What is Pre-Stressed Concrete?

Pre-stressing is generally a way to overcome concrete weakness in tension. Generally, the

concrete undergoes compression on top flange and tension at bottom flange. In pre-stressing
the tendons are stretched along the axis and cement is poured, later when the tendons are
released the compression is generated at the bottom which tries to counter-balance the
compression due to loading at the top part of the beam. The upward force along the length of
the beam counteracts the service loads applied to the member. The unique characteristics of
pre-stressed concrete allow predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in members to
counteract stresses that occur when the unit is subjected to service loads.

Pre-stressing removes a number of design limitations conventional concrete faces on span and
load and also permits the building of roofs, floors, bridges, and walls with longer unsupported
spans. This allows architects and engineers to design and build lighter and shallower concrete
structures without sacrificing strength. This also helps in the construction of longer spans
thereby reducing the intermediate pier construction and making bridge construction
economical.

Pre-stressed concrete has experienced the greatest growth in the field of commercial buildings.
For buildings such as shopping centers, pre-stressed concrete is an ideal choice because it
provides the span length necessary for flexibility and alteration of the internal structure. Pre-
stressed concrete is also used in school auditoriums, gymnasiums, and cafeterias because of its
acoustical properties and its ability to provide long, open spaces. One of the most widespread
uses of pre-stressed concrete is parking garages.

Prestressed concrete is a system into which internal stresses are deliberately induced
without any form of external loads to improve its performance. The internal stresses
induced in the concrete structure is used to counteract the stresses coming from the
external load application.

Here the concept and methods in the prestressed concrete system are briefly described.

Concept of Prestressing
As mentioned before, prestressing is the application of an initial load on the concrete
structure, so that the structure is able to counteract or withstand the stresses coming due
to the service loads. The concept can be clearly understood by the example of a barrel.

A barrel used in olden periods to transports liquids and grains are tightly bound by metal
bands as shown in figure-1. These metal bands are fitted so tightly that it creates a hoop
compression around the barrel. When this barrel is filled with liquid, it exerts hoop
tension.
 The hoop compression that is created by the metal bands helps to counteract the hoop
tension created by the fluid within. This is a prestressing system.

Fig.1.Prestressing Concept in a Barrel

Similarly, effective internal stresses are induced into the concrete by means of tensioned
steel bars before the concrete structure is subjected to any service loads. This stress
counteracts with external stresses.

Need for Prestressing Concrete

The need for prestressing in concrete can be justified by the following issue:

1. Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. This is a weak point of concrete that results in
early flexural cracks mainly in flexural members like beams and slabs. To prevent this, the concrete is
induced with compressive stress deliberately (prestressing) and this stress counteracts with the tensile
stress the structure is subjected to during service condition. Hence the chances of flexural cracks are
reduced.

2. The pre-compression that is induced as a part of prestressing helps to enhance the bending capacity, the
shear capacity and the torsional capacity of the flexural members.

3. A compressive prestressing force can be applied concentrically or eccentrically in the longitudinal

direction of the member. This prevents cracks at critical midspan and supports at service load.

4. A prestressed concrete section behaves elastically.

5. The full capacity of the concrete in compression can be used over entire depth under full loading in the
case of prestressed concrete.

Methods of Prestressing
The prestressing can be performed by two methods:

1. Pretensionong

2. Post-Tensioning
1. Pretensioning
In the pretensioning method, the stress is induced by initially tensioning the steel tendons.
These are wires or strands that are tensioned between the end anchorages. After this
tensioning process, the concrete casting is performed.

Once the casted concrete has hardened sufficiently, the end anchorages arranged are
released. This releasing transfers the prestress force to the concrete. The bond between
the concrete and the steel tendons facilitates this stress transfer.

As shown in figure-2, the tendons that are protruding at the ends are cut and a finished
look is achieved. In order to induce prestress force in the pre-tensioning method, a large
number of tendons and wires are used. This arrangement hence demands a large area of
surface contact to make the bond and stress transfer possible.

Fig.2.The process of Pre-tensioning

2. Post Tensioning
The procedure in post-tensioning is depicted in the figure-3 below. Here, the steel is
prestressed only after the beam is cast, cured and attain strength to take the prestress.
Within the sheathing, the concrete is cast. For the passage of steel cables, ducts are
formed in the concrete.
 Fig.3.The process of Post-tensioning
Once the casted concrete hardens completely, the tendons are tensioned. One end of the
tendon is anchored and the other end is tensioned. In some cases, the tensioning can be
performed from either side and anchored subsequently.

Once the prestressing is complete, there is space between the tendons and the duct. This
leads to:

1. Bonded Construction

2. Unbonded Construction
1. Bonded Construction
In bonded construction, the space between the duct and the tendon is filled with cement
grout. The grouting process helps the steel to resist corrosion to a large extent. The
ultimate strength is increased as this method increases the resistance to live loads acting.
The grout mixture is cement and water combined with or without admixture. No sand is
used in this grout.

2. Unbonded Construction
If no grout is used to fill the space between the duct and tendon, it is called as unbonded
construction. Here, the steel is galvanized to protect from corrosion. A waterproofing
material is used for galvanizing.

Read More: Pre-Tensioning and Post-tensioning in Prestressed Concrete Mix Design

 Advantages of Prestressed Concrete
The major advantages of Prestressed Concrete are:

1. The prestressing of concrete by using high tensile steel improve the efficiency of the materials

2. The prestressing system works for a span greater than 35m.

3. Prestressing enhance shear strength and fatigue resistance of concrete

4. Dense concrete is provided by prestressing systems thus improving the durability

5. Best choice for the construction of sleek and slender structures.

6. Prestressing helps to reduce the dead load of the concrete structure

7. Prestressed concrete remains uncracked even at service load conditions which proves the structural
efficiency

8. Composite construction by using the prestressed concrete unit and cast-in-unit derives the economical
structure

Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete

1. Higher material costs

2. Prestressing is an added cost

3. Formwork is more complex than for RC (flanged sections, thin webs) – thus, precast not as ductile as RC

What is prestressed concrete? How is it used?

