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Birch Part 1: Global Trends in English Grammar Pedagogy p.1-40

These two chapters discuss English in three different lights. The first is this idea of

English as a global language. I feel that this concept correctly portrays the language because

English is so widely diverse. It differs according to region, country, and form that it is presented

in. Therefore, English transcends normal boundaries and stretches far enough to reach multiple

cultures of people, even those in distant places in relation to other English speakers. Speakers of

English as a global language do not have to be native speakers or even be completely competent

in their knowledge of the language.

The second concept is English as a lingua franca. I think of a lingua franca as how

speakers of different tongues compromise, how they meet in the middle to accomplish a common

goal. Sometimes unspoken factors, like tone and stress, are used to bridge the communication

gap to offset the deficiency where either one or both speakers are considered inept in English.

This concept made me reflect on information from an introductory linguistics course I took

during my undergraduate career. In the course I learned that pidgins, types of lingua francas, are

used for similar reasons and that they combine languages. Just as pidgins become creoles, lingua

francas often become common languages of their own used for a specific purpose.

The third concept is academic English (AE). AE is described in the first chapter as a

gateway to success in the secular world. In undergrad and in the rest of the secular world, I

became acquainted with AE as the language of power. Even though it is not the way we actually

speak in day-to-day interactions with people, it is the language that we must master to advance in

this world. The first chapter goes into depth about the differences between written and spoken

language. Academic text is complex and wordy as it conforms to the grammar rules for standard
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rules and often reports on specialized topics. Text on less serious matters is not as convoluted.

When I think of the differences between written English, or English that abides by AE rules, and

spoken English, English which often breaks the rules of AE, I often think about the differences

between a written report and the speech I would give in presentation of it.

In Chapter two, childhood language acquisition is discussed. It points out that first

language acquisition is worth looking at because it directly informs second language acquisition.

It also discusses different hypotheses of how language is acquired by children. Some theories

deal with the belief that we are born with the ability to learn grammar, but social interaction is

necessary to teach language-specific features. Other features say that grammar as well as

specified features are learned solely from social interaction.

I agree that phrases do not have infinite possibilities only constrained by the rules of

grammar. As was shown by an example, some words require a specific word or set of words.

This makes me think of the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs. Wray’s

Idiomatic Paradox explains that native speakers learn idiosyncratic expressions, such as

idiomatic expressions that facilitate communication. However, language learners do not have

such native knowledge of these kinds of expressions. This fact would definitely make a

difference in near-native speech in one’s second language. Though, I have studied Spanish for

years, there are still idiomatic expressions that I struggle with. When I speak in my second

language, I find that I may explain a concept in detail when I could have simply used a common

idiomatic expression.

The last bit of Chapter 2 talks about how constructions that one interlocutor uses affects

the other interlocutor(s). It talks about processing, which expounded on how the options people
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have to create utterances are constricted. It brings out that first and second language acquisition

compare because they both require social exposure. The chapter discusses the differences as

well. I believe this to be true. I think about the difference like this: A child learning his first

language or languages learns through exposure and, consequently, formulating his own rules

about how language works based on the constructions that he is exposed to. Adults learning a

second language, or even being exposed to language for the first time, cannot learn language

adequately from just total immersion. They need background on grammatical structure and other

information coupled with it; they have to, in essence, be taught. I enjoy reading this information

because it helps me to refine my stance on teaching grammar.

Vocabulary

Lingua franca​- a spoken variety of English used as a medium of communication among

speakers of various levels of proficiency.

Diglossia- ​a social and cultural situation in which there are dual linguistic systems, one of which

is learned at home and one of which is learned at school

Registers​- the different words and grammar used in different types of situations

Naturalness​- conforms to people’s knowledge of their normal usage and exposure or the words

occur together with a certain frequency or probability

Collocation- ​the large number of semi-preconstructed phrases that constitute segments that a

language user has at his disposal

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Birch Part 1 Global Trends in English Grammar Pedagogy p.41-78

This chapter explores the way we connect emotionally to our native languages. If we can

understand this better, perhaps it may lead to breakthroughs in second language acquisition. Our

native language is close to our hearts, whether we realize it or not. Even if one has been bilingual

for many years, his native language is the one he resorts to when excited, upset, and overjoyed.

