Module 2 – PHYSICS

CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 2.4 – OPTICS

MODULE 2

SUB MODULE 2.4

OPTICS

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 Module 2 – PHYSICS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 2.4 – OPTICS

Table of Contents Page

The Nature of Light ................................................................................. 2

Speed of light .......................................................................................... 3
Reflection and Refraction........................................................................ 4
Waves and rays ...................................................................................... 4
Plane mirrors........................................................................................... 6
Concave mirrors...................................................................................... 6
Convex mirrors...................................................................................... 12
Refraction.............................................................................................. 14
Total internal reflection.......................................................................... 14
Convex Lenses (covering lenses) ......................................................... 16
Concave lenses (diverging lenses) ....................................................... 20
Fiber optics ........................................................................................... 22

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“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

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THE NATURE OF LIGHT interpreted in terms of the wave theory. The polarization of light
was still another phenomenon that could only be explained by
The scientific study of the behavior of light is called optics and
the wave theory. Thus, in the 19th cent. the wave theory became
covers reflection of light by a mirror or other object, refraction by
the dominant theory of the nature of light.
a lens or prism, diffraction of light as it passes by the edge of an
opaque object, and interference patterns resulting from
diffraction. Also studied is the polarization of light. Any
The wave theory received additional support from the
successful theory of the nature of light must be able to explain
electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell (1864), who
these and other optical phenomena.
showed that electric and magnetic fields were propagated
together and that their speed was identical with the speed of
light. It thus became clear that visible light is a form of
THE WAVE, PARTICLE, AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
electromagnetic radiation, constituting only a small part of the
THEORIES OF LIGHT
electromagnetic spectrum. Maxwell's theory was confirmed
The earliest scientific theories of the nature of light were experimentally with the discovery of radio waves by Heinrich
proposed around the end of the 17th cent. In 1690, Christian Hertz in 1886.
Huygens proposed a theory that explained light as a wave
phenomenon. However, a rival theory was offered by Sir Isaac
Newton in 1704. Newton, who had discovered the visible MODERN THEORY OF THE NATURE OF LIGHT
spectrum in 1666, held that light is composed of tiny particles, or
With the acceptance of the electromagnetic theory of light, only
corpuscles, emitted by luminous bodies. By combining this
two general problems remained. One of these was that of the
corpuscular theory with his laws of mechanics, he was able to
luminiferous ether, a hypothetical medium suggested as the
explain many optical phenomena.
carrier of light waves, just as air or water carries sound waves.
The ether was assumed to have some very unusual properties,
e.g., being massless but having high elasticity. A number of
For more than 100 years, Newton's corpuscular theory of light
experiments performed to give evidence of the ether, most
was favored over the wave theory, partly because of Newton's
notably by A. A. Michelson in 1881 and by Michelson and E. W.
great prestige and partly because not enough experimental
Morley in 1887, failed to support the ether hypothesis. With the
evidence existed to provide an adequate basis of comparison
publication of the special theory of relativity in 1905 by Albert
between the two theories. Finally, important experiments were
Einstein, the ether was shown to be unnecessary to the
done on the diffraction and interference of light by Thomas
electromagnetic theory.
Young (1801) and A. J. Fresnel (1814–15) that could only be

