bo g.ncrally """sIdcml os
"crit:lcal dimemK>!ui" lor tIM: worldwldc network of states. In ,IM: ronception"
11M: world os • rohe",nl. networl<cd Mructu .... ethnk conflkts a ... ebsslf~ .. 0
<langer lor 11M: whnL<. In partkulor .• d1. rupdon 1o ...1>ltoM on an ccnnomlc or
po\itlcol kvd Is diagnosod.
T1w: rop;c. llry of gcnocidc ......reh Is partlculorly "PI'"... nt in vicw of ,IM:
limllnl. ocopc: of ,IM: """Riet po,...mctcr si""" It . fKU<$ againSl .n ovtthasty "an·
d.>nlizolion of 11M: caullell of rnll.nlve and $tatc vIoIencc In .erms of inevitable
c .....1 ",blionshlp" of cthnklry ond """niet. exclu.ton and .ioIena:. IMtcad, lt
.ncou....~ • coll5ld e..,;on of 101<"1""" . od "r~I~, and eonscqucn tJy 1tt<'J8.
ni:.n lhe nccd !<, i0oi< .1 11M: I""ndallons of knowkdgc" modo:m sod<:tlcs. Not
kost - ond thl. i.1 clulkngc lhat i. pal'tlculorly dlffkull In Kttpt - gc"",,1do:
..... oreh poln ... ""Ilhat many..r thc: fourdotion. of knowl~ In tIM: kgilim",l·
zo,;ono of genocltk a... otUl valid .odor . IndenI.. it muocslhal _ m.ln and
,ontlnu. wir h Ihls nHdlty lodor thmugh, .mong ocher things. glob.Jizat!on
t s.. abc I)moo: 1\IW. 0.- ..... c .... <mtral qu<OIiono 01 g<1IOddo IU02l<h in ,ht\r
~ 01 ;nt...,.tionol ill!tMln his prohIcmo, w.,lonoal" ,h< UN <OII\"C1ItIon,
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 Gnootw.: ~ c... Sndia,G"" lWfooooa
1""ludIng"vn>I8" tiriUIII cl bolh .UG.nd ,.,.riouo bac:kgrourda. from odmot.
bud ..... and d.. ana.
11m rnd<:ßk::aI "llP"C*h taheI d.. poMibility d • link bH-.n 11........
Imc. cf ...... and that d ..noddc. Tt..1w . . . . d ..nodo:I" - ,110 onClllplll'O
dimilllk E~ -,"".nd ArlIICnllnt - oceurm:l durlng bolh Worid WI,..
"""~. -=rdinglo ana.lytlral F"""ido I't8tIrch. ....ufm: pn:Mda IIIC~·
tnlOf ....it!l Il<lnd af-":reen" " 'hleh pmmoteI an at1nOi!phc: .. lhat lItIpportI maSI
ulinaion.1 In Ih" cuo:. g~kIc 'ppcan 10 bc rnlu<cd ro I....... 01 tonquelM
, rod .nOlltt<: aproprll.tIon (Aly lUId Ildm 1991. AIr 1995). Arr: ....u iIIId gcnockle
bolh characrtrUcd by thf Pltlt sp«lfle 1}'(lt 01 vioIcnce. i. ~.. I form 01 v\okncc
)Inkcd 10 a opeclfk: aUll>orlty ..... hleh origInally ..::currnl. In ,IM: ConlU I 01 ......
and Ihro bttarnt I modorl for ~IU g."'lddesI A.. bolh wv ond ....... ido
.. R.euontoll,," _lcindd mclctyl Did Ihc icIcoI.ogit$oIlhr",'U pc.p~lrul . .
_IeUrs rht Nnloftal SociaIlI! • "",U _ Ihr Young Turko -
boclo on mIlilari5lic l'JIU"'C:1ImlO Ju-tiflI wil pnct:kt$0I atmnlßMionI W .. Ia
_"""yfAll
-..aIIy rqt •• nI wlm "!!IIICIiII..: otoIcll«. "'hcrcu s<nc:ddt 111 daltelO ",u-
I!ltn.c thal dmoa from Inqub . , polldoglc.olllninloh. W.lllqpomi....!.1
highIy ..gu!.td kirod d killl~ ......1I« mit cilbtr Imid....... dtfcnde. Gala·
cldal ,ioIcn« I1 Ibo dlm;lcd "4I"lnll Itpttlfle ,ictlon. bul l intt i ... ,"dkal
in"",i!In 1$ 10 c;r;tC""lnaIC fIOI only 11M: (coIl«lI .... ) ...,Um but aIto hll mll ..
hbrorical ond _Ial pru.ollCc,l!ClI<ICldal ,"\okn«" both dtstructl..: I nd innu-
cneQ Ihc ",,,",tu. . of Ihc fKrpclrl _ _ kiy. 1110: typ>Iogk:. l lppro»<h Ippc'"
10 _.ken lhe diffc .. nllatlon ooW«n war and gcnocidc. NcV1:n: I>cIua. geno
cldaJ vioImcc ""'" bc: ~rdcd .. In indcpcndclll type uI violen«. i. c~ I ..ric1y
IM an takc many r.:..m..