Such emotions are best expressed and felt more deeply in our native languages.

It begins by talking about implicit and explicit language awareness, when one can’t

explain why something can or cannot occur in a language versus when he can. I can relate to this,

along with metalinguistic awareness, because it is what I seek to instill in my students. Teaching

styles follow the style by which the instructor learned best. When I was in school, the classical

method was employed. We would learn grammar points and vocabulary by rote memorization.

However, this type of teaching was coupled with the creation of a communicative context. This

is the way that I teach my students. I give them metalinguistic awareness and then allow them to

see the practicality of it through usage.

There is a section on the positive results of feedback in language learning. Creating a

communicative context would have to involve feedback. With children learn a language,

correction by giving them words to say verbatim is not usually very useful. They will usually

repeat exactly what you say and then use the incorrect form again. This is because negative

feedback was given. It is usually the same way with adults. The correct way to do it, as shown in

the pdf, is to ask for clarification, which causes the interlocutor to modify his utterance, and then

if it is still not correct, recast or paraphrase for him. This method does wonders in a

second-language learners’ classroom.

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Chapter four discusses the need to do away with certain methods which include rote

memorization where language seems abnormal and unnatural. Simply doing textbook exercises

where students are not required to be actively engaged and where fear of the teacher may

interfere with truthful feedback is not engaging the student. Exercises where the student has to

demonstrate metalinguistic awareness are more useful. For example, in my Spanish classes,

students are more prone to ask and ponder questions when they know that they have to be

involved in the conversation and explain their knowledge on a topic. It is especially helpful when

that topic can be related to their native language.

The topic of spontaneity hit home for me because my students often want to know why

things occur. It is often tempting to answer that that is just the way things are, but there is a

reason for everything, so we should seek to find it. Because I have instilled so much

metalinguistic awareness in my students, they often want to know why certain structures occur or

can’t occur. I find that when I have to do research on such topics, it deepens my knowledge and

sounds these facts down into my memory for later use.

I prefer inductive presentations over deductive presentations. Deductive presentations

tend to be more factual. It presents the information in a “this is how it is, that’s it” way. Inductive

presentations cause learners to think critically. They cause them to ask their own viewpoint

examples and to look at practical examples to answer them.They stimulate meaningful

conversation about a topic that can easily be retained.

Practice is indeed very valuable. In undergraduate Spanish classes, much of the

homework had to be done on the computer. This was useful because I could learn new points

quickly, and I immediately knew what I was doing wrong. In addition, positive and negative
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feedback was provided by a talking character. I did not like to hear the character scold me, so I

attempted to get all of the questions right. I find games and other useful activities useful in my

classroom for the same reasons.

Vocabulary

Metalinguistic awareness​- the conscious ability to think and speak about language as an object

in its own right and to control subtle language functions.

Implicit learning​- natural learning that comes from accumulated experiences that people

normally have as they interact with others

Multicompetence- ​an individual’s knowledge of a native language and a second language, that

is, L1 linguistic competence plus L2 interlanguage

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Nassaji and Fotos Part 1 Input-based Options in Focus on Grammar p.1-67

From the first chapter, it seems that historically, educators were encouraged to focus on

the building of metalinguistic knowledge, that is the instilling of knowledge about language, and

this was considered the most useful input that a language learner could have. This very

systematic approach to language teaching is not sufficient alone because the learning

environment is not a very natural one. While this type of instruction is important to lay the

foundation for language learning, social interaction is a must. If language is simply taught as

discrete items, at what point does the student realize that these are parts of a whole? At what

point does form meet function?

I am aware that Krashen has several hypotheses with implications for language-learning.

He thinks that language should be acquired, and in his definition of acquisition, this is a

subconscious process that occurs naturally through language usage over time. I agree that the

context in which students learn language should be as natural as possible in a classroom context.