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The second main problem, and the more serious of the two, was
the explanation of various phenomena, such as the photoelectric
effect, that involved the interaction of light with matter. Again the
solution to the problem was proposed by Einstein, also in 1905.
Einstein extended the quantum theory of thermal radiation
proposed by Max Planck in 1900 to cover not only vibrations of
the source of radiation but also vibrations of the radiation itself.
He thus suggested that light, and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation as well, travel as tiny bundles of energy called light
quanta, or photons. The energy of each photon is directly
proportional to its frequency.
With the development of the quantum theory of atomic and
molecular structure by Niels Bohr and others, it became
apparent that light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation
are emitted and absorbed in connection with energy transitions
of the particles of the substance radiating or absorbing the light.
In these processes, the quantum, or particle, nature of light is
more important than its wave nature. When the transmission of
light is under consideration, however, the wave nature
dominates over the particle nature. In 1924, Louis de Broglie
showed that an analogous picture holds for particle behavior,
with moving particles having certain wavelike properties that
govern their motion, so that there exists a complementarity
between particles and waves known as particle-wave. The
quantum theory of light has successfully explained all aspects of
the behavior of light.
Now scientists accept that light is electromagnetic radiation,
particularly radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human
eye (about 400–700 nm, or perhaps 380–750 nm. Light, which
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exists in tiny "packets" called photons, exhibits properties of both
waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–
particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an
important research area in modern physics.
In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic
radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not
SPEED OF LIGHT
The speed of light (usually denoted c) is a physical constant. Its
value is exactly 299,792,458 meters per second, often
approximated as 300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000
miles per second. It is the speed of electromagnetic radiation
(such as radio waves, visible light, or gamma rays) in vacuum,
where there are no atoms, molecules or other types of matter
that can slow it down.
For much of human history, it was not known whether light was
transmitted instantaneously or simply very quickly. In the 17th
century, Ole Rømer first demonstrated that it travelled at a finite
speed by studying the apparent motion of Jupiter's moon Io. By
1975, the speed of light was known to be 299,792,458 m/s with a
relative measurement uncertainty of 4 parts per billion. In 1983,
the meter was redefined in the International System of Units (SI)
as the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1⁄299,792,458 of a
second. As a result, the numerical value of c in meters per
second is now fixed exactly by the definition of the meter.

CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS
The actual speed at which light propagates through transparent
materials, such as glass or air, is less than c. The ratio between
c and the speed v at which light travels in a material is called the
refractive index n of the material (n = c / v)
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
WAVES AND RAYS
The wave theory of light devised by Huygens can be used to
explain reflection and refraction. Yet when we consider the effect
of lenses or mirrors on the path of light, we usually prefer to draw
diagrams using light rays.
Light rays represent the direction of travel of wave fronts.
Imagine light spreading out from a point source such as a small
lamp bulb. The waves spread out in all directions; we can
represent this light by light rays directed outwards from the bulb.
Light rays are straight lines, provided the direction does not
change. There are several ways of changing the direction of
light, such as reflection off a mirror or refraction at a glass block.
So when we draw diagrams to show the path of light through a
lens or off a mirror, the rays are straight lines, which change
direction only at the point of reflection or refraction.
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Diffraction of light by gaps or obstacles changes the direction of
the light, but the change of direction is not an abrupt change like
at a mirror surface, and it can only be understood using the wave
theory.
So in situations where diffraction is likely to be significant, the
idea of rays may be used, but with great care.
In practice, apertures and other features, which cause diffraction,
are usually wide enough so that diffraction effects are too small
to be noticeable. An exception is when an optical instrument is
used to inspect an object for detail. Then diffraction effects,
usually not noticed, set a limit to the amount of detail, which can
be seen.
So in most circumstances we can think in terms of light rays
when we attempt to understand how optical instruments work.
This approach, sometimes called geometrical optics, is a good
deal easier to follow than visualizing wave fronts passing through
optical instruments. Provided we remember that the use of light
rays has limits, as explained above, we can use the ray
approach.
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Rays

Lamp Wave
fronts

Fig 4-05 Rays And Waves

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PLANE MIRRORS
CONCAVE MIRRORS
All types of mirrors obey the law of reflection, which is
illustrated by Fig. 4-07a. The angle between the incident ray and
the normal is always equal to the angle between the reflected
ray and the normal.
The normal is the line perpendicular to the mirror at the
point of incidence.
Look in a plane mirror and you will see your own image behind
the mirror. The image is at the same distance behind the mirror
as the object is in front. The image is also laterally inverted, as
shown by Fig. 4-07b, which is the reason why there are 'mirror
signs' on the front of some police cars; ambulances and fire
engines.
Ammeters and voltmeters used for accurate measurements
usually have a strip of mirror along the scale. The reason is to
ensure that the reading is made directly above the pointer.
Otherwise, the pointer reading will be incorrect because the
pointer will not be in line with the correct reading.
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A spherical concave mirror is one with a surface, which is part of
a sphere. The sphere radius is called the radius of curvature of
the mirror.
The straight line from the center of curvature to the center
of the mirror is called the axis.
The focal point of a concave mirror is where parallel light along
the axis is focused after reflection by the mirror.
The radius of curvature is usually much greater than the width of
the mirror. If it were not, parallel light could not be focused to a
single point.
The outer rays of a parallel beam would focus nearer the mirror
than the inner rays of the beam. Fig. 4-07e shows the situation
of a highly curved mirror with a width comparable with its radius
of curvature. Each incident ray reflects off in accordance with the
law of reflection, but because the mirror is curved, the direction
of the normal differs across the mirror. The reflected rays from
the parallel beam do not reflect to the same point for a spherical
mirror, but they define a cusp as in Fig. 4-07e. By cutting off the
outer rays of the parallel beam, the cusp is narrowed down to a
point, the focal point.
Another way to reduce the cusp to a point is to use mirrors with
width much less than the radius of curvature, which is what you
would have if only the central part of a much wider mirror were
used.
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Fig 4-05 c
Reading A
Meter