ont 1110111 .. b,cd ro rndiliorW founo af violen« bul
I1 nw:..sarilyaa:ompanlcd by I Ipttlflc. durly okfincd madvldon - Innihl ·
b_
Thus. illI_ poooIbIo: IOcluoracrtr!u 1111: YioIcn<%d I g...... ido .. modtm
Of and·modrm. .. chilittd Of ,nodltIonal: ihr ,'ioImcc 01.11( NadoNl Soc\IoI~
pcrpctra<on ..... jl.c ............. muhanhc<l and olicn.otcd .. It _ ...... flllcd
",I,h hatrcd. Indilionaland "b .. bark.· Inililli", individualac:tort .tlnd
aIongoidt moployftll d 11M: "unllmllMd" pmfl •.mng burcaucr.:,.. In apltt 01
I. Q . OodrI.on I99J. In Ihcl<>ll k Uf'I "" pp. II!Ol.. "Such cr\oos "'" ..""h Ihri, p.. k In
!l1IItt ..... utcnuI wv . .. pec:lolly p,bol W". whlch...m IadII""olIM: .. pId l...ul",
_ '" 10" ..,1", 1<1<.. '" ... MI", ,iok"", In.o plans '" >ctloll beklnd IhcllC'i'ttll '"
w.., W •• thuo cn>ef8CO" Ihc C<>IIIWall'lllink .... WftfI.hc .mbo,<OiIc . nd 1",,*
mmtiftg-..tn 1"'~kIn'" . ~ . """"'1"1 of vI<d ... ond 1)'lU"'.111lnt-
~
Qopra 2 Modmt~G,.jC«lt<rlYt V"*"<r
thlt. thrtt an: fIUIIWfOUI aampItI 01 anaIytical wllirarinN.. whleh br _ uI
gmmolizaI ~ chuacrnillia ",.IM: HoIoa:wt, UV1: bc:m .bo!nocnd and
Imposcd o n modell of ",bf' f.... m. 0'
coIlcctlve Ylolcn~f. H_'cve •• luch
~ widi Ihd. lo:a!u .. -oricnIcd unh'tnaI ddini ........ do _ tnakc an,
real connibutl"" '0 Kt'"""kIc rucln:h: lalk or '_1." "uldnwt," Of -t.urn .. •
crxk- geliOddt oonr:ruud wlth , ...... "t0bl" Of rht Jc. 1lu.._k:" IICIf
01 YioIr:no:x - tnalnly ltI'Yft toCONaUCl: I type 01 hicran:hy cf IfCI'IOCIdta. I
n.c kcy Ioc... of gcnocldc rtlltlrch ohould It....fon:: Ix on 1I,,",IUra. .." .
apIm. tiont iIIId InIIllutlom. flgur.lltklns of pttjuditt, Im ·5cm1t15m .rod racllll1l
0. llSpc<:ta of ....... lJty • ...:ll\<llTlllllzolion. Examined I""ivid .... lly. tbu. iIhould
100... dcuHaloap«tI of lhe planni .. Ind rc:ili:t.otion 01 genoo::ldo:. CooIpon.liV1:
Inlftdisdplinary dlIcuMionl of I "".. IOpccII iIhould. In addtt ...... 1x ..1.lcd 10
i.,
pararncton Ih;n ... uK<i ........ ior , ... lnalysis oI_laI polle,. TIM: KtWil
hnpk.......... lion or ",,*na 11 """ 111( ..... ' vioIm, ~ ... taCl.r1llic of F"""k\t.
Fun:hcr Chuaclaiodel m .... f""nd In tho: lnugrmoa oI ......kIc In r...... 01
atluIklrI. drplrtatlon Of onunicr in I ~ tbc: ~ ond I...pm.mlllion
br ........ aE oockuoI_ .,.,.... .... lOdI;uI c.......... wtudo ge.ouddt pi"
both $tri ..... I.... and 1"":,, lhel. Itpc,. Thul. IM", 11 onc: thing gonocldc-
monn:h iI ddtnIldy ...., ... MIdittvo: .. rIcI r1 diffcn:1II coolkctlYt 'I\oImr trlmn
and ..ttmpu to bring _ ordtr In Ihio fDIII l hrouglt ..1ld C<IfI.I{n.lCtkPNoi
hlcruc:by.
1110: ""'"'"" r1 companli..: gCftOddo: rnrm:h can u.u:dly Ix llligncd tO
rwo basie ,..wtloM. On I........ h.!ld.IIM: .. Ort analy3cs baocd on I,," 11,. uocful
dtllni lion 01 gcllOCkIc, I'lopokd by RaphKl Lcmkin In 1!~H .... tIM: dcllnllion
Pl"I"'*d by 11M: UnltKi Nallon, Gcnockio< Con\'Cfili<lll, Iuucd In 1948 (whIeh
...... Ih. ,nu ll of ""lhl.. 1 co",p.oml... ) ,11 On Iho o,hcr hlnd. Iho .. o.f
Ippmadn which .... I'" National Socbl~ flCnocidr:os thrir ltarttng point and
ilIImlpllO lCCOWlI Ior NotiMal Soclallt! pcnccu!ioom: (Kot:l 1\19'4). In hla 19-44
rcpon 0fI Genuan <JCCUfMIioIi poIicy In Pnbnd. ~ Lmokin dlr«:'Itd pubIic:
,,""",Ion ~ • _kind cl pmot'CUtion, ..-hieb "" mnsi<lr:ml1O Ix .......
form 01 B""""""""W popIIbrlon poIicJ calIcd ~ (ltmldn 19-44). ThlI fint:
otfmIpi toopcclfy thr ...... 1.... ' ...... 1.... anddrfinr: il rai ..... lHucI; IhM charac·
tcrize ge, .... ido rucan:h 11;11 t.o<by.lina II primariIy d..Ja wIth tomplu I.......
