On firm ground
Proper design and execution can make compaction
grouting a reliable method for densifying loose soils
and raising settled structures
BY SAMSON W. BANDIMERE
structure is only as good as the
A ground supporting it. Dense, sta-
ble soil prevents foundations from
settling. On the other hand,
poorly compacted soils can turn
the best-built building into an owner’s
nightmare.
In many cases, compaction grouting can
solve soil density problems. In compaction
grouting, a stiff mortar-like grout is
pumped into the soil. Rather than flowing
through the soil, the grout forms an ex-
panding bulb, displacing the soil while
forcing out air and water. The resulting
denser soil has a higher load-bearing ca-
pacity, thus stopping or preventing settle-
ment. Compaction grouting can also be
used to lift settled structures.
Invented in the early 1950s, compaction
grouting has undergone a slow transforma-
tion from an ill-defined art form to a scien-
tific method with known engineering pa-
rameters. Although it is a relatively simple
concept, compaction grouting involves all
the complexities of forensic engineering,
soil mechanics, mix proportioning, grout
1 •
rheology, specialized drilling techniques
and pumping technology. Today, com-
paction grouting can best be described as
an art based on scientific principles.
Despite its many advances, compaction
grouting remains poorly understood, even
by many civil engineers. This article, based
on my 25 years as a contractor in the in-
dustry, highlights what works and what
doesn’t, and describes how owners, engi-
neers and contractors can pool their re-
spective talents to successfully complete
compaction grouting projects.
Performance specs and
technical proposals
To greatly increase the chances of a suc-
cessful project, it’s crucial for the engineer
to develop proper specifications and for
the owner to select a qualified contractor.
The most common mistake is to select a
contractor based on price alone (low bid)
and to pay items on a “per-unit” basis (for
example, volume of grout pumped). A far
better way is to write performance specifi-
cations that require the contractor to meet
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION / JANUARY 1999
a certain desired end result (for ex-
ample, to increase the density or
penetration resistance of the soil at
various depths) and then pay a
lump-sum for verified results. Over-
run and underrun unit costs should
seldom be allowed. Mobilization
should be limited to a percentage of
the total bid or eliminated entirely.
To ensure selection of a compe-
tent contractor, the owner and engi-
neer should require all bidders to
submit technical proposals that veri-
fies their understanding of the pro-
ject challenges and how they will
meet the end-result specifications.
The engineer then reviews the pro-
posals and eliminates those that do
not demonstrate sufficient knowl-
edge of the technical needs of the
project. Finally, the owner examines
the eligible proposals (with legal
counsel if necessary) for contractual
commitments and selects the con-
tractor.
Such a system places responsibil-
ity for expertise where it should be—
on the contractor. As a result, con-
tractors are paid for results, rather
than for pumping services. If the
owner and engineer consider techni-
cal merits instead of price alone,
change orders are minimized and
projects are completed on time and
on budget.
To make such a system work, the
owner must be willing to pay the en-
gineer to perform a thorough inves-
tigation to identify and quantify the
soil deficiencies. Three ASTM test
methods that engineers commonly
use to measure the density or pene-
tration resistance of soil are shown
in the box on page 108. The engi-
neer should then perform the same
tests after grouting and throughout
the project to make sure the contrac-
tor achieves the desired improve-
ments.
This way, the engineer’s responsi-
bilities are limited to investigation
and verification, rather than to
telling contractors how to do their
work. Contractors are free to apply
their skills to meet the objectives of
the project. The following describes
the equipment, materials and meth-
ods that we have found to produce n Larger and longer casings require
excellent results. not only more room overhead,
but bigger—and more cumber-
Grout casings serve a dual some—drill rigs or driving tools.
purpose n Longer casings require crew mem-
A proper grout casing serves two bers to be lifted high off the
important purposes: It acts as the ground to disconnect grout hose
drill stem that drills the hole and headers and read pressure gauges.
then becomes the grout casing that Contractors have used cranes
delivers the grout to its destination which allow them to pull out the
in the ground. This allows a one- grout casing sections in one long
pass insertion and withdrawal sys- pull. It may look very impressive
tem which minimizes hole cave-in (and seem logical) to use “big iron,”
problems and maintains intimate such as large drills capable of han-
soil-to-casing contact. dling 20-foot casings, cranes, high-
The casing must be able to with-
stand the rigors of the drilling, dri-
ving and withdrawal forces. The drill Compaction grouting vs.