However, I do not want to downplay that which Krashen calls learning language, or the explicit

and purposeful instruction of language. In his Monitor Hypothesis, he says that learned

knowledge simply acts as a filter for acquired knowledge. This is true, but factors such as rapid

speed of the utterance, where a monitor would not be activated. Since monitoring is a conscious

process, as aforementioned, certain forms cannot be monitored, depending on the input,

especially if there is not enough time to consciously mull over them. Focus on form would

impact acquisition because this focus could be a result of metalinguistic knowledge or because of

social interaction. Depending on what the focus can be attributed to, some forms could be

acquired before others. Knowledge of a rule would only apply if the information at the learner’s
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disposal has been learned in Krashen’s definition of the word, that is, formal education about the

language. Depending on the language program or the instructor, some rules may be learned

before others, and therefore, certain forms, once again, acquired before others. Therefore, while

natural setting is important, I would argue that it is just as important as explicit instruction.

Emphasis must be placed on communicative context, but there must be some explicit

instruction in grammatical structure if the learner is to prosper. The example of a close friend of

mine comes to mind when subjects like this are in question. Her native language is English, and

we are both part of the same religious organization. She moved to the Spanish congregation,

without any formal education in the Spanish language. My friend has been in the Spanish

congregation for a few years now, and I would describe her growth as minimal. She has the

communicative context- everyone there speaks Spanish- but she lacks the metalinguistic

awareness of the language. She still must attend the English-speaking congregation to fully

comprehend certain concepts, and her speech is novice. I believe that with such knowledge, she

would now be at a much higher proficiency level.

The importance of input is readily emphasized in Part I. Instructors are encouraged to

provide input that can be easily processed and that has actual implications for a grammatical

structure, preferably that the learner can easily relate. Providing students with examples of the

structure that you want them to imitate is good input, but here is where I return to my argument

on explicit instruction. Mere examples do not do much for production, only for processing. My

students may readily notice these forms in use, but can they correctly produce them? Can they

draw conclusions on their own about what contexts these structures should be used in? This is
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why a combination of methods must be used to facilitate language acquisition. No one method

should be hailed over another.

Vocabulary

Task-based language instruction​- engagement in activities that are meaning focused and are

similar in some way to the real-life activities

Focus on form- ​a traditional approach that represents an analytic syllabus, and is based on the

assumption that language consists of a series of grammatical forms that can be acquired

sequentially and additively

Focus on meaning- ​a synthetic approach based on the assumption that learners are able to

analyze language inductively and arrive at its underlying grammar

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Nassaji and Fotos Part II Interaction and Output-based Options in Focus on Grammar

p.69-87

This sections begins by considering whether or not negative feedback is essential to

second language acquisition. I would say that children rarely respond to this type of feedback.

They may repeat your correction verbatim and then still formulate the same incorrect utterance.

This is because children form their interlanguages in necessary stages. They will often use

incorrect morphological inflections or syntactical order, realize that there is a rule or an

exception to the rule, correct the utterance, revert back to the original incorrect form, and then

their speech patterns will stabilize. It is, therefore, better to respond to the truth value of a child’s

statement rather than to the error in the manner in which it was made.

Adults or post-pubescent language learners, on the other hand, are able to better perceive

correction and self-correct, especially if the correction is salient. Adults are more likely to benefit

from negative feedback than children because they have a greater metacognitive awareness and

can consciously reform erroneous statements. I have seen evidence of this in the classroom.

Recasting is not my favorite technique in Spanish class because the instructor is still doing most

of the work. The student may or may not respond with uptake. I find metalinguistic feedback

much more useful. For example, when learning how to talk about the classes they were taking

each class period, my students were required to learn the format, “En la (​Spanish ordinal number

here) ​hora, tengo la clase de ​(name of class).​ ” Sometimes, students wanted to leave out smaller

parts of the sentence, like the article (la), and the preposition (de). I would provide metalinguistic

feedback with statements like, “You have to say, ‘In ​the _​ ____ hour’” or “You need to say ‘I

have the class ​of’​ before giving the class name.” This prompts the student to uptake, and by
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giving instruction in the native language, it requires the student to demonstrate that he

understands what he should do in the target language. I have found direct elicitation to work

equally as well.

The section about errors versus mistakes was also useful. This could help me to decide

what type of feedback I should provide. If the student makes a mistake, I would simply make the

mistake more perceptual by drawing attention to it and prompting uptake. If the student tends to

make errors, I would need to provide metalinguistic information and perhaps a correction. I

could then provide an opportunity where the student could demonstrate his understanding of the

information that I provided.