I. 110.: op<dfIc poIIl!<al or -wu"I'rial .. J\IOtWU" Iht oden", J'O'P"I..r..... _Inla
..., "" "" _ Includod ... IIUo r~ Th<"'tanpooriom of IP'iIOCI<b" ibo..,.
Ihnd<ft Jo.d 10 • ..,... .... ' ..................... -"nx."",· """'f"'Non. buo: .. I ..... 10.
""IkaI t.un .00 ""Ua on jurldical con«pU ro f.dlJtot~ I~ ~.rIy di>:gnooj. UId
~ ri human detlruct\o:ln.ltmkln po!ntod oul I~ dlffkuldr. ri ddlnlng
• vkIlm JP"'UP or tIw tbih f..... prnocllllon 10.y......rk lMihilation. Sbu M
.110 loole 11'110 II«OtInl I""irrel gcnodd.1 ........ urn. hl. work h ... rtmalnod
" ' -.
Coorfcrnrrlw: ~ """ja; tu."" mOldy focuood on IndI,'kIua1 .kmtnU ri
gmod<Ir I't;M'UCh IUC:h .. IM p:<pttnlor. vlclim. morl .... pI."nlng. implmlon ·
Illi011..nd n:o:ub T'ht« lItlOdios aI'f hanil)' (YI:.(OIIlJW<d mor aamlned In I~
Il&hl cf blSlorkai Ind ooclo\ogkal c_ Sludia. Hdon Fdn . ...110 toUgI\l In
caublWl smocklo: ......1'1 cf .. <;,,10 t9<1II diocouIW. llmIu IM I~ ro poIitlal
erlme: "Gc:nockl~ I. , u,uln«! purpotdul ocllon by I """,,,Inlor 10 ph)'llaolly
dmroy. rnIlKtlvhy dlrfCdy ot IndirtttlY. lhrough Inl.rdkllon ri IM biolngleol
llId n:IaI ~ cf S"""I' mnnbm. lU5tolned rtyrd\eM cf u.. 5lI1'1'md.r
nr lode cf Ihrnt ofJnftI by I"" vlcdm' (Ftin 1990. p. 24). I. k .,...,bk 10 _mt
d Ult I lack of df«lhor rab .aocr I. a gmockbl crilnioft wtrhoul runni", I~
rlok of dlatonlonl h k poos'bk ro Inc:ludo: I'" ."" IW. Ind constitudon of IM
vlttlm In I s-<nonl. l lantLtrdlzod acht"", ot p.ndigm n( g~nocldc:l ln hor laler
.......... Fdn rontinutd h. . .1...,pU 00 "'llblWla tNorttle" fnmowurk. nylng
10 lfIIIyzt tIw ..brionshlp ~ dw vkdm grnup and I~ 1*' I*">lot .. ",.. 11
111'" diIflcuIDrs in tIw formation of cmttpU cl tIM: rn/ktth't vIctim: ~kIo:
k _ IlIInlcgy lhal rull", dll" _10 .."""" ..,.] ooIkbrity .nd kgitlmaq «11\-
nkt, ot ch. nenp 10 ,~I . Inl<""ou "8"lnsl vlcllm$ dtcrttd ouuklr Ihtl. uni ·
VUK of obligolion In slTmII",.. In whleh • cri'" ot opponunlry k ",nutd by or
bIamm on Iht ,ictim _ . (Ftln 1991. p. SIl).
T wo C.nadbn mnn:: ...... Frank Chalk llId Kun Jon-ohn. dt;orloprd
I~ Iollowing ddlnlliQn cf g<:,.... kIo: .. I op«ifIc poIiric:d ...,.... m utn ..........
"Gnoi;I(1cIc ... fornt cl QM-'Idcd m... ki1Ung In which a IUlf or "' .... l utMnly
Inttndot 10 dtstroy I group, " lho: IP"UP .nd..m<mlx..tup In It ."" ddincd by ~ ...
IXIIXU ."'" (ChaU. UId)ona$lohn 1990. p. 21). In thd. audyclcoll<'cd , .. ,"\<).
I(nc( In thc t~nd(lh ..,nlu'1. Mlt hHl Dobkow.kl Ind Il ido< \ValHm. n
u.oml ... IM rok cf InduKriallu"lon. P"!"'lalion gtm''th. I nd "'"""'In dill rl-
hutlon (OobkowAld.oo Wallirrutnn 1998). Chrill,na t.a .... r . OOConnor Crul..
O'II. I. n - whow work ",main. " aluahl • • lth""gh I~N wlddy known Ih . n
othtts - llI.lly« gtnocid&1 procCNC1 -s.lnlllh< background 01 proccuco 01
.... ion -hulldi'" I nd IICCOm lW'ylng """", cf nationalloundo""" (litnn 1981.
CYB"'n Im). Ot...... pp"""' .... ahn dllllngui. h bctw«n pooslbk ""ri.nI O:
""IIUdde .• thnocld • • Ind democld. (HIlIland Gu •• IP87. R.. mmtll99 2).
