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X 2 Y 2
− j 2π ( ux + vy ) ⎡ sin (π uX ) ⎤ ⎡ sin (π vY ) ⎤
F (u, v) = ∫ ∫
− X 2 −Y 2
Ae dxdy = AXY ⎢ ⎥⎢
⎣ π uX ⎦ ⎣ π vY ⎦
⎥
maxima of:
cos 2π (ux+vy)
M −1 N −1 ⎛ ux vy ⎞
− j 2π ⎜ + ⎟
F (u , v) = ∑ ∑ f ( x, y )e ⎝M N ⎠
x =0 y =0
M −1 N −1 ⎛ ux vy ⎞ kernels
j 2π ⎜ + ⎟
f ( x, y ) = ∑ ∑ F (u, v)e ⎝M N ⎠
x =0 y =0
For an M x N image
g 1 (x,u)= g 2 (y,v)
copyright 2002©H. R. Myler
T(u,v) process
columns
2D DFT example
Bright spots
in the corners
Centered
spectrum
Walsh Transform:
n −1
1
g ( x, u ) = ∑ ( −1)
bi ( x ) bn−1−i ( u )
N i =0
b z =1 b 1 z =0
2
Hadamard Transform:
The Hadamard transform is similar to the Walsh
in that it uses square waves of ‐1 to +1 in
amplitude.
amplitude
The transform is easily derived from
multiplication of the image with the
Hadamard matrix:
F=H
The lowest order Hadamard matrices are given
by: ⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
1 ⎡1 1 ⎤ 1 ⎢1 −1 1 −1⎥
H 0 = 1; H1 = ⎢ ⎥ ; H =
2 ⎣1 −1⎦ 2 ⎢1 1 1 1 ⎥
2
⎢ ⎥
copyright 2002©H. R. Myler
⎣1 −1 1 −1⎦
Any order of 2N Hadamard matrix can
now be derived from:
1 ⎡HN HN ⎤
= ⎢H − H N ⎥⎦
H2N
2⎣ N
Sometimes, the normalization factor is
Sometimes the normalization factor is
omitted.
•This transform is simpler than the Fourier as it does not require complex
numbers. The DCT has the added advantage of mirror‐symmetry.
•If the DCT is used for block‐encoding, where the image is partitioned into
sub‐pictures prior to transforming, the DCT has less edge degredation
because of it's symmetry properties.
• The inverse kernel is identical to the forward form.