The online concordance is a very useful tool. In harmony with the information from Part

I, corpora provide snippets of language that can be studied and analyzed for native-like patterns.

I plan to use ​http://www.lextutor.ca/conc/ in the classroom so that students can see grammar

rules in a context. In connection with this week’s reading, a concordance can be the follow-up to

negative feedback. I could show my students how a structure that they are using incorrectly is

used correctly by native speakers or competent bilinguals. If the phrase or word is usually not

used in a certain context, we could then explore other ways to say what the student wants to say.

Another new resource that I plan to use is ​http://www.linguee.com/​. This website, like the

concordance, puts the word in a context. The website first gives a simple sentence in which the

word is used. It also gives the translation of a lexical value and then gives examples of sentences

in which the lexical item occurs across the web. This way, the learner can make inferences about

the contexts in which the lexical item appears and about when it should not appear. Though

written text is often different from spoken text, because the genre of the material where the
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lexical item appears may be varied, some of the text may, in fact, closely mirror spoken

language.

Vocabulary

Negative evidence- ​information that tells the learner what is not possible in a given language

Positive evidence- ​information that tells the learner what is possible in a given language

Negotiation- ​interactional modifications that occur “when learners and their interlocutors

anticipate, perceive, or experience difficulties in message comprehensibility”

Errors- ​occur because of a lack of knowledge

Mistakes- ​performance errors

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Nassaji and Fotos Part II Interaction and Output-based Options in Focus on Grammar p.

88-118

Chapter six talks about the task-based approach. These are the types of tasks that focus on

imitating communication in a natural setting; successfully conveying meaning is of greater

import than perfect form. Implicit instruction is provided by means of focused tasks where forms

are made easier to perceive through different methods. I do believe that production can only

reach a higher level of utility if there is explicit instruction or instruction through

consciousness-raising and contextual evidence. If we are to ever surpass just sounding like

“foreigners”, more than just comprehensibility should be taken into consideration.

In reading the examples of implicit and explicit structured grammar-focused tasks, I was

moved to think about my own foreign-language teaching classroom made up of high-school-aged

students. For my students, I think that the most beneficial tasks would include a mixture of both.

Implicit instruction, where my students would be asked to simply answer questions that require a

certain form to be practiced when they answer, may be successful in that moment, or even after

much communication, but if I were to give a test later on that specific form, they may not make

the connection because no attention was drawn to it. Production and successful processing

depend on perception. Adolescents usually do not register or retain rules unless they are

presented outright. I believe that while implicit tasks are useful, explicit tasks which bring the

learner’s attention to specific forms and require the learner to formulate rules based on what they

have perceived are the most useful for high-schoolers.

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Chapter seven focuses on collaborative output tasks which combine the social aspect of

language acquisition with the productive requirement. The debate of input versus output is

presented in this chapter, and I am in agreement with Swain (1985, 1995): Language cannot be

acquired without usage. Language acquisition requires at least two different levels of processing,

and continuous processing can only be activated once the learner uses what he has learned from

given input. In addition, social interaction is necessary because the learner may be blind to his

own errors. Someone else can provide feedback that is necessary for a learner to rectify his

interlanguage system. Once feedback is provided, this increases the capacity of the learner to

monitor and self-correct. This is when the learner reaches Vygotsky’s stage of self-regulation.

I have successfully used collaborative output jigsaw tasks in my classroom. Students

listened to a song with forms of grammar that they were working on. They were given strips of

paper and put into several groups. Each group was supposed to speed to attempt to reconstruct

the song before the other groups. The students got to see grammar forms in context, work in a

collaborative setting, and have fun.

In the activities for this week, Musicuentos Blog for Language Teachers looks to be a

great resource for teachers. We can look at practices that other instructors are using and examine

their success in comparison to the success of our own. It has ideas for resources that teachers can

use in their classrooms, as well as assessments. It includes pointers that teachers can use to

maximize the outcome of instruction.

The article on the flipped learning cycle was quite interesting. I think it would be

effective college preparation if done in a high-school. It puts the accountability on the student.