IIomlwd Taureck IntmducM • ""w
Inletptrtl'i«t by dillingulshing bctWttn
IIIUOIIonaI ... "I'f'OKd to IntriMic v.rI.nu of' s-<nocIdo:. Tbt. Indudnt I...... cf
kkntlty <nO'kwlllId . liminallon for .~ ..... ollfCUrtng ~fCQ. ond talta
InfO-=UOlljXdfk I"'nd. "'"" tttttqla 01 modcm dt\'flopmml front 0010-
Dlalism ro gIoballut .... - ... aruIytIal ,............... Ihn Ioc..... on ftIH Cknt.-
tIono nu... tlw! vIellmI cra .. m:k Im).
FinalIy, I "'-ould IIkc 10 "",ntIon an approach ",'hleh Is MI tI<rM:d front
ComPUIU"" S(noc!ck ""lItuch bul lrom Gun... " hblO<)' - I,", '''cmjlC by
Immmud Gri!i5 fOimnpm -nI hkr:or,. aliJutqll{-.. (GdK 1991). He
di4tlnguidla: bctwun tanpotally.OO Iocally ra n lelod muac ..... MI 1,,"*
""hIeh .rt i ....."""lln I apc<:iflc ",,_ern. bctWttn IpOIIla_ or It.Iddoon.oo
1",.ltutlonallud m• ....,..... Ind m....c "". thlt 0ttU. In .... rou .... cf """,,1 .. _
liono N <>pp<>otd 10 muoa<tn tut Ulk< ~ durll'@clvIl ....... He 11110 Intro-
ducu an Inlumnllllc l ugf bn ..... n m..... c"' .nd g~"""idc . -gcnocldal
masucn:a,' wftkb ho: oppIics 10 t~ Armmim caK. According to Gd" I~ t ......
"gmod<k' o.houId ""I)' Ix....., 10 rdcr to . ho: Ik:IIocaUll.
n.., dtbolf 01\ lnolytical .od compr.nthor Inmcwurkl doa not almply
..,... h In • diocouflt 01\ kgitimallon hul ntllo:r prowok.. ont. I. Is 1WCUII'1 '0
renrr
... tdtltKX>i. I..........larity ci fX h OCCIlf1'm<t or of ooIl«ti"" vioItftCle. l nd
thlo DCaIIiata prtdIr dilkrmrildon. H~. riolo .Mil)' t\II1IS IRlo. clMü-
bIO<)' . ...... Ull;.., pt'~Ii ... aplntt lho: boo:kg...... oo cf. opn:ifoc .nal)'llcal
Iram.wurit. Any cmlporilOll tUI n1c. 10dif(crtnlioIC wtthout any monJ ",,"~6_
allon rtdts btromlng Ioot In highly pr"ObIo:rnatic ."al)1lell qwliflclllorll .. lho:
aJmpluiry cf coIkctl ... vioIcnc:e ."" F'lOCidt I. rodU«d '0 I oingk .naI)'11a1
.~
In orde. 10 ~klp. typclIrogIcal .nd stnICI .. rIIl .... lysio. pttvIous 11<.....
cldn h."" to provldo In lnat)1i<.ol In"IKWilr k: lot ""llIfIpl •. tho: compora.l""
IIf'IlroI><:h usuall)' contntIU .... doponallorll 01 ,,,,= Armo::nl." Gc:noddt wllh ~ ...
N •• lonal Sod.ollfl concc:n.ratlon '00 dc:ar h c.m .... (Goldltlgon 199fi. p. 414 :
SohkJ 1\197) 10 lIIu. tnlr (110: 'cchnof.ol dc""to pmcnl cf ul ..... lnatlon
IllClhodo. Tbm:"",,1to additionolupmcnn uocd 10 rank thr: ....... ,...1ItXIda.
Thls Ipp<OICh Cln .... 1'1 leid to tht: dc:nlal cf t ho: Armtnll n gmocklr by offic:lal
Turld.h hlstortogn phy - I ckpreuJng .... mple <l dlff~""nli.1 ."alysls. So rlt.
compatad"" analyon h.t,......... Iy foruocd on 1"'= oocIct.... of' .... pcrpc1nlora,
ftp>ori'-.rl ~ vIc:tImI .nd rcdudnß; d od,,,, 10 ........ anaI)'IICII ClIII<:gor)'_
,

the ..... DO buk anoI111<;:. 1 utcgoou ,.,hlch ptrmil do:lailcd caK ,,""lei
witbout ~ I<kbatC .... ~brIty and rnmpu2blity. ~ .,.ith Iht.,..·
aecudon cl u.:
Sind and ltomIo ...~D _ ";111 "'" >ic:tims cl mdallR lotaliwt-
.nI.... ud Stalinlot lC'fT'DI' hat btumc In CXl1't1D01y ~ IU~ A poalbk
.nalytical cucgory rnuld ~ QUbltl Md by lalling hKk on tht couCtpl: cl co/.
ltttl>~ Y\ok"",. whleb I"'plle. dlrFt .. nllonnll of .... Uulion: nuoHOCrt, war.
~"""""
n.... It IlfI(l{lIcr IlSpctt wenh montlonl"3 to rnmplrtc Ihl. Ihtorcllc:a1
Inmtwork, Wllh ",g.nll" Ihe dtblle on Iingu ilrity.nd c:omjUflblllty, 1115
Importonl 10 bcar In mlnd I ht Itnurgk: IlSptcU of uc:b di""""....,. AnYOM wh<!
oddressa 'M iMuc of iJngullrilYand rompanbilily I. not inttrutcd In fundi.-
IIItTlI1I .. pttll of IM IMory cl 1111101')'. bul n lhcr attkl lo JIOIlIkm hl"'K1I
within I fr.o .... ,.,.".k cl llworttlcal coo.:cptt thn IK cloody Iinkcd witb do:nial
and rtbrm.m.