bits and driving points must be dis-
posable so there are no restrictions
concrete pumping
to the grout exiting the tip. The cas-
Each year, numerous concrete
ing connections also should have
pumping contractors add com-
flush joints both inside and outside.
paction grouting to their list of
This requires the sectional threads to
services as a way to keep their
be within the wall of the casing.
pumps busy. To many of them,
We have found the most effective
compaction grouting appears to
casing segments to be 3 feet long
be little more than pumping
with an inside diameter of 2 inches.
concrete into the ground.
Larger and longer drill casings may
Nothing could be further
be used, but they have many disad-
from the truth.
vantages:
The name of the game in the
n Workers have trouble lifting and
concrete pumping industry is vol-
handling them, especially when
ume. How fast can a yard of con-
they’re full of grout.
crete be moved from point A to
n Commercial drill/grout casings
point B? In compaction grouting,
typically have very expensive dis-
however, high pumping rates are
posable bits or require drill rigs ca-
typically counterproductive.
pable of handling duplex drilling
The average pumping rate for
methods. These are usually cum-
effective compaction grouting is
bersome and require casing sizes
about 2 cubic feet per minute at
larger than 4 inches in diameter.
sustained pressures up to 1,500
n A casing larger than 4 inches in
psi. Almost all commercial con-
diameter may be hard to hold
crete pumps are designed to
down when you start grouting be-
pump larger volumes at sus-
cause the grout tends to push the
tained lower pressures. Therefore,
casing back out of the ground be-
they are not capable of perform-
fore a grout take initiates at the
ing true compaction grouting.
bottom casing.
There is plenty of room in the
n Due to their larger surface area,
compaction grouting industry
casings larger than 4 inches in di-
for newcomers that are up to the
ameter may be hard to withdraw
unique challenges these projects
when grout surrounds the bottom
demand. But success in the com-
section.
paction grouting industry re-
n Engineers become nervous about
quires more than simply provid-
drilling large-diameter holes
ing concrete pumping services.
through structural elements such
as footings, slabs and caissons.
 such as wet clays,
should not have
additional water
added to them. In
All photos by Denver Grouting: A Division of Hayward Baker Inc.
these cases, use dri-
ving tools, such as
small sheet-pile dri-
vers, backhoe-
mounted breakers
or “hole-hog” units
(Fig. 2) to drive the
grout casings with-
out wetting the
soil. These powerful
driving units re-
quire a mounting
adapter on the cas-
Figure 1. This hand-held drill injects water into the soil as it ing, and the casing
advances the casing. Some soils, such as dry Loess silts, re- itself must be able
quire added moisture to be compacted effectively. to withstand the
driving forces.
Engineers should
capacity concrete pumps and ready- be aware that there
mix trucks. But true compaction is no need to compromise the site’s
grouting takes time because of the required grout casing locations be-
way the soil behaves in the ground. cause of a contractor’s equipment
The average grout injection rate is limitations. Whether drilling
usually less than 2 cubic feet per through a footing, slab or caisson, in
minute, which makes high-produc- a crawl space, closet or tank—even
tion equipment too expensive. Con- among an industrial plant’s maze of
tractors who become impatient and pipes and plumbing—a true com-
begin injecting grout too quickly paction grouting specialist should be
will cause hydro-fracturing or high able to drill at the required locations
pore pressure build-up in the at competitive rates. The contractor
ground, and usually do more harm should also be responsible for any
than good. damage caused by gaining access for
the drilling equipment.
