26 October, 2017

Engr. Abdul Rehman

a.rehman@ntu.edu.pk

Department of Polymer Engineering

National Textile University, Faisalabad.
 Hardness

 Tensile Stress

 Compressive Stress

 Shear Stress / Strain

 Volumetric Stress / Strain

 Modulus

 Bulk Modulus

 Shear Modulus
 Hardness
► Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch).

► Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed

where a small indenter is forced into the surface of a
material.

► The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and

corresponds to a hardness number.

► The softer the material, the larger and deeper the

indentation (and lower hardness number).
 Hardness

 Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to

penetration by a sharp object.

 Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials measured

using loads >2 N.

 Microhardness - Hardness of materials typically measured using

loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop (KH).

 Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1–10 nm

length scale using extremely small (~100 µN) forces.
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
--better wear properties.

Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Hardness Testers
 Hardness Testers

 For Rubbers,
 Shore A, Durometer
 ASTM D-2240

 Hardness is measured by taking readings from three different points

over the sample after a 15 seconds interval
Hardness Testers
Hardness Scales

Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

Volume 03.01

Standard Hardness
Conversion Tables for
Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness,
Vickers Hardness,
Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness,
Knoop Hardness, and
Scleroscope Hardness
9
 Tensile / Compressive Stress
• The normal stress acting on
the cross-section is positive,
it is referred as tensile stress.

• When the forces have the

opposite directions, inwards
from the surfaces the normal
stress is negative. This stress
is referred as compressive
stress.

• Compressive force is taken to

be negative, which yields a
negative stress.

• The specimen contracts along

the direction of stress.
 Learning Exercise

• A bar has a circular cross-section with a diameter d= 50 mm and

an axial tensile load F= 10 kN. Find the stress.

𝐹 𝐹 4 (10 ∗ 103) 𝑁 6
𝑁
𝜎= = 2 = −3 2 = 5.0929 ∗ 10
𝐴0 (𝜋𝑑 ) 𝜋 50 ∗ 10 𝑚2 𝑚2
4

• Units are N/m2= Pa (Pascal)

• This unit is very small, we usually work in MPa (Pa x 106)

𝜎 = 5.093 𝑀𝑃𝑎
 Shear Stress
• When the force or load tends to cause deformation of a material
by slippage along plane or planes parallel to the imposed stress.

• Where F is the load or force imposed parallel to the upper and

lower faces each of which has an area of A0.
 Shear Strain
• Shear strain γ is the tangent of the strain angle θ.

• It is equal to the length of deformation at its maximum,

divided by the perpendicular length in the plane of force
application.

• Shear strain is a unit-less quantity.

 Learning Exercise
A metal wire is 2.5 mm diameter and 2 m long. A force of 12 N is
applied to it and it stretches 0.3 mm.

Determine the following;

- The stress in the wire 𝜎
- The strain in the wire ε

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑2 4 = 𝜋(2.5)2 4 = 4.909 𝑚𝑚2

𝜎 = 𝐹 𝐴 = 12 4.909 = 2.44 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 = 2.44 𝑀𝑃𝑎

∆𝑙
𝜀= = 0.3 2000 = 0.00015 𝑜𝑟 0.015%
𝑙0
 Volumetric Strain
• Change in the volume divided
by the original volume

∆𝑉
𝜀𝑣 =
𝑉0

• The initial volume V=lxlylz

• Change in Volume ΔV=

(lx+Δlx)(ly+Δly)(lz+Δlz)

• Element is loaded, so that εx, εy

and εz are strains in the x, y and
z directions
 Modulus
• Hooke’s Law defines the elastic modulus in which the stress is
proportional to strain
Stress ∝ Strain

• In Hooke’s Law when strains are small; strain is proportional to

stress.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐸)

• The constant term (E) is known as Young’s Modulus

- Also known as Modulus of Elasticity or Tensile Modulus

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸
 Modulus

• Calculate the modulus of elasticity for a material which

produces the following data when tested

- Applied Load = 35.7 kN

- Cross sectional area = 25 mm2
- Length = 28 mm
- Extension = 0.2 mm

• Formula E= Stress/Strain
 Modulus

• Stress= 35.7kN / 25mm2 = 1.428

• Strain= 0.2mm / 28mm = 0.00714

(35.7 × 28)
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸 = (25 × 0.2)

• Modulus = 199.92 kN/mm2 = 200 GPa (approx)

 Bulk Modulus

• Bulk modulus of a material is the resistance to uniform

compression.

• The Bulk modulus of elasticity can be expressed as

𝐾 = − 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑉 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑝 (𝑑𝜌 𝜌)

K = Bulk modulus of elasticity

dp = Differential change in pressure on the object
dV = Differential change in volume of the object
V = Initial volume of the object
Dρ = differential change in density of the object
ρ = Initial density of the object
 Bulk Modulus

• An increase in the pressure will decrease the volume

• A decrease in the volume will increase the density.
• SI units of bulk modulus of elasticity is N/m2 (Pa)
• Large value of bulk modulus will indicate an
incompressible fluid.
 Shear Modulus
• Shear Modulus or rigidity G is
expressed by

𝑓
𝐺 = (𝑓/𝐴) (𝑈/𝐻) = tan 𝛾 ⋍ 𝑓/𝛾𝐴
𝐴

• Where γ is the shear strain

• f/A is the shear stress

(a) No deformation
(b) simple shear
A=Area, H=Height, f=Force,
U=Linear Displacement