Iloct; ,ht dritt ben; .." 111 ~ and an .......,. . . . ...,...1mpIy
• clritc bm>.'ftf\ """ .,lmtiflc IbmrieI.. lhat Is bmoo'ttn twO lnalytlcal prott .
dural v...adtring h.i<l:oric:Isnpbic ,.,.".b, Is I1 evtn poPibIt 10 sptd of """.
IdoUI dnilio n. Mlwecn upl.lnlng .nd undc ' llIndlngl AImo ll .n y
Intmd""l"'n 10 Nlliolul Socl.lb m . nd tIM: Holoclu!!I trlUI" .pproach IM
.ctual rvmU tl,h.. Ihln upWn thcm: no a!templ: 10 """"ne. aU UplaIWOfY
.~t.c.. bo_~t. h.. CVCT ~n mode. Don Diner h... p", .. nled I det. lIed
actounl on lhe mot lv.. l"n' lh .. uOOerll. "'pl.ining vll·' · vli undtl'1\:.ndlng
.pprolchu to gcnoeld.1 pmc:"1IH (DIr.er 1991). Su .p.blngly .nough. mon
rolltet""," on 11M: rhtory,,(hlstory thai du1 ,,1m Ibo: pandigm oiupWnlng ond
undrnunding, which In f.a conIlltIIla • a nlnl u..."..,11caI bordcrIJnt In 11M:
CIK ofg<'oockk ...... reh . do not c".,n r.rtf ' 0 tbo: c:onll""YeT'SJ on gtnocklt
(Gone: cd. 1998). Tht dtbatt on upblnIng anti undtnundiJlfl bulcally affccu
dilkttnt Iormo cl Iht proccMcl hlstorical...:ngnition. 1..al)'licaI fra..-'orb. as
weil .. Ibo: orruc:turIrc .nd hltrvcblcal atn.1'8"""'. 01 ........ p.mm. InltfJ:n·
la""" anti po ,*t tloro. In tloo: c:ontUI cl Ihi... bott. Iht orudy of hilllory platt,
II>cIl wlthln Its own oo.:lopmmtalpOCaE 11 ocnM:InI,... lbo: . harxttr of Intt.·
pm..oon and "'""'11"""'" of Itsllla,cmmu .. weil .. pttrondiP;iord 1rIfIumc1....
lulnttrpt<Ulim.
Analyzlng occum:1'K:CI1lf ,'\oien« Illu .. nla 11M: bct thai thlt dtbot~ ""
p<"~IIv<:, tOll, I" not lImJltd 10 I lmpIe quul ions al Tnttbod.nd proctdure, bul
th'l I1 prlmarily dtnuond. cont ideni"'" of Ihe "olldilY 01 the ... uhlng tta,. ·
menll- Thi. .... «JMtqUtou ly Iod 10 lhe dtbolt on dil'f=n' wo)1i of mluclng thc
u
c,... . l. Modaoo Sodrflrs """ c../itrtl>o< V ......
HoIoeauSl 10 • ""'.. hblork e""nt. by ""'.... of hiSlorial lnal\'K' "'Ith no
poIirical roonI and ptd~ obIigod".... In addirion. ....... ouclI.lht "a-
cralintion 01 analytical carqp:lfk . .. _ll .. IM asswtlp<ion of aonllnuity .'"
aamined. In bct. np«:IaIIy • br IIlht .,...,.. cl gmocidal J'f"'tt'KIII con-
..,.....d, .ho: lOJdy ol thri. hbtory nccdo 10 rriJo.c:l on ir. .nc!i.ional ptrIodic.1
<o.....:pa. in F-rticubt Ibo: po.adigmI of continull}' Ind di""""'inuity.llngul ••
or unlvawJ llOUCIU"" 01 (:>Tbl. ParadoxicaUy. I M . nalysl. 01 g.nocldal pro.
CCHeI .pp:an ,0 be hlndtml.oo rutnlntd by IIoc8o: buic ~ although tht
H"l"uust Inlll1lld tht dtb~lt on I hf Ihffir1:l lcll p1 ••dlgml or hlsto rle,1
relt.reh_ In .omlng Y<:'' ' th. c1cb.tI. wlU no longu bo:llmlttd to . .... mlng
lbout mlucl"8 ,IM: HoI<nllil and ",her g<'nocklal prot ...... 10 ..... '" hlMoOc. 1
~ or wbnher 1I1, .".,n pouiblc 100010. Ducto rM fott that ..... fonmof
coIJo.ctivt .,...cutb> and rioKlIOt de ....1Od adtnti6c uudy, tM ..... ysIt cl co/.