Before getting into prestressed concrete, let us go back to the basics first.

We all know that concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension. This is reason
for providing reinforcement (in the form of steel bars) to resist tension/tensile force
acting on beams/columns/slabs etcetera.

RC structures under service load undergoes deflection causing the bottom of the beam
(tensile zone) to elongate, causing cracks. Generally, steel bars are provided to limit the
crack widths and resist the tensile force which the concrete lacks.
Here, the rebar acts as ‘passive reinforcement’. Rebars (steel reinforcement) provided at
the bottom of the bar, does not carry any forces until the concrete has already deflected
enough to crack.

How it is used?

This is where prestressing comes into action. The principle behind prestressed concrete
is that compressive stresses induced by high-strength steel tendons in a concrete
member before loads are applied will balance the tensile stresses imposed in the
member during service.

Simply, Permanent pre-compression is produced in the areas subjected to tension using

high tensile strength steel wires or alloys. Now, a portion of tensile stress is
counteracted, thereby reducing the cross-sectional area of steel reinforcement.

As as result, the concrete does not crack because the pre-stressing has reduced the
tensile stress in the section below cracking stress. hence concrete is treated as a elastic
material.

Now, the concrete is said to have two compressive force:

1. Internal prestressing force

2. External forces (Dead load, Live load etc.)
These two forces must counteract each other.

When loads are applied, reinforcing steel takes on more stress and the compressive
force in the concrete is reduced greatly, so that it doesn’t become a tensile force. As a
result the concrete is less prone to cracks or failures because it is always under
compression.

Definition: Prestressed concrete is concrete that has had internal stresses introduced to
counteract, to the degree desired, the tensile stresses that will be imposed in service. The
stress is usually imposed by tendons of individual hard-drawn wires, cables of hard-
drawn wires, or bars of high strength alloy steel. Prestressing may be achieved either by
pretensioning or by post-tensioning.
Definition Source: Prestressed, Pretensioned and Post-Tensioned Concrete

Prestressed concrete structures can be classified in a number of ways depending upon

the feature of designs and constructions.

1. Pre-tensioning: As the name says, the steel wires or tendons are tensioned first and
the concrete is poured later. Tendons are temporarily anchored and tensioned and the
prestress is transferred to the concrete after it is hardened.

Then the tendon tries to shrink back to the original length, but resisted by the bond
between the concrete thereby inducing compressive force in it.
2. Post-tensioning: Post- tensioning similar to pre-tensioning, where concrete is
poured first, allowed to harden and the tendons is tensioned later. Tendons are placed
in sheathing at suitable places in the member before casting and later after hardening of
concrete.

Uses:

 Longer spans
 Unique designs: irregular shapes
 Shorter construction cycles
 Cost reduction
 Shorter floor-to-floor heights
 Superior structural performance
Other Sources:

Prestressed Concrete

Introduction to prestressed concrete

Pre-stressing is generally a way to overcome concrete weakness in tension. Generally,

the concrete undergoes compression on top flange and tension at bottom flange. In pre-
stressing the tendons are stretched along the axis and cement is poured, later when the
tendons are released the compression is generated at the bottom which tries to counter-
balance the compression due to loading at the top part of the beam. The upward force
along the length of the beam counteracts the service loads applied to the member. The
unique characteristics of pre-stressed concrete allow predetermined, engineering
stresses to be placed in members to counteract stresses that occur when the unit is
subjected to service loads.
In ordinary reinforced concrete, stresses are carried by the steel reinforcement, whereas
prestressed concrete supports the load by induced stresses throughout the entire
structural element. This makes it more resistant to shock and vibration than ordinary
concrete, and able to form long, thin structures with much smaller sectional areas to
support equivalent loads.

Prestressed concrete is a system into which internal stresses are deliberately induced
without any form of external loads to improve its performance. The internal stresses
induced in the concrete structure is used to counteract the stresses coming from the
external load application.
As mentioned before, prestressing is the application of an initial load on the concrete
structure, so that the structure is able to counteract or withstand the stresses coming
due to the service loads. The concept can be clearly understood by the example of a
barrel. Prestressing removes a number of design limitations conventional concrete
places on span and load and permits the building of roofs, floors, bridges, and walls with
longer unsupported spans. This allows architects and engineers to design and build
lighter and shallower concrete structures without sacrificing strength

application

Prestressed concrete is a type of concrete , as name only tells that , (pre+stress)

introducing internal stresses before pouring concrete to resist the external stresses…

Main advantage is that , it reduces cracking ,steel corrosion and helps I. increases
durability..

Aplications: Casting electrical poles, Railway sleepers,etc..

Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil structures where its
improved performance can allow for longer spans, reduced structural thicknesses, and material
savings compared with simple reinforced concrete.

Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil structures where its improved
performance can allow for longer spans, reduced structural thicknesses, and material savings
compared with simple reinforced concrete. Typical applications include high-rise buildings,
residential slabs, foundation systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial
pavements and nuclear containment structures.[6]

Prestressed concrete is a highly versatile construction material as a result of it being an almost ideal
combination of its two main constituents: high-strength steel, pre-stretched to allow its full strength to
be easily realised; and modern concrete, pre-compressed to minimise cracking under tensile
forces.[1]:12 Its wide range of application is reflected in its incorporation into the major design codes
covering most areas of structural and civil engineering, including buildings, bridges, dams,
foundations, pavements, piles, stadiums, silos, and tanks.[6]

Building structures[edit]
Building structures are typically required to satisfy a broad range of structural, aesthetic and
economic requirements. Significant among these include: a minimum number of (intrusive)
supporting walls or columns; low structural thickness (depth), allowing space for services, or for
additional floors in high-rise construction; fast construction cycles, especially for multi-storey
buildings; and a low cost-per-unit-area, to maximise the building owner's return on investment.
The prestressing of concrete allows "load-balancing" forces to be introduced into the structure to
counter the loadings which will apply in-service. This provides many benefits to building structures:

 Longer spans for the same structural depth

Load-balancing results in lower in-service deflections, which allows spans to be increased (and
the number of supports reduced) without adding to structural depth.
 Reduced structural thickness
For a given span, lower in-service deflections allows thinner structural sections to be used, in
turn resulting in lower floor-to-floor heights, or more room for building services.
 Faster stripping time
Typically, prestressed concrete building elements are fully stressed and self-supporting within
five days. At this point they can have their formwork stripped and re-deployed to the next section
of the building, accelerating construction "cycle-times".
 Reduced material costs
The combination of reduced structural thickness, reduced conventional reinforcement quantities,
and fast construction often results in prestressed concrete showing significant cost benefits in
building structures compared to alternative structural materia

LOSSES

Losses in Prestress of Prestressed Concrete

The force which is used to stretch the wire to the required length must be available all the
time as prestressing force if the steel is to be prevented from contracting. Contraction of
steel wire occurs due to several causes, affecting reduction in the prestress. This
reduction in the prestressing force is called loss in prestress.
 In a prestressed concrete beam, the loss is due to the following:
1. Elastic shortening

2. Shrinkage of concrete

3. Creep of concrete

4. Frictional loss

5. Relaxation of steel

6. Anchorage take-up

Table: Types of Losses of Prestress

Pre-
S.No. Types of Losses Post-Tensioning
Tensioning

No loss due to elastic deformation if all the wires are

Elastic
simultaneously tensioned. If the wires are successively
1 deformation of Yes
tensioned, there will be loss of prestress due to elastic
concrete
deformation of concrete.

Relaxation of
2 Yes Yes
stress in steel

Shrinkage of
3 Yes Yes
concrete

Creep of
4 Yes Yes
concrete

5 Friction No Yes

6 Anchorage grip No Yes

1. Loss due to Elastic Shortening
When the prestress is transmitted to the concrete member, there is contraction due to
prestress. This contraction causes a loss of stretch in the wire. When some of the stretch
is lost, prestress gets reduced. Let be the compressive stress at the level of steel.

Unit contraction in concrete,

Unit contraction in steel is also equal to

Compressive stress in steel =

Therefore, loss in prestress, = compressive stress in steel

is computed as follows for different cases:

a) If a straight tendon is provided with an eccentricity ‘e’ throughout its length (fig.
below)
b) If a parabolic cable is provided with eccentricity e1 at the ends and e2 at the centre,

Shear stress at the end section =

Stress at the centre =

Average stress=

In the post tensioned beams several cables are provided. The cables are stretched in
succession. When a cable is stretched, this cable suffers no loss, but the cable stretched
before suffers a loss due to prestress in the cable being stretched.

Thus the cable which is stretched first will suffer maximum loss due to stretching of (n –
1) cables where n is the total number of cables. The cable stretched last will not suffer
any loss. To calculate the loss due to elastic shortening, loss in the first cable is calculated
and half of this value is taken as the average loss of all the cables.

2. Loss due to Shrinkage of Concrete

There is contraction due to drying of concrete and shrinkage strain occurs in concrete.
Shrinkage strain causes the steel to lose its stretch, resulting in the loss of prestress.

Loss of stretch = shrinkage strain .

Therefore, loss in prestress =

= 0.0003 for pre-tensioned elements, and

 for post-tensioned beams
Where ‘t’ is the age of concrete.

3. Loss due to Creep of Concrete

Creep is the time dependent deformation due to permanent force. In prestressed concrete,
prestress is the permanent force in the member, causing compressive stress at the level of
steel. Hence there is creep strain in the member.

Creep strain = Ce x Elastic strain

Elastic strain = (fc/Ec)

fe is the stress in concrete at the level of steel.

Loss in prestress = creep strain x Es

4. Loss due to Creep in steel (Relaxation of

steel)
When the stresses in steel is more than half of its yield stress there is creep in steel also.
Force of prestress falls as a result of creep in steel. Then there is a loss of prestress.
Percentage creep varies from 1 to 5%. Creep in steel is also termed as relaxation of steel.
Relaxation loss may be estimated using table below:

Initial Stress Relaxation loss (N/mm2)

0.5fp

0.6fp 35

0.7fp 70
 0.8fp 90

fp is the characteristic strength of steel.

There are several means of reducing or balancing the loss of prestress due to creep.

Choice of proper steel helps to reduce this loss. Prestressed wires have lesser creep.
Galvanised wires also have no creep. Hence choice of proper steel will help to reduce the
los of prestress due to creep. Further, creep in steel takes place mostly during few days.
Under constant strain, creep stops entirely after about 15 days. Therefore, creep of steel
could be reduced considerably by overstressing steel about 10% above its initial stress
and then releasing it to the initial stress.

5. Loss due to Friction

Frictional loss occurs only in post tensioned beams. When the cable is stressed, friction
between the sides of the duct and the cable does not permit full tension to be transmitted.
Therefore at a point away from the jacking end prestress is less.

Frictional loss is due to:

1. Length effect, and

2. Curvature effects.

Friction between the tendon and its surrounding material is the length effect and is
sometimes described as wobbling effect. Friction due to length effect depends on the
length, stress in the tendon (cable) and the coefficient of friction between the contact
materials.

Curvature effect is caused by the friction due to designed curvature of the cable. Loss due
to these effects is estimated as follows:

Consider a small length of the cable. Let ds be its length and R be the radius of curvature.
(Figure below).