They are responsible for watching the videos outside of class. Out-of-class preparation gives
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them time to comprehend what they might not in class. It involves cognitive processing not

required for rote tasks and aids in the development of metalinguistic awareness. Students are able

to come to class and receive feedback from their instructor and peers, and this reinforces their

hypotheses about language.

Vocabulary

Problematicity- ​concerns the nature of the problem that the learner has with a particular target

structure.

Learnability- ​the extent to which learners are able to integrate the target structure into their

linguistic system

Collaborative output tasks- ​activities designed to push learners to produce output accurately

and also consciously reflect on, negotiate, and discuss the grammatical accuracy of their

language use

Scaffolding- ​refers to the supportive environment created through the guidance and feedback

learners receive during collaboration

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Nassaji and Fotos Part III Instructional Contexts and Focus on Grammar p.119-141

Chapter eight discusses the context in which language is taught and learned. It focuses on

the import of being able to practice language outside of a classroom. I have never before thought

of the differences between a foreign language context and a second language context. This

discussion of the difference between these two settings motivated me to make my classroom

more of a natural communicative context because the students I teach are all in a foreign

language context, with not much room to practice outside of the classroom. There is a growing

Hispanic population in our area, but the students are not forced to communicate with this

population. My aim is to make them comfortable enough with their communication capacity that

they will aim to reach out to this population.

This chapter takes into account the past chapters’ discussion of the field turning to

instruction mostly implicit in nature and encouraging educators everywhere to make this practice

widespread in their classrooms. This chapter admits that a certain level of bilingualism cannot be

reached with only implicit instruction, as shown by research. There are some benefits of implicit

instruction, however, that include increasing saliency of form, which opens up the way to a

processing mode that facilitates language acquisition. The chapter also speaks about the

advantages of metalanguage talk. This even more speaks to the gains of explicit instruction

because only through such instruction can one develop such knowledge about language.

The chapter mentions that a good example for language learners is that of a skilled

bilingual and not necessarily a native speaker. I found this to be true last year, when I took a

break from teaching. I returned this year to find that many of the students that had taken a native

speaker the previous year for Spanish I. I compared the students that had taken me for Spanish I
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and found that they were not only more comfortable but more competent in the language and

more likely to engage in metalanguage talk.

The chapter also presents the fact that, contrary to popular belief, native speakers of

English are not the best to teach English. Nonnative speakers are preferable to native speakers

because they have metalinguistic knowledge that speakers of their own languages often lack. I

always tell my Spanish-learners at the beginning of the year when they fret over the language

being “hard” at first encounter that I learned the language the same way that they are now

learning. I use the tactics that I learned best by and instill the language into my students. Native

speakers of a language often take often know and speak their language quite well, but they lack

the knowledge to impart it to others because some things are almost innate to them. For instance,

a native speaker of English may know that the proper way to express a conditional in English is

“If I were…” However, that same speaker may not know that there are certain conditions where

“If I was…” could be correct grammar. A NNS who has studied English as a second or foreign

language would know.

As far as classroom learning environments are concerned, I know that the sink or swim

method does not work beyond the critical period. Children can pick up on a language through

implicit exposure. Post-pubescent children are not as fortunate. The “sink or swim” method is

detrimental to a student’s educational health. I have seen this method in action with a Honduran

student who came to the US to stay with his father and began attending the school at which I

work. He spoke very little English, but his father had been here over 12 years and spoke English

with him at home. Over the course of a year, he picked up on English quite a bit, but he was only

able to function at school because the Spanish teacher was his greatest resource. He often stayed
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in her classroom all day, and she would help him with his schoolwork. When she left, he lost his

confidence and began failing all of his classes. The school has no ESL classes or ESL

intervention; neither does the district. The student dropped out his senior year to get a job, the

plight of so many immigrant students.

Vocabulary

Second language situation- ​second language instruction taking place in a country where the

second language is spoken as the native language or L1.