Drilling and driving
equipment Mix proportions:
Because most soils to receive com- Balancing pumpability
paction grouting are soft or loose (or and grout control
you wouldn’t be grouting them), A compaction grouting mix must
grout casings can usually be drilled have two qualities: high internal
or driven with hand-held equipment friction (to limit its travel in the
to depths of over 100 feet. If a site ground) and pumpability. Improving
has soil that is very difficult to drill, one of these qualities, however, usu-
truck- or track-mounted rigs may be ally means compromising the other.
required, assuming there is room for Internal friction and pumpability
them. But in most cases, small hand- are greatly influenced by the
held equipment usually outperforms amount and plasticity index (ASTM
the large equipment. D 4318) of the finest particles in the
Some soils, such as dry Loess silts, mix—those passing the #200 sieve
require added moisture to be com- (often called “silt”). If the grout has
pacted effectively. In these cases, ro- too much silt with too high a plas-
tary drills with through-the-body ticity index (greater than 20), it will
water injection capability are effec- pump easily, but it will lose its inter-
tive (Fig. 1). However, other soils, nal friction. If too little silt is used,
the grout can’t be pumped. Figure 3
shows the aggregate gradations that
produce acceptable grouts.
Early compaction grout mixes did
not contain coarse aggregates be-
cause of pump limitations. Advances
in pumping equipment have al-
lowed the use of bigger aggregates.
This, in turn, has allowed the use of
more silt particles without sacrificing
the grout’s internal friction. Today,
the maximum aggregate size is lim-
ited only by the inside diameter of
the delivery system.
Aggregates from different sources
will produce different grout
strengths and grout control even
though the sieve analyses and ce-
ment contents are the same. Con-
tractors must be prepared to alter
mix designs based on aggregate
sources, suppliers and soil types. It
has been found that limestone re-
quires far less silt in the mix than
other aggregate types. Unfortu-
nately, limestone may not be readily
available in certain areas of the
country.
Portland cement is required only
when the injected grout column will
be used as an independent structural
element and, therefore, must de-
velop a designed compressive
strength. However, for ground im-
provement applications (where the
grout is used only as the medium to
densify the soil), the grout does not
necessarily need to develop a com-
pressive strength.
There is currently a great need for
an additive that could replace the
minus-200 particles as the pumping
aid in compaction grouting mixes.
Finding sources of silt with a low
plasticity index can be a real chal-
lenge. In addition, moisture in silts
can create problems in cold weather
as they tend to frost up, creating
chunks that can plug mixers and
hoses.
Ready-mix delivery
is impractical
Delivery of grout to the jobsite by
ready-mix truck is usually not practi-
cal. Compaction grouting mixes do
not contain enough water to allow
the “flopping action” of the rotating
drum to mix the grout effectively.
Also, because the stiff grout is hard
to discharge from the drum, workers
tend to add too much water to the
mix. In addition, compaction grout-
ing ties up the ready-mix trucks too
long because of the slow grout injec-
tion rate.
An effective way to batch and mix
the grout is to use a mobile volumet-
ric mixing truck (Fig. 4). The truck
carries all the materials in bins and
mixes them with an auger on an as-
needed basis. This method allows for
the staging of bulk materials and
loading equipment offsite, thereby
minimizing onsite disruptions. Mix-
ing rates can be coordinated with in-
jection rates, and mix proportions
can be adjusted as needed. Although
this method has low labor costs, it
has high equipment costs and re-
quires crew members to carry CDL
licenses.
The other mixing option is to
store and batch materials at the job-
site and have workers load them
into small mortar-type mixers. This
method tends to be more disruptive
to jobsite operations. It has higher
labor costs but lower equipment
costs.
Compaction grout mixes are abra-
sive, especially those containing an-
gular aggregates. Contractors must
be prepared to maintain mixers and
their components, because they
wear out quickly, regardless of the
type used.
Use a low-volume,
high-pressure pump
Using the right pump and operat-
ing it correctly are crucial parts of
compaction grouting. We use the
Putzmeister DGS 2015, a pump built
specifically for compaction grouting
(Fig. 5). It differs from the normal
concrete pump in that its output ca-
pacity is restricted by smaller mater-
ial cylinders and pistons. The
pump’s 4-inch-inside-diameter mate-
rial cylinders are still driven by the
same hydraulic rams that normally
drive 6-inch-diameter cylinders.
Therefore, its volume output capac-
Figure 2. This percussive casing advancer, or “hole hog,” drives the grout casings
without wetting the soil.
ity is reduced, but its line-pressure
capacity is almost doubled. This
high pressure requires that addi-
tional reinforcement be built into
the delivery system, including the
hoppers, outlet flanges and cou-
plings. Also, because compaction
grouting injection rates may be re-
duced to as low as 1⁄4 cubic foot per
minute, the hydraulic systems must
be built so that they do not overheat
when sustaining these low output
volumes with back pressures up to
1,500 psi.