Let be the angle subtended at the centre by the length ds.

Let F be prestress at one end and F – dF the prestress at the other end.
If N is the normal component of F, we have

If is the coefficient of friction, frictional loss = dF=

Frictional loss due to wobble effect is calculated as

dF = –KFds

where K is coefficient of wave effect.

Therefore, total frictional loss = dF =

or

if F is the prestress at a distance S subtending an angle , integrating the above equation

between limits F and Fx, we have

Value of and K may be taken as follows:

Material in Contact
 For steel and concrete 0.55

For steel and steel 0.30

For steel and lead 0.25

Loss of force = F – Fx

Frictional loss can be reduced by adapting the following measures:

1. Cables should pass through metal tubes

2. The bends should be through as small an angle as possible.

3. Radius of curvature for bends should be large

4. Prestressing the wire from both ends

5. Over-tensioning the wires.

Total Loss of Prestress in Prestressed

Concrete
If prestress is measured at the time of pulling the wire, the stress is termed as the jacking
stress. Deducting the loss due to anchorage take-up and friction, initial prestress is
obtained. Effective stress is usually the initial stress minus other four losses namely:

Loss due to
1. elastic shortening

2. shrinkage of concrete

3. creep of concrete

4. relaxation of steel

if jacketing stress is treated as the initial stress, effective stress is jacketing stress minus
all losses. Since in most cases frictional loss and the anchorage take-up can be
compensated by overstressing, total loss is due to elastic shortening, shrinkage of
concrete, creep of concrete and relaxation of steel. Total losses for pre-tensioned and
post-tensioned beams are as follows:

Loss due to Pre-tensioning Post-tensioning

1. Elastic shortening 3 1

2. Creep of concrete 6 5

3. Shrinkage of concrete 7 6

4. Creep of steel 2 3

Total 18% 15%

Loss can be expressed as percentage or in terms of stress or in terms of total deformation

or in terms of strain.

LOAD BALANCING METHOD

The concept of load balancing is introduced for pre-stressed concrete structures, as a third approach
after the elastic stress and the ultimate strength methods of design and analysis. It is first applied to
simple beams and canti-levers and then to continuous beams and rigid frames. Principles of load
balancing for flat slabs, grid systems, and certain forms of shells and folded plates are introduced.
The amount of loading to be balanced by prestressing ist suggested.

The determination of prestress tendon profile is a crucial step in the design of prestressed concrete structures.
Like other design procedures, it is perceived to be a trial-and-error process. As an uncommon alternative to the
conventional method of working out secondary moments and revising the tendon profile when the line of
pressure falls out of the limiting zone, the load-balancing method offers great potential for direct determination
of tendon profile. Though decades have passed since its proposition, there are still no comprehensive
guidelines as to how the load-balancing method should be implemented. Issues regarding how much load
should be balanced and how the method should be applied to two-dimensional structures etc have not been
systemicalfy addressed. In this paper, the load-balancing method is revisited. Various considerations in the
implementation of the method are discussed and two examples are presented to illustrate the step-by-step
procedures. It is shown that the method is actually quite easy to implement, even in complicated structures like
curved continuous bridges. Finally, it is advocated that the method is a much more efficient alternative to the
conventional method and should be incorporated in the standard design process.

determination of tendon profile using load balancing method

The determination of prestress tendon profile is a crucial step in the design of prestressed concrete
structures. Like other design procedures, it is perceived to be a trial-and-error process. As an uncommon
alternative to the conventional method of working out secondary moments and revising the tendon
profile when the line of pressure falls out of the limiting zone, the load-balancing method offers great
potential for direct determination of tendon profile. Though decades have passed since its proposition,
there are still no comprehensive guidelines as to how the load-balancing method should be
implemented. Issues regarding how much load should be balanced and how the method should be
applied to twodimensional structures etc have not been systemically addressed. In this paper, the load-
balancing method is revisited. Various considerations in the implementation of the method are
discussed and two examples are presented to illustrate the step-by-step procedures. It is shown that the
method is actually quite easy to implement, even in complicated structures like curved continuous
bridges. Finally, it is advocated that the method is a much more efficient alternative to the conventional
method and should be incorporated in the standard design process. Keywords: Load-balancing Method,
Prestressed Concrete