Iecti~ annihilalion wlU Incl'taJlng1y ha~ 10 uJ.:t Imo _ n t 11M: dilfkul.1a
..:IlmpIlcaI..... al odmtifk c.tptzMloa. An .........,h tIw. poNu. concruc
bt1 "Ud an uno:knt.nding llOd . n czplanalOO'J Imtrprtlalion ;"I h... ;ntJlltl •
cabty 1Itd<td ro IIre: oIiIc:uMk!n CI> IhoI: lingularil}' or CUlllponbillty ol gmocidal
po""'..... I, ohould bo: noted lhat bclllo deb.a on p...ptclM an: primarily con-
Cffncd wllh w •• nlngs. t M deflnillon of Iltti. own pol", of " lew .. wcll '"
u.igning of .. lltt point. ol "Ie ... 10 OIht . ............ tt.... .. Tht debal. attms 10
ftKmbIc I baU In • p og tTlaChlne, noIt pc:rmitrtd 10 rouch Ibo: cdgeo In order I"
InnaIn In Iht 8'Unt-
11 I. not l"'""iblt 10 UK Ihtontlcal rorIIIdc:ntlons ", .... ~ 1M problem of
....., 10 """'lnl f... Ibo: .Ingularity cl uch oe<UIK""" . 1Od 11m formulllf tarn-
ponr;..., ........nl. thaI I re .. kulli 10 cur..." rQcafCh. nor an IIIt complu
..:I nwJo:j..,._ 11M"'" ol F""",i<bI i~"t bo: .dequat~1y upLoJntd In l IIot-
GfttkaI conlClll. After ..u.lhaoe -...co da .... .oppcar in tIot cont..o of IhmrftkaI
ldI""tionl. hut In . ""n""lIon ... Ith CIIt 11""1e1. ConKqutndy. gfl>Otldt
-..rch an mir bcgin tel nwet lhex ..... imnmts iI iu oomptnd~._
_allm "" ltnICIuraJ ~ cl Ibo: ptrpCInIing lOcltty <0abIis IM. pp.
1'2- llJ). Cmtnl C1lfttparl....1 •• .,...,11 .. tht compatbon of c...gall, figure.
........ ht Iht oubftct of "rIouo~nod... "'Klre'" Similo.ly. It muS! bo: . kar
thal ntOl>Otlu. lI pl".m •• ", not , ulHcicnt 10 upl.ln g<'nnclde. CelK>CIW:
lQc:arch <:an make.n Impono.nl coolribution by dtmonstnll"8 lhal lht pIIn-
digms alIOlI11larlanl$m, fllKtsm, nr dicta..,..""I" c:an ... ...cd ro dttc:rlbo: ('1<'..,..
tta.tng soc:lc!ia. TM . ,\;l1y"" of prottMQ al pcnoeculion. .Iokneo:. 100 murdcr,
 -•,
• •
•
j"3
..: ~
'!-.,
t~
-.
,;
• !
• 0
,!; -:::
.,
• •
I
1
f ,
5
1
!
 ~~IIr.. CoIorSr...nc.. ..J~ CIoopr", 1 Mod<no SM<Ilto • .,j Coi'I<rfM VioIn!«

Tht ru.-...ntt af .hr pnamcfa. 0I 11Ie: on.al)"la of st'nockk fot .hr di. ·
cuuloo 01 p...... nNLoy cnnfllct lilulliont .00 .1Ie: p<lltnllal v\okntt . hOl ",ill
.,....i1..y comc ."' ............m. Ihr 21" cen.ul')'. ",10....",.hr modcrn..by munda·
00n' '" knt>wI.-dge: paunflS 01 idm.ity. normI anti v:al .... '" .... mbtl1hlp. PO"
.CmI 01 unity .nd .ubility. Tht crl.kal C<MI'..,rgtncc .0 .....,d• •1Ie: 00 .. 1"8 01
pa,aIigu .. oI tbr preoimt. dft>tu '" dn... top ncv.' fmns oIluminglOO communl·
eation .. ",..,U " ..... ..,....0 Ioocn anti pn:>ducc tmlilhiry._.teIe In.ncul·
• unl . olcranct In .o Ix uoden."""" obIlS •• lons.h .. pb, • •• nlt.1
an .• Icast in IM .....n;.. in qtatlon, 1uJ• •Ix pouihllity af tmtfnul~ pt:fpI"
.........
Thus. ,,,,, 8"nocidc in Rwanda ~ """"'" .M. It is ''''1' difflcul •• 0 sptalt
oll'f'C"C"tloo 01' ""~ hlua2n righu vtob.1onI wfom _ onIy ron<en.to.c "'" IIx
flnalltaga 01' ."" munkn. anti do ..... <lDOUklcr Ibc ..agu lndl .. up .0 . htm.
n.. '*
..
drc:ision '" munkt • ml..::or1ty .ha' '" docb rcd u Im ....... 10 I,.tgratc iI
....sc mir It tbr md 01' diflcrmr . . . 01 ~ndon.ol dcI'lMlon 100 Itg"'•
~

_panring rok 1ft "'" uWys/I ol l_OCt66eld gmocldc. n.. COIuJ~tlllimioro d iMddJ d pmnKlon;md pmualon,. nrly~.