Delivery
system should allow
smooth grout flow
The delivery system includes all
the equipment it takes to deliver the
grout from the pump hopper to its
destination in the ground, such as
the pump valve system, slick lines,
hoses, clamps, headers and casings.
Compaction grouting mixes are
very harsh and stiff, and are pumped
at low flow rates. Therefore, the
pumping line must not have abrupt
elbows or turns to obstruct the flow
of grout. To minimize line blockages,
use short lines (position the pump
close to the work), use long sweep-
ing elbows for turns and use steel
slickline wherever possible. Rubber
hoses are more susceptible to
blowouts, and they reduce line pres-
sure, especially if they’re allowed to
curl or wind.
Some contractors use large drill
rigs to insert the grout casing, then
inject the grout through the drill
head while withdrawing the casing.
Engineers should be wary of this
practice because properly propor-
tioned compaction grouting mixes
usually can’t be pumped through
the swivels and abrupt turns of drill
heads. If a contractor insists it’s pos-
sible, have the contractor do an on-
site demonstration by injecting sev-
eral holes. Then dig up the grout to
verify that the grout remains in a
homogenous mass. Unless there is
some reason for compromising the
travel index of the grout, the in-
jected masses should not have wings
or hydraulic fractures that extend
more than 20% farther than the av-
erage distance the homogeneous
mass expanded from the point of in-
jection.
Even if there were a drill head that
could accommodate the injection of
a compaction grout mix that appears
to perform adequately, make sure
the injection rate is carefully moni-
tored during the project. Contractors
usually can’t afford to have drill rigs
sitting over a hole where grout is
being injected at less than 2 cubic
feet per minute. It may be easy for
the contractor to use a slow injec-
tion rate for the test, only to speed
up the process later, which can com-
pletely change the grout control in
the ground.
Because compaction grouts bleed
their mix water easily, the entire de-
livery system, including the pump
valves, hose/line connections and
casing joints must be watertight to
prevent water loss from the grout. To
test for leaks, plug the end of the de-
livery line and fill the entire system
with water. Then pressurize the sys-
tem by stroking the grout pump.
The system should suffer minimal
water loss at a pressure of 1,000 psi.
A leaky system is more susceptible to
clogging during pumping. Adding
more water to the mix to offset this
water loss is a “hit-or-miss” proposi-
tion that can be difficult for the
grout crew to handle.
Open grout lines must be primed
before you pump grout through
them. One way is to break the line
into small sections until grout flow
slickens each section’s wall before
connecting the next section. This
method works fine for surface hoses
and slick lines but not for the grout
casing in the ground. To prime the
Hydrometer
50 min
90
Percent passing
70
50
30
t this sequence, the bottom-ups pro-
mi
t li
10 Sil
Clay to silt
Early designs
Figure 3. This graph shows the aggregate gradations that produce acceptable
grouts. Because of pump limitations, early mixes did not contain the coarse
aggregates we now use. Pump improvements now allow the use of bigger
aggregates which, in turn, allows the use of more silt particles without sacrificing
the grout’s internal friction.
grout casing, shove a tightly wound
sponge down the casing several feet,
then pour a cement slurry or slicken-
ing agent on top of it before hook-
ing up the grout line to the casing.
If the pump is stopped during
grouting, the grout at the end of the
casing will slowly lose water, which
can cause a blockage when pumping
is resumed. Therefore, activate the
pump for one or two strokes every
five minutes or so during any breaks
to keep fresh grout at the casing tip.
Placement sequence
Because every site is different, it is
impossible to standardize com-
paction grouting probe spacing,
placement procedures and se-
quences. Many factors, including
soil types, site conditions, and the
results of soil tests influence the
probe spacing, grout volumes,
pumping pressures, and injection
rates and sequence needed to correct
the soil deficiencies.
The grout can be injected from
the “bottom up” or “top down,” de-
pending on the desired result.