Introduction In the design of prestressed concrete structures, designers often found the deviation of the
line of pressure in concrete (C-line) from the tendon profile due to structural indeterminacy
incomprehensible. For example, consider the two-span continuous beam in Fig 1(a) with a prestress
tendon running from one end to the other. Due to structural indeterminacy, there are often vertical
reactions induced at the supports by the prestress forces, as shown in Fig 1(b). These reactions are
called secondary loads. They are self-equilibrating but nonetheless would produce secondary moments,
as depicted in Fig 1(c). Since the secondary moments are produced by vertical reactions at supports, the
secondary moment diagram is linear. Due to the secondary moments, additional eccentricity is
introduced causing the Cline to deviate from the tendon profile, Fig 1(d). The amount of deviation is
linear and in fact proportional to the secondary moment diagram. Theories for the above phenomenon
have been developed [1]. The first theory is that of concordant profile. If the tendon profile produces no
secondary moment such that the C-line coincides with the tendon profile, the profile is called a
concordant profile; otherwise, it is a non-concordant profile. The second theory is that of linear
transformation. If the tendon profile is linearly transformed by raising or lowering the tendon at the
intermediate supports while maintaining the shape of the tendon profile between supports, there will
be no effect on the position of the C-line. Hence, the amount of deviation of the C-line from a non-
concordant profile may be taken as the linear transformation to be applied for obtaining a concordant
profile, and the C-line itself is a concordant profile. In conventional practice, the following steps, which
have been given in many textbooks [1,2], are generally adopted to determine the tendon profile and the
C-line: (1) assume a trial tendon profile; (2) for the given tendon profile, calculate the primary moments
ignoring the secondary loads; (3) calculate the resulting moments taking into account the secondary
loads; (4) evaluate the secondary moments as the difference between the resulting moments and the
primary moments; (5) apply linear transformation to the tendon profile to yield the C-line; (6) if the C-
line does not lie entirely within the limiting zone governed by the permissible stresses of concrete,
modify the tendon profile and repeat the above steps until the C-line lies entirely within the limiting
zone. Such a procedure to determine the tendon profile is basically a trial-and-error process. It could be
very iterative if the initially assumed trial tendon profile is not close to any viable one. Good experience
and Practical Determination of Prestress Tendon Profile by Load-balancing Method P L NG BEng
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong Email: h0001736@hkusua.hku.hk The
determination of prestress tendon profile is a crucial step in the design of prestressed concrete
structures. Like other design procedures, it is perceived to be a trial-and-error process. As an uncommon
alternative to the conventional method of working out secondary moments and revising the tendon
profile when the line of pressure falls out of the limiting zone, the load-balancing method offers great
potential for direct determination of tendon profile. Though decades have passed since its proposition,
there are still no comprehensive guidelines as to how the load-balancing method should be
implemented. Issues regarding how much load should be balanced and how the method should be
applied to twodimensional structures etc have not been systemically addressed. In this paper, the load-
balancing method is revisited. Various considerations in the implementation of the method are
discussed and two examples are presented to illustrate the step-by-step procedures. It is shown that the
method is actually quite easy to implement, even in complicated structures like curved continuous
bridges. Finally, it is advocated that the method is a much more efficient alternative to the conventional
method and should be incorporated in the standard design process. Keywords: Load-balancing Method,
Prestressed Concrete Albert K H KWAN BSc(Eng) PhD CEng FHKIE MICE Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Hong Kong Email: khkwan@hku.hk Figure 1 – A Two-span Continuous Prestressed
Concrete Beam The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers 28 judgement is therefore needed when
assuming the trial tendon profile. For complicated structures, the determination of tendon profiles
following the above procedures could be a formidable task. Whilst the primary moments can be
evaluated quite easily because they are dependent only on the prestress force and eccentricity of the
tendon, the computation of the secondary moments is rather cumbersome. Conventionally, the
equivalent load approach [2] of converting the prestress force to equivalent point loads, distributed
loads and bending moments, and applying the equivalent loads to the statically indeterminate structure
is used to compute the resulting moments and secondary moments. Kong [3] has recently developed an
alternative approach of using the influence lines due to a moving unit load and a moving unit moment to
directly compute the secondary moments at the supports. His approach has the major advantage that
for structures comprising solely of linear members, closed-form solutions for the secondary moments
can be obtained. The closed-form solutions would allow direct evaluation of how the secondary
moments would vary with the change of tendon profile and thus easier judgement of how the tendon
profile should be modified when necessary. Regardless of whether the conventional equivalent load
approach or Kong’s influence line approach is adopted, the determination of the tendon profile remains
a trial-and-error process requiring the computation of secondary moments at each iteration step.
Moreover, all the theories about secondary moments are applicable only to one-dimensional structures
(structures comprising solely of linear members). For two-dimensional structures, such as a relatively
wide bridge constructed of several beam members and a curved bridge sitting on several supports, the
secondary loads induced at the supports would produce not only secondary moments, but also
secondary warping shears (loads causing warping of sectional shape) and secondary torsions (loads
causing twisting). Extension of the secondary moment theories to two-dimensional structures is
extremely difficult and would in any case result in procedures too complicated for design applications. In
actual fact, the C-lines of the structure can be evaluated just by analysing the statically indeterminate
structure under the equivalent loads of the prestress force without resorting to any secondary moments
at all. It is therefore advocated that we should do away with the calculation of secondary moments
during the iterative process of determining the tendon profile. We cannot avoid searching for a viable
tendon profile iteratively but if the initially assumed tendon profile is close enough to a viable one, then
the number of iterations required should be relatively small. Hence, the most important step is to find a
good trial tendon profile as the initially assumed tendon profile to start with. For this purpose, the load-
balancing method should be the most direct method, as depicted in this paper.

The load-balancing method can also be applied to two-dimensional structures. Consider, for example, a
two-way slab subjected to downward load within the slab area. To balance the external load, we can
provide tendons in two orthogonal directions. Each set of tendons in one direction would produce an
upward equivalent load. If the prestress forces and tendon profiles are designed such that the total
equivalent loads of the tendons in the two directions more or less balance the external load, the net
loading on the slab could be very much reduced. The above method of balancing the external loads by
prestressing so as to minimise the flexural/shear stresses and deflection of the structure is applicable to
all kinds of structures, regardless of whether the structure is statically determinate or indeterminate and
whether the tendon profile is concordant or non-concordant. Most important of all, the secondary loads
induced by prestressing, which could produce not only secondary moments, but also secondary warping
shears and secondary torsions, do not come into play and therefore need not be explicitly considered
when applying the load-balancing method. It is necessary only to determine the unbalanced loads and
apply the unbalanced loads to the structure to find out whether the resulting flexural/shear stresses and
deflection are within the acceptable limits