11 tnlgh. initially ....... surprisi.. dw (polmtbl) ptrprtnton do ..... nitioo and conlnII. af ryucmatk poIilkl af .ioImtt must I"""' ..... . un .... hcrc
.u.- .lIe:lIIKhu.o bc dHnTft! t.,. ' M ltgal tofUOOqUlOno:a ol.MI• ..,.Ion•. I"" (ocuo ia "" do:wklping ~.oo c:mununlty righta. Whcn:.ht mnum '"
~tt. in tbrlcgjtiml::lng"""illcmm. of lCa't ,ioIcncc k IxCt>mOl dtar .tw ..ith Iinallydc •• kopU'8 and impkmr:nti,. a1t( .... iva tOI"" llillional modcl .h.oc
.1Ie: ronscqumca 01 (n _11 n.hr cnnvk.lon It>I') ................ Ion ••", <lOh' docbru Juod( .. . 1x gmttal mndcJ.OO ",ilkh . hrnugh I(ICClfk ....,....._.Ion
.d"",ly KUpttd br . he JK'JK'''''''' planni"," genoddt. /u S"""dd. I. ~ is DftIy concd""bIo .. I t""'""Y'''''''' ..ruaun: '00 dmnt""""
rcali=l not prim.ri!y Ior ........ _ ,. gcnon.1m bu. 1'2t..... ,.. .hr IoIIowIngSCfl' thlng d$c " • """·~n. zone aOO • da ..... Not Irw. prcvmI.lon (lJlnot
..a.ions. t.c.. 10. IM lu,ure 01',"" ptrpc" .'t>I' .ode.y . • hr (poltn,lal) pe..".' bc (OIoai>.dol wld,ou... ht rnrul", ....nt tl». Ibc lnl~1onal o:ommunity m....
...... 0....... bl •• o upbln t hd . own ..,10M outside 01 .hc ~llId IIOrm • • nd fiouIl)' ruxrgnl::~ I"" .nie. "',bc v1c1bn: ..."" wI....... 01'1"'11.0.11"" u ....11..
, .. h.... n r!ght,t>I'tvtn u "","I. •ht voi« 01' a right .0"",,', own ..... prtd p<lIiltioro. In ..... JlItd poIltkal platc In
Also "Ph," d.ia boo< kgmund. COMidt'o.k~ .. . o.\cw ..... only ",nockk . Ix worId..:kty.
itKlf bu • • Ite . ht dmial of gmodde .. punlsl!.bic off....... under In.em. rIolIiIl
bw .hould Ix •• ken ocrlouoJ.y. In order to Indudc: I M .OXCCUOf S""" .....1ons of Tnnsl •• td Imo Erogli5h by S... h M:ll1nlon MA (Can.ab)
Ibt pctpttr • •"" In .M pf'II«MCI hocb 01' """"I .uppn.lsal Ind ol lod.l oupoo'
oIbilily.
Tht f1eldo 01 aothil)' of .ht ~rma ..... t Inlcrn.t,1ona1 Crimlnal Court In .ht
H"@'C ( ICe). conSlitu,td on M.rc h 11. 2001, on .M bill. ol . M ROItIf: ••• tm.
odopttd on July 17. 1!l9I!. ",hleh mukl ..... n on IMd.u.1orul brtak.hrough lot • REFEUNCO
poottcti,.. &y8Icm ogoiMl gcno<idt and human rtghta \'IoIallont, IItl'tll'h la. Into
.ht .....,.ks.
H""'.....". iI is poMlblc .1». u<"" of i't'OQIlrcrlon .Ion.. In. eodrty .-..11,
AIr. G!iI:r
IM . F , .... v,,1"' .... ' · ' •
Mm So Aothcr.
~ ~_ ........,.. +-,..... F... khnJ

cally hm"W",1ttd lolJoy,ing I gcnocidt,COOJId .110 ~ II-c v1cdnw ,hnnsth<n .u,.G!iI:r - ' ~S- 1!I91 V......... l ·,,,oic..... A""*""'t. . . . «-tot. ""'"
bo.d< In I"""ia! dillCOUl'K. FDt Ihll ",uon h .hou ld 11 In .. Ix con.ldc.cd ,.,_ .......,..Iolot<W.o;. fnDkfurtIt,Iu Rodocr TI.
wf>ctbc •• 8"ncr:alI'tt<l8"i.1on of fIIl-c. 8"noddea (.... h I1 •..., S"lI<ICkIc 01 Ihr AM<lurIon. SctpIwo H. 1999. "Modo:n T..tdoIo kJc,ny and .... Anncmon Gcntddc.• In
'0
Armcnl- . ... hieh cnn.lnucuWft .odor Ixolflclally dcnkd by Tu.kty). ln _ _ -.. _ o..w. lk C- <l ... _~, .... t.,. Rio ...... G.
odIidDt, to ltading.o.ht punhhmtn. ollht 1""lk" ....... muId ..... Ibo 1»,.. on Ho>,..........
Du'" t.lt w..,.,.
SoIC< U - , . Pr-. pp. 2J-ot9.
Innucnlla! clf..,t on Ibc p ....·entlon 01 lu"her plan . 10. Itnoclck. TIM: J'>"n IIdHlalk,oll. Aatftw. __ _ 0--.. New YnoI< NY. 500. M.wtwaGri!loo.
lohmn>' ol.hr perpct.atora loB 1IOl, .. yn. IlIC'Cccdod In banlshlng S"nockk
from lo:p!'miDbk poIirical .... tgIr:I. IIuI ptrltope .Ix I............ rttOIltnion
 GnOOdc: A!ro .... ".~ c.... Snl<fia, .oJ R<Ip>n<n CItopt" 1 Modmt SorirtiumrdCo/ImM: VioInra

~hl. Mtdardu .. 1000. "\'ttnlchlU,,!! obi Arbeit on dtr Kuhur. KobU:oIdiolo:UB. "-ist, 1...."...,1 1991 'Musokn- in dtr W<l'~hkh, • . Ein V""""h nbcr di<
kullUnlko WI...,.lIIId da Vftlkcnnotel .n den H<"""-- lri,,"rij\' ftr~ Al<nochlkhkdt: In Dir Sdrot ... Ja 1'0& G,""I< 1....1" "" II~ ob
Vo!. 2, N<>- 1, PI'- 8- 28. ""'~U-~ <d by Uwc Ilocl<a. Ecldwd }<Me ond Rah.er Zk.hnann.