Grouting from the top down is more
expensive because of the additional
time required to drill through previ-
ously placed grout stages. However,
Sieve Sizes
3/ "
200 50 16 4 4 3"
its
lim
e
lin
r
it s
we
lim
Lo
eal e r
Id pp
U 70
Sand Gravel
Current designs
Commonly used soil
density and penetration
resistance tests
Below are three ASTM stan-
dard test methods that are
commonly used to measure the
density or penetration resis-
tance of soils. They can all be
found in Volume 4.08 of the
Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
n D 1586-84, “Penetration Test
and Split-Barrel Sampling of
Soils”
n D 2937-94, “Density of Soil
in Place by the Drive-Cylinder
Method”
n D 3441-94, “Deep, Quasi-Sta-
tic, Cone and Friction-Cone
Penetration Tests of Soil”
top-downs typically work best for
improving the ground at depths of 3
to 15 feet and when incremental re-
leveling of a structure is required.
Bottom-up placement is faster
(due to continuous pumping) and,
therefore, cheaper. It works very well
to stabilize structures that require
very little, if any, re-leveling. But it
doesn’t compact soils less than 15
feet deep as well as top-downs.
The two systems can be com-
bined. Say a structure with a shallow
8"
foundation has settled and the soil is
10 very soft to depths greater than 15
Percent retained
feet. In those areas where the struc-
30 ture requires re-leveling, do bottom-
ups from bedrock up to about 10
feet below the structural element.
50
Then do top-downs until you en-
counter the bottom-up grout. With
vide a stabilized base for the top-
90
downs to push against. The top-
downs can then lift the structure in
increments. This system works well
because, in some cases, if the bottom
is not stabilized first, the top-down
stages will add weight to the site and
induce further settlement.
Probes are typically spaced on 8-
foot centers along foundation struc-
tural elements. However, the actual
spacing should be calculated based
on the spanning capabilities of the
structure’s foundation system.
When the total soil volume is sta-
bilized beneath an entire building
footprint, a triangular grid on 8-foot
spacings often works best. Also, it
may be advisable to grout beyond
the building’s perimeter to improve
soil conditions for future additions,
sidewalks, underground utilities and
adjacent ancillary structures to mini-
mize future differential movements.
When a grout casing has been
drilled or driven to its appropriate
depth, grout is pumped at that loca-
tion until: (1) a predetermined grout
volume has been pumped, (2) a pre-
determined pumping pressure has
been reached, or (3) undesired
ground or structural movement is
occurring. In most cases, the grout
casing is then moved up, and pump-
ing is resumed. Grout stage lengths
may vary from site to site, but most
work is pumped in 1-foot vertical in-
crements.
Monitoring and
investigation are crucial
Because of the importance of con-
trolling the pumping rate, volume
and pressure, the contractor must
have accurate means to monitor
these crucial factors. Contractors
must carefully log all the pertinent
information and submit it to the en-
gineer.
Today, sophisticated monitoring
equipment, including computerized
systems, is available. The informa-
tion gained from these systems is
truly phenomenal. But engineers
must not allow this sophistication to
replace common-sense engineering
judgments.
By the same token, contractors
should be aware of the limitations of
the engineer’s investigative tech-
niques. ASTM test methods have
many potential shortcomings. For
example, the results of ASTM D
1586, a popular standard penetra-
tion test (SPT), are highly dependent
on the consistency of the operator
and drill rig used. In its technical
Publication #C99A100
Copyright© 1999, The Aberdeen Group
a division of Hanley-Wood, Inc.
All rights reserved
proposal, the contractor should re-
quire that the same operator and
drill rig be used throughout the pro-
ject.
Monitoring and investigating is,
without a doubt, the most difficult
part of any compaction grouting
project to get owners, engineers and
contractors to appreciate. Yet they
are the basis for all the decisions, ac-
tions and conclusions made during
the project. Unfortunately, owners
tend to like pieces of paper with
“Guarantee Statements” because
they perceive that approach to be
cheaper. However, they invariably
find out that such an approach only
makes lawyers rich and complicates
everyone’s life long after the project
is completed. To avoid these prob-
lems, compaction grouting demands
a partnering approach from the
owner, engineer and contractor.
Samson W. Bandimere is technical
director of Denver Grouting: A Divi-
sion of Hayward Baker, Broomfield,
Colo.