Load-balancing Method Load-balancing Concept The concept behind the load-balancing method, which
was originated by Lin [4] in 1963, is basically to conceive prestressing as a means of balancing the
external loads acting on the structure. When applying the method, the prestress force is replaced by
equivalent loads along the tendon. The equivalent loads comprise of point loads at sharp turns of the
tendon, distributed loads at curves of the tendon and bending moments at ends of the tendon. If the
prestress force and tendon profile are designed such that the equivalent loads just balance or nearly
balance the external loads, then there would be a relatively small net loading on the structure, leading
to reduced flexural/shear stresses and lateral deflection. Take the simply supported prestressed
concrete beam in Fig 2 subjected to a downward uniformly distributed load of intensity w as an
example. Let the prestress force be F, the span length be L and the sag of the tendon be h. If the tendon
profile has a uniform curvature, ie the tendon profile is parabolic, then the equivalent load of the
prestress force would be an upward uniformly distributed load of intensity wb per unit length given by:
8Fh L2 wb = Adding the external load and the equivalent load of the prestress force together, the net
loading on the beam is only of intensity (w – wb ). The beam needs only to carry the unbalanced load (w
– wb ), and the resulting flexural stresses and deflection of the beam should be much smaller than those
without prestressing. Furthermore, if the prestress force and tendon profile are designed such that wb =
w, there would be no unbalanced load and the beam would be subjected only to axial compression,
which eliminates tension and avoids cracking of the concrete. The load-balancing method can also be
applied to two-dimensional structures. Consider, for example, a two-way slab subjected to downward
load within the slab area. To balance the external load, we can provide tendons in two orthogonal
directions. Each set of tendons in one direction would produce an upward equivalent load. If the
prestress forces and tendon profiles are designed such that the total equivalent loads of the tendons in
the two directions more or less balance the external load, the net loading on the slab could be very
much reduced. The above method of balancing the external loads by prestressing so as to minimise the
flexural/shear stresses and deflection of the structure is applicable to all kinds of structures, regardless
of whether the structure is statically determinate or indeterminate and whether the tendon profile is
concordant or non-concordant. Most important of all, the secondary loads induced by prestressing,
which could produce not only secondary moments, but also secondary warping shears and secondary
torsions, do not come into play and therefore need not be explicitly considered when applying the load-
balancing method. It is necessary only to determine the unbalanced loads and apply the unbalanced
loads to the structure to find out whether the resulting flexural/shear stresses and deflection are within
the acceptable limits. Figure 2 – Balancing of External Load by Prestressing Load-balancing Criteria Apart
from dead load (DL), there is also live load (LL) acting on the structure. As the live load could vary greatly
in both magnitude and position, many different loading cases need to be considered. However, it is
possible only to balance a given set of external loads and therefore the presence of unbalanced load is
inevitable, whichever loading case is considered for load balancing. While emphasising the importance
of judgement, Lin [4] has provided the following rules for choosing the loads to be balanced. Firstly, for
structures subjected to live load that is small compared to the dead load, we may balance the dead load
only. Secondly, for structures subjected to live load that is not small compared to the dead load, we
need to balance not only the dead load but also a certain portion of the live load. The basic criterion is
that the resulting unbalanced loads in the different loading cases should not produce any flexural
stresses exceeding the allowable limits. If the amount of live load balanced is on the high side, then
when no live load is acting, there will be a relatively large upward unbalanced load. On the other hand, if
the amount of live load balanced is on the low side, then when full live load is acting, there will be a
relatively large downward unbalanced load. In between, there is an optimum point at which the upward
unbalanced load and the downward unbalanced load would produce more or less the same
TRANSACTIONS • Volume 13 Number 3 29 flexural stresses. For such optimisation, Lin suggested that
the load to be balanced might be taken as (DL + ½ LL). Aalami and Jurgens [5] have recently advised that
for the design of prestressed concrete floor slabs and beams, the load to be balanced may be expressed
in terms of the dead load only. They recommended that for floor slabs, 0.6 to 0.8 of the dead load could
be balanced while for floor beams, which are more heavily loaded, the load to be balanced could be
increased to 0.8 to 1.1 of the dead load. No explanation was given as to how these recommended values
were derived. Presumably, these values were arrived at based on their own practical experience. Other
than the above, there have been very few guidelines for establishing the load-balancing criteria. In this
regard, the authors are of the view that the loadbalancing criteria should be developed based on the
following considerations. Firstly, the load to be balanced should better be expressed in terms of both
the dead load and the live load. In general, the load to be balanced may be taken as (DL + αLL), where α
is a coefficient. The live load LL should be the live load of the critical loading case. If there are several
critical loading cases, then all these loading cases should be considered by working out the moment
envelop produced and evaluating the live load that would produce a moment diagram similar to the
moment envelop as the live load LL to be considered for load balancing. For instance, in the case of
bridge design, several loading cases with live load acting on different spans could be critical. When
considering the hogging moment at a support, the loading case of adjacent spans loaded would be
critical but when considering the sagging moment at mid-span, the loading case of alternate spans
loaded would be critical. These two loading cases would together produce a moment envelop with a
maximum hogging moment at the support and a maximum sagging moment at mid-span. From these,
the live load LL may be taken as the live load that would produce a moment diagram similar to the
moment envelop. However, since the structure should be able to carry some unbalanced load, there is
no need to balance all live load in all loading cases. To avoid becoming too sophisticated, the live load LL
to be considered for load balancing may simply be taken as the full live load acting on all spans. The next
step is to choose an appropriate value of α, which is dependent on a number of factors. If α is too high,
then at transfer stage when the structure is subjected to only part of the dead load and no live load, the
upward unbalanced load may become critical, while if α is too low, then at full load, the downward
unbalanced load may become critical instead. Hence, the permissible stresses at transfer stage would
impose an upper limit to α and the permissible stresses at working stage would impose a lower limit to
α. In case the permissible stresses at transfer stage are exceeded, the value of α should be adjusted
downwards. On the other hand, in case the permissible stresses at working stage are exceeded, the
value of α should be adjusted upwards. The amount of load to be balanced is to some extent also
dependent on the class of the prestressed concrete structure. For a Class 1 structure, in which no
tension is allowed, a larger load generally needs to be balanced and the appropriate value of α is likely
to be higher, while for a Class 2 structure, in which some tension is allowed, a smaller load generally
needs to be balanced and the appropriate value of α is likely to be lower. Another important factor to be
considered is that of excessive camber. In many structures, the live loads are essentially transient loads,
each with an average value substantially lower than the design value (the design value is actually a
conservative estimate of the maximum possible value). Consequently, the equivalent load of the
prestress force could exceed the total load, leading to an upward unbalanced load acting on the
structure, during most of the time. The upward unbalanced load would cause cambering, ie upward
deflection, of the structure. Such cambering would increase with time due to the aggravating effect of
creep and might become excessive in the longer term. To avoid excessive camber, it is suggested that
the live load to be balanced should not be greater than the average value of the live load. For this
purpose, the average value may be taken as the quasi-permanent value of the live load given in the
Eurocode 0 [6] and the UK National Annex for Eurocode 0 [7], where the quasi-permanent value is
expressed as ψ2 times the live load. Hence, the value of α should not be greater than the value of ψ2
given in these codes. Without further ado, the value of α may in practice be simply assigned an initial
value of 1/3 for a Class 1 structure and an initial value of 0 for a Class 2 structure. These values of α
should each be close to the optimum value for the respective class of structure in usual cases. When
found necessary, the value of α may be adjusted upwards or downwards to satisfy all the permissible
stress limits at different stages or just to optimise the design of the structure. Determination of Tendon
Profile The load-balancing method offers great potential in simplifying the structural design and analysis
procedures. Notwithstanding this, the method has not gained wide recognition, especially in the local
practice. One probable reason is the lack of step-by-step procedures for designers to follow. For several
decades, the load-balancing method has not been further advanced in the mainstream development of
prestressed concrete structures. In most textbooks on prestressed concrete design, the load-balancing
concept is only briefly mentioned [8] or even not included [9]. Hence, before this method would gain
wider recognition and eventually become a handy tool for design, more explanations and guidelines
need to be provided. Some step-by-step procedures for the determination of tendon profile are given in
the following: (1) establish the load-balancing criteria and compute the loads to be balanced; (2)
determine the tendon sag in each span and draft the idealised tendon profile in the form of discrete
curves; (3) taking the extrema of the idealised tendon profile as control points, produce a trial tendon
profile in the form of continuous curves; (4) check whether the extreme fibre stresses have exceeded
the permissible stress limits in any loading case to verify the viability of the tendon profile; and (5) if the
tendon profile is not viable, modify the tendon profile and repeat the above steps until a viable tendon
profile is arrived at. With the trial tendon profile guided by balancing a certain combination of loads, the
above procedures should be more efficient than blind trials. Though iterations may still be needed, the
number of iterations to arrive at a viable tendon profile should be relatively small. The above steps are
demonstrated by the following examples. Examples