Incident angle I = Reflected angle r

Fig 4-07a Reflection By A Plane Mirror

Fig 4-07d The Concave Mirror

Fig 4-07b Mirror Images

Fig. 4-07e A Highly Curved Mirror

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The focal length of a concave mirror is the distance from the
focal point to the center of the mirror.
Image formation by a concave mirror depends on how far away
the object is placed from the mirror. Consider the light rays from
a point object, which reflect off the mirror. We consider only
mirrors, which have a radius of curvature much greater than the
width, so the reflected rays form a point image. To locate the
point image, consider three key rays.
1→ The ray to the lens center reflects off at an equal angle.
2 →The ray parallel to the axis reflects off through the focal
point.
3 →The ray through the focal point reflects off parallel to the axis
(the reverse of2).
Fig. 4-09a shows the situation where the three key rays meet
(i.e. converge) after reflection to form a clear point image. All the
other rays from the point object, which reflect off the mirror, must
pass through where the three key rays meet.
A second point object on the axis in line with the first object
would give a corresponding point image on the axis, in line with
the first image. So an extended object (in other words, a real
object) between the two point objects would give an extended
image between the two point images. The image position and
size depend on how far the object is placed from the mirror.
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Figs. 4-09a and 4-09b show that the nearer the object is to the
mirror, the further away the image is formed, provided the object
is no nearer than the focal point. If the object is placed between
the focal point and the mirror, the reflected rays diverge from one
another after reflection, as shown in Fig. 4-09d.
An image is still formed in this situation, but it can only be seen
by looking into the mirror. It is a virtual image, formed where the
rays appear to come from. A virtual image cannot be formed on
a screen or photographic film, unlike the images formed in Fig.
4-09a and 4-09b.
These images are real images, formed where the reflected rays
met. The virtual image formed in Fig. 4-09c is enlarged
compared with the object; a face mirror is usually a concave
mirror, so the user sees an enlarged upright virtual image behind
the mirror.
The concave mirror formula may be used to calculate the image
position if the object position and focal length values are known.
1 1 1
+ = Where u = object distance from mirror,
U V f
v = image distance from mirror, ,
f = focal length.
To prove this formula, consider object ‘O’ placed at distance ‘u’
from a mirror of focal length ‘f’ as shown in Fig. 4-09d
 Module 2 – PHYSICS
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object

Fig 4-09a Image Formation

Fig 4-09c A Virtual Image

Fig 4-09b Object Closer Than ‘2F’

Fig 4-09d The Mirror Formula
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The ray from ‘A’ to the middle of the mirror, M, reflects off at an And since OM = u, IM = v (image distance), FM = f and
equal angle to the axis. So triangles AMO and BMI are similar.
OF = u – f.
Hence,
Then,
u u− f u
OA OM = = −1 which gives
= v f f
IB IM

The ray from A through F strikes the mirror at P. Triangles AFO 1 1 1

= − and hence the required equation.
and MFP are similar (because angle AFO = angle MFP, and v f u
each triangle has a right angle). Hence,

The linear magnification M is defined as image height (IB),

AO OF
= Object height (OA)
MP FM v
which equals
u
However, because the ray reflected at P is parallel to the axis,
MP must equal IB. Hence,
If the formula is applied to fig 4-11, the value of v is negative. For
example, suppose the object distance is 0.20 m and the focal
OM OF length is 0.25 m, then the image distance is given by 1/v = 1/0.25
= – 1/0.2 = -1.0. so the image distance is –1.0m. the negative
IM FM value for v must be interpreted as indicating a virtual image is
formed. This interpretation is called a sign convention.
Real is positive, virtual is negative.