Bröddltl30 UlrIch 1'l97. DUtif& ~ -' G<didor, ..11,<IrIsdIcr ~"'" F.. ~lain: Ullottin, pp. llO-J15
Munlch: Wllhdm A n!< 1'l97. Go<rtt. H... J. cd. 1998. GrrildIt<. ~"GnoooIhn. Rdnbdt: R"""""".
CII.olk. Frank md Kurt joroaMt>hn. "Ti>< Conc:qltual F.."""wIc.- In Tlo< lIi .."'1 ..... GlIIulp. ZIy. 1911. "KWI Eirna. - GooorKo"-' No. t (ll M.y 1911) .
~ 01 GmoricIr.A..,Iys<>.Jc... Sloo/in. cd. by F.. nk Ch>lk .oJ KUIt.foDaMobn _ _ ' 1914. KI>:II Eboo. Istati>u11914IU .
N<w Ito,.... Cl, t.1< Unil'<rsity ~ PI'- J---3J.
~ 1914. Kid! Elooo, lotanbul: IU~ Matbo.u 1914.
Chollt. F.... k.nd Kult Jm.uonhn <da. 19I1O. Tlo< 1I1Jtory...J~ofGmoriclr. Aool:Y>n nd
_ _ . 1969. Siirh 11{ H..... MoMb1. KIllliY1l1 I. td. b,.- ~. AbdulW. Tan.d. Anbn:
c....s...Iits. N<w 11 ...... Cl: Yol< Unlottslty ~
TDrIo: Tulk Kwumu lIMlm<vl
Ditbog. MlhmI. 1996. 'ju"IIOrkioch< VI>!on<n und da Vnlkcnnotel '" den Armrnlrtn." In
~ _ Modmo<,StMr.... JtoIImWGtooolt "" Jl~. «I. by ~1I~ .. n Do.b..g
~ o..n;.l J<-h. 1996. IIUkr', \lillut: Ennt~ cwu-,. Gmooo.. .".j ,11<
11010<_. Ntw y.-"k NY: ~
und Krtsdn Pint. 0pUden; I~' ~ndrlch. S. UJ - :!oj.
_ _. 2000. "Gm<cid und ..-dtborgerllche AMich •. !mp<lttl-<ft1." In w~ ooo!
Gocz AIr ond s......."" H<irn. I99J. I'~,," 1'''''''*'''''
A..drwIr:;""" ........... l'IoIot
GUo~m ... «I. b,.- No"!Iben lIoh, Frl<drIch Klnkt • ..:1 IYlm.. ZnM. Munich:
ftrdw. _ """",irlr~ FTaIIld'unIM.iD: VERLAG J99l
WIlheIm FInit. 50 4)-10. HufI, Buhar:o ond T..d Roben Gurr. 19I!1. -Grnoddes md I'oUtIcIdes &iDC< 19-13:
EYIi:I<-n« ond A1ulclporion.- 111/""" ..... II'*"- oroIG<>oocioIr 11, pp. 1- 1.
• nd Kliolin P\.on. edo. 1996. Go!mjJ """!.bknot. Stnot\.... Idld.ttvu-Gtwoh ... 1I1
J.hmundtrt Opbdm: l..kc • lludtlch. HiIbcrg. Rau!. 19!5~ 110< Dounon"off""",,,,"p>- Chk., 11.: QuadrmgI< lIooko.
DodNn. V""'1m N. 1991. 'The Sc<m Y"""S' Tort.: Ittlludl .. ~ md 11..: ~r.im Horowitz. II"Ing loolo. J991. T~ u..:.. G<>oocioIr "'"' SI.., " -. "'"' 8nJ .... ...;ck. NJ
Transoet_rubl (hltt 1976~
ro. th. w...1d W"I Gfl>o<Ide oe.1>o Armtnw..." 11010<..... o.d~Sloo/in. \'01. 7.
No. 1, Pl'-17J-:!OI. 1996. ~1uIi. M<drrnitJl- lind .utoriDmn- T<m>r." In Gc..,.;J_ Mod<no.;
D1ntt. Dm 1991. "OIe W.hl da In>p:lnl,",- Jled.,tf .. 01 ...... b<sond<rrn HIstorik de, SI""""," JtoIImMr- G<.o.oIt I0Il111. ]dolL.", <d b,.- Mihrm 0aIr0g ond KriotiD PI....
N..lon.hozlali....l>lr In \'moio:I!I'"'t'f'OIult EIII< Ddoot,,"".b 1...,l." ....... Opbdm: l<oIt. .. Budrich, pp. 120-JJ1.
SotIolpolili~
- ' ~ ..... ~I"'i""'" [ln,tdoIoooI. td by l-\'oIlga,,!! lUtz. St ..... m T.
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-,-_.cd 2002. w,. QGcwd. MII:Ikh: WIlhdm Fink.

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Trotha. Tnocz "'" cd 1997. ...... k>qIc """ Gewalt (Spcdoll ..... oliM KitbtcT üftrlrl{r1-
Soo:I ':d< ...JSodo",."I P No. 11)_~' Wutdcu,..,ht, V.,.1og
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