Foreign language situation- ​second language studied in the learner’s home country

World Englishes- ​a term indicative of the changing role and function of English globally

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)- ​proposed by Noam Chomsky to be a device inside the

brain where the basic grammar system is wired and the parameters are set according to what the

child is exposed to. Said to disappear after the critical period

Yule Chapter 1 Introduction p.1-20; Folse Chapter 1 An Introduction to Grammar for

English Language Learners p.1-16 and Chapter 2 Basic English Grammar p.31-88

I love the way that Yule(1998) presents information in his book. He does not argue that

one form of English is superb to another. He simply presents the information in a descriptive

manner, a manner that I am partial to as a lover of linguistics. He presents the opinions of

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linguistic pedants and of those who are more lax in their speech. He discusses the way that

​ ork. He explores language in its element,

language works, as well as the way that language ​can w

as being used for communicative purposes. I agree with this because if communication is

mutually intelligible, then there can be no correct or incorrect forms. Also, even language outside

of prescriptive grammar has a pattern that can be followed and parameters that cannot be

crossed.

Yule (1998) also provides an explanation to features that seem innate in language. As

native speakers, questions discussed in his first chapter are not questions that we even think

about. However, these are topics that definitely need to be covered in TESOL classes. Nonnative

speakers tend to make mistakes different from the deviations of nonstandard native speakers of

English. These utterances are not acceptable in the English language because certain words

require specific words because of underlying meaning and some make no sense (to native

speakers) when paired with other words. For example, he presents the discussion of verbs that

can be used with prepositions following and those that cannot. The needed consideration is of the

effect that the verb has on its object. If the effect is direct, then prepositions like “at” shouldn’t

be used because they imply otherwise. In order to get into the minds of ESL students, we must

have these discussions and dig deep down into our subconsciouses to figure out why we don’t do

certain things, even in nonstandard speech.

Folse (2016) directly intertwines with my thoughts above. ESL teachers must be educated

in the whys and why-nots of English grammar, not necessarily prescriptive, but sometimes why

spoken language works the way it does. Folse also delves into the differences between

intermediate classes for native speakers and ESL classes. In beginner level English classes
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designed for native speakers, we’re trained to speak better or prescriptively. There is close

attention paid to standard grammatical structure. In ESL classes, educators spend a lot of time

correcting errors that are ungrammatical because they go against established grammar patterns,

also often against patterns in nonstandard speech. The quizzes presented in Folse really made me

think about structures in English that I have never before questioned. The answer key

enlightened me on some of the reasons why certain forms and structures are ungrammatical.

Such conversations and considerations are essential to tap into one’s underlying knowledge of

English.

Some of the points in Folse are very relevant for foreign language instruction overall.

Even when teaching Spanish grammar, I must get my students to see how it is practical for them

in real-life communicative situations. For example, when I teach conjugation, I often ask them to

create sentences in Spanish that they use often in English with the vocabulary and the new tense.

they have learned. I point out the grammar focus of each lesson if a lesson tends to have multiple

occurrences of certain forms. I also take into account the reasons that my students take Spanish.

Some plan to pursue careers in law and medicine within the year. I point out grammar points that

they definitely need to take note of and that will bridge the gap between information that they

know and information that they will know if they plan to pursue Spanish further in college.

I have found that each year that I teach Spanish, I become more acquainted with errors

that my students are likely to make in future classes. As Folse brings out in Chapter two, we

should go over the discrete parts of the language (i.e. tense, parts of speech, labels, etc.) and their

functions. The task is to get the learner to see how the different parts of speech to work together
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as a unit. If we pay attention to the kinds of errors that students makes, we can begin to

understand why they make such errors and address these confidently.

The activity on grammar exercise types includes exercises to make learning fun and

practical for students. I see examples of cloze activities that were mentioned in Nassaji and

Fotos, where students must fill in the blank after hearing a passage read. Games are also a great

idea because students get to use the information that they are learning for relevant activities,

some that may even reflect tasks they will need to complete with their second language for future

occupations (i.e. interviewing or investigation). Peer interaction through small groups also

provides students with opportunities to practice with an interlocutor and receive constructive

criticism from someone on their level.

Vocabulary

Prescriptive grammar- ​prescribes, or dictates, exactly what should or should not be said or

used

Descriptive grammar- ​describes how language is actually being used

Interlanguage- ​the development of each grammar point within any learner’s mind takes time

and goes through various stages

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