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Fig. 4-11 A Virtual Image

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CONVEX MIRRORS
If parallel rays are directed at a spherical convex mirror, the
reflected rays diverge.

The focal length of a convex mirror is the distance from the

mirror to the point where parallel rays along the axis appear to
diverge from after reflection. A convex mirror always forms a
virtual image of a real object. The image is always smaller than
the object, and never the mirror than the object.

Driving mirrors are usually convex mirrors because they give a

wide field of view behind the driver.

1 1 1
The formula + = can be used for convex mirror
u v f
calculations, provided the focal length is inserted as a negative
value. The ‘real is positive’ convention must also be used.

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Convex
mirror

Focal
point

object Virtual Focal

Image Point

Convex
mirror

Fig. 4-13b Image Formation

Fig. 4-13a The Convex Mirror

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REFRACTION
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When a light ray passes from air into a transparent medium such
as glass, the direction changes if it was not initially along the When light passes from a transparent medium into air, it bends
normal the light ray in the glass is closer to the normal than the away from the normal. If the angle of incidence exceeds a critical
light ray in the air. The change of direction may be calculated value, the light is totally reflected at the boundary so it does not
using Snell’s law. pass into the air.

sin a
= n where a = angle in air Where the angle of incidence in the glass is equal to the critical
sin b angle, the refracted ray passes exactly along the boundary. So
the angle of refraction in air is exactly 90°. Hence the refractive
b = angle in the medium
index n = sin 90°/sinC where C is the critical angle.
n = refractive index of the medium
Since sin 90° = 1,
Then,

The refractive index is equal to the ratio of the wavelength in air

1
to the wavelength in glass. n= Where n = the refractive index and c = critical
sin C
angle.
Refraction of light causes the water in a swimming pool to
appear shallower than it really is. An object on the floor of the
swimming pool appears nearer the surface when viewed from
above because the light from the object refracts away from the
normal surface. Just as the light refracts towards the normal
when it passes from air to water, so it refracts away from the
normal when it passes out.

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Fig.4-15a - Snell’s Law Refraction The critical Total internal

i1< C ray Reflection
i2 > C

Fig. 4-15c - Internal Reflection

Fig. 4-15b - Apparent Depth

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CONVEX LENSES (COVERING LENSES)

Direct a beam of parallel light rays at a convex lens and the light The linear magnification is defined as the
is brought to a focus by the lens. If the parallel light is directed
ratio of the → Image height
along the lens axis (the line through the center of each surface),
the rays are brought to a focus on the axis at the focal point of Object height
the lens.
The focal length of a convex lens is the distance from the lens to
And since Image height = Image distance then,
the point where the rays parallel to the axis are brought to a
focus. Object height Object distance

Ray diagrams are useful for showing how images are formed. v
For a convex lens used to form an image of a point object, three Linear magnification =
u
key rays need to be drawn.
Where u → object distance from the lens.
V → image distance from the lens.
1→ The ray to the lens center, which passes straight through.
2→ The ray parallel to the axis, which refracts through the focal
point. The image size depends on how far the object is placed from the
lens.
3 →The ray through the focal point, which refracts parallel to the
axis.

Fig. 4-17 shows the three key rays used to locate the image of a
point object O above the axis. All other rays from the point object
to the lens must refract through the point image formed. An
extended object from O to the axis at 0' would give an extended
image from I to the axis at l'.

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object Image

Fig. 4-17 Image Formation

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Fig. 4-19a shows that the nearer the object is to the lens, the
further away the image is, provided the object is no nearer than
the focal point.
If the object is placed between the focal point and the lens, the
refracted rays cannot be brought to a focus. But an observer
looking into the lens from the other side to the object can see an
image formed where the rays appear to come from. The image is
a virtual image, and it is magnified compared with the object. So
a convex lens can be used as a magnifying glass by viewing as
shown in Fig. 4-19b.
The lens formula can be used to calculate the position of an
image, given the object position and focal length of the lens.
Where the object distance is less than the focal length, the
image distance calculated by the formula has a negative value.
For example, if u = 0.15 m and f = 0.25m, then
l/v= 1/0.25 -1/0.15 = -2.67.
So v = -0.375m.
The negative value must be interpreted as indicating a virtual
image, so we must again use the 'real is positive, virtual is
negative' sign convention with the formula.