EQUIVALENT LOAD METHOD

A method is presented for post-tensioned reinforced concrete structures whereby the effect of cable
tension can be expressed as distributed or concentrated load. The analysis thus becomes a simple
matter of aplying methods with which the designer is already familiar. The function of the post-
tensioned wires thus can be visalized easily.

LIMITATIONS AND REALISTIC APPLICATION OF

EQUIVALENT LOAD METHODS IN PRE-STRESSED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
The purpose of this paper is to investigate several important methods of obtaining the equivalent
loads in prestressed concrete structures, and to compare the advantages and limitations of each
method. The methods devised in this study include the use of curvature of tendon, characteristics of
primary moment, self-equilibrium condition and linear segments approximation of tendon. Several
important numerical examples, including simple and continuous beams, are presented to show the
differences among the methods. It is shown that the equivalent loading system is not uniquely
determined depending on the approach adopted to calculate the equivalent loads, which results in
different section forces even from the same pre-stressed concrete structure. The self-equilibrium
conditions of the equivalent loading system are discussed, which indicates that some parasitic
reactions may arise by some approximate equivalent loads even for the determinate structures. The
present study indicates that the equivalent load method can be applied to various types of pre-
stressed concrete members in a rational and efficient manner by carefully obtaining the equivalent
loads.

B-Spline profile

In prestressed concrete, cable layout plays an important role in reducing tension from
the concrete. Due to curvature, cable exerts forces on the concrete to counter balance the
forces causing tension. Actual cable profile is a smooth curve passing through all the spans.

http://nitttrbpl.ac.in/journal/volume2/8-Ahmad%20Ali%20Khan.pdf Bspline

Introduction

Introduction
Cable layout design is an important task for the realistic design of prestressed
concrete structures. Due to friction, effective prestress force along the span of
beam decreases, hence cable layout design should be carried out considering
the realistic forces. Some of the prominent reported work in the area of cable
layout design are as follows.

Akhtar et.al (2008) carried FEA analysis of prestressed concrete beams using B-
spline cable profile for non friction conditions. Brandt(1989) and Kirsch (1973,93)
have carried out cable layout optimization using mathematical programming
methods. Lin (1963) presented load balancing method for design and analysis of
prestressed concrete structures using straight and parabolic tendon profile.
Lounis et.al (1993) carried out multi objective optimization of prestressed
concrete beam and bridge girder. Kuyucular (1991) obtained optimum cable
profile of prestressed concrete slabs using elastic theory and finite element
method. Pathak et.al (2004) presented analysis of prestress concrete beam
considering different cable models. Utrilla et.al (1997) and Quiroga et.al (1991)
obtained cable layout in bridge decks using linear and non-linear programming
methods. Li et.al (2009) obtained equivalent load and loss of tendon force using
cubic spline profile.