1 1 1
+ = where u→ object distance
u v f
v→ image distance
f→ focal length

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Fig 4-19a – Object closer than 2F Fig.4-19b The magnifying glass

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CONCAVE LENSES (DIVERGING LENSES)

When a parallel beam of light is directed at a concave lens, the
light rays are made to diverge from the lens. The focal length of
a concave lens is the distance from the lens to the point where
parallel rays along the axis appear to diverge from.
To determine the position of an image formed by a concave lens,
we may use either the lens formula or the ray diagram approach.
If the formula is used, we need to remember the 'real is positive'
sign convention, and to make the focal length value negative.
For example, if an object is placed 0.375 m in front of a concave
lens of focal length
0.25 m, then the object distance u = 0.375 m, and the focal
length f = -0.25 m, so the image distance
To draw a ray diagram for a concave lens, the three key rays
are:
1→ The ray to the center, which passes straight through.
2 →The ray parallel to the axis, which refracts as if from the focal
point on the 'incident' side.
3 → The ray directed at the focal point on the other side, which
refracts parallel to the axis.
Fig. 4-21b shows the ray diagram for the problem above. An
observer looking in at the lens would see a virtual image on the
same side as the object. The image is upright and diminished in
size but nearer to the lens than the object.

‘v’ is given by

= (− 4 ) − (2.67 ) = −6.67
1 1 1 1 1
= − = −
v f u − 0.25 0.375

1
Hence v = = −0.15m (a virtual image is formed).
6.67

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Focal point

object Image
(Virtual)

Fig 4-21a The Concave Lens Fig 4-21b Image Formation

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FIBER OPTICS
They make use of total internal reflection to guide light along Even if each meter of cable absorbs only a tiny fraction of the
transparent fibers, even though the fibers might be twisted and light passing along it, after a distance of several kilometers the
bent. At a bend in the fiber, the light rays reflect internally off the total amount of light absorbed can be considerable.
sides of the fiber as shown in Fig. 4-23. So the light rays are
guided along the fiber. Fiber optics are used in medicine to view
the inside of the body. The individual fibers must be flexible and Suppose a material used for the fibers only absorb1% of the light
thin so they can be bent tightly without the light leaving the fiber per meter of its length. How many meters long could the fiber be,
at the bend. An image formed by a lens on the end of a bundle if the amount of light transmitted through it is to be greater than
of fibers will be transmitted to the other end of the bundle. 50%?
Provided the fibers keep the same relative positions at each end, The first meter of its length absorbs 1% and transmits 99% into
the light transmits the image to the other end of the bundle. the next meter. The next meter transmits 99% of 99% of the light
entering the fiber. The next meter transmits 99% of 99% of 99%
of the light entering the fiber. How many times should you
To prevent light passing from one fiber to an adjoining fiber at
multiply 99% by itself before you obtain less than 50% as the
points of contact, the fibers are clad with a medium of low
answer? Try it! The answer gives the length of the fiber, and it
refractive index. Total internal reflection then takes place at the
works out to be between 60 and 80 m. So fiber optic cables for
boundary between the fiber and the cladding, so light ought not
telecommunications must use very clear material, and even so
to reach the boundary with an adjacent fiber.
need repeater units at intervals to boost the light signal.
Without cladding, light rays would pass between fibers at the
points of contact; as a result, the fibers would become uniformly
bright so no image could be seen.

Optical fibers are also used for telecommunications. Using light

to carry information allows much more information to be carried
than by using radio waves. The reason is that the frequency of
light is much greater. Cables, which carry optical fibers, must
use very clear material because of the long distances over which
the cables are used.

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End view of
fiber

Light cladding
in

core

Cross sectional view

of fiber

Fig. 4-23 – Fiber Optics

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Student Notes:

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