In the cable layout design it is necessary to estimate frictional prestress losses to

find out optimum value of tendon-force required for design and to be applied at
the time of prestressing, some of the prominent researches in this field are
B-Spline theory
Abstract: Splines, which were invented by Schoenberg, constitute a smooth curve between given data
points. They are widely used in computer-aided designs, geometric modeling, graphics, and
aerodynamic designs. This paper gives a new technique for efficient mathematical modeling of
prestressing cable using B-spline curve. In prestressed concrete structures, cable profile plays an
important role in reducing tension from concrete. So far, this cable was modeled, as of parabolic shape
but the actual cable profile is a smooth curve. A new approach has been used in this paper for efficient
modeling of cable using B-spline. This gives various other added advantages, which is not possible by any
other curve. This is implemented in finite element analysis of 9-node Lagrangian element for concrete
and cable model by 3-node bar element. Based on vector calculus formulation reaction of the cable on
the concrete is obtained and applied on finite element nodes. Effects of friction and cable stiffness are
taken into accounts. A finite element software has been developed incorporating these features.
Various prestressed concrete beams of different spans have been successfully analysed and validated. It
is observed, this formulation is very powerful in accurate analysis of the prestressed concrete structures.

Introduction A B-spline is a typical curve of the CAD philosophy. It models a smooth curve between the
given ordinates. Most of the researchers have used this curve in shape optimization problems and first
time cable geometry is being modeled as B-spline. If we have N+1 control points Pi, we can derive
continuous function P(t) as- Pi .Ni,k(t) 0P (t) = < t < kn – k + 2, 2 < n ………(1) Where x i+1 t Ni,1 (t)
= 1 if xi 0 otherwise ………(2) And (t - xi) Ni,k-1(t) (x i+k - t) Ni+1, k-1(t) Ni,k (t) = ------------------ + -------------
------ ……..(3) (xi+k-1 - xi) (xi+k – xi+1) in this equation. Pi’s are the n +1 defining polygon vertices, k is the
order of the B-spline and Ni,k(t) is called the weighting function. X is the additional knot vector, which is
used for B-spline curves to account for the inherent xi+1 for all xiadded flexibility. A knot vector is
simply a series of real integers xi such that xi . Fig.1: Cable profile as B-spline

Advantages of B-spline curve are follows:

Changes to a control point only affect the curve in that locality. Any number of points can be added
without increasing the degree of the polynomial. As with Bezier curve adding multiple points at or near
a single position draws the curve towards that position. B-spline lie in the convex hull of the control
points.

II. Levels of Continuity •C 0 continuity: C0 continuity ensures that there are no gaps or breaks between a
curve’s beginning and ending points. The resulting curve is continuous at the join point (but not
necessarily smooth). •C 1 continuity: C1 continuity between two curve segments requires a common
tangent line at there joining point; C 1 continuity also requires C0 continuity. The resulting curve is
continuous and the derivatives of the two segments match at the join point. •C 2 continuity: C2
continuity requires that the two curves possess same curvature at there joint. The curve is continuous,
the derivatives and the 2nd derivatives match at the join point. We would like a method that provides
smooth continuity at the join points, like Hermite curves, but that uses data from a set of points like
Bezier curves. Splines provide such a method, and provide C2 continuity.

Five Span Prestressed Concrete Beam: The beam has following properties: Point loads at center of each
span W1 = W5 = W3= 50 KN, W2 = W4 = 100KN Prestressing force P = 500 KN Width, height and span =
250, 500, 8000 mm respectively. No. of elements and node = 40 , 243 respectively 104 N/mm2Young’s
Modulus and Poisson Ratio = 2 and 0.3

For this beam, cable is modeled by B spline curve and stresses at different mid span is shown in table 2
and deflection is in table 3. Distributions of stresses at top and bottom profile are shown in fig.10 and
11. It is observed that in case of without friction condition there is tension at one point whereas in with
friction condition it is at five points. Hence friction plays significant role in reduction of tensile stress.
Reduced prestressing force due to friction P’ at the other end: 193 KN Table 2: Stress at mid span and at
supports B- spline(without friction) B- spline (with friction)Stress at section Top Bottom Top Bottom
Section 1-1 - 5.69 - 2.48 - 5.66 - 1.73 Section2-2 - 0.75 - 7.66 0.97 - 7.97 Section 3-3 - 8.11 - 0.29 - 8.80
2.42 Section 4-4 - 4.61 - 3.75 - 1.13 - 4.65 Section 5-5 1.27 - 9.47 - 0.24 - 4.91 Section 6-6 - 4.59 - 3.75
0.20 - 5.02 Section 7-7 - 8.10 - 0.26 - 9.55 5.06 Section 8-8 - 0.72 - 7.64 4.16 - 8.25 Section 9-9 - 5.66 -
2.46 - 5.24 1.66 Table 3: Deflection at middle of various locations: Deflection Section Deflection
(without friction) (mm) Deflection (with friction) ’(mm) Section 1-1 - 0.158 - 0.158 Section 3-3 - 2.41 -
3.56 Section 5-5 + 6.81 +4.43 Section 7-7 - 2.43 - 5.20 Section 9-9 - 0.152 - 1.94 Efficient Mathematical
Model for Prestressing Cables and Its Implementation in Computer Analysis www.iosrjournals.org 38 |
Page VI. Conclusions In this study a new mathematical finite element based approach has been
proposed to analyze PC studies. It accounts friction and cable stiffness. Cable is modeled by B-spline
curve and its interaction with concrete is obtained by vector calculus formulation .It overcomes the
drawbacks of other models. Several PC beams are successfully analyzed. It is observed that this for

It accounts friction and cable stiffness. Cable is modeled by B-spline curve and its interaction with
concrete is obtained by vector calculus formulation .It overcomes the drawbacks of other models.
Several PC beams are successfully analyzed. It is observed that this formulation is very powerful in
accurate analysis of PC structures. Reference [1]. Bangesh M.Y.H. “Concrete and concrete structures:
Numerical modeling and Application”, Elsevier, London (1989). [2]. Gerald Farin, Curves and Surfaces for
Computer Aided Geometric Design, Academic Press,(1988) [3]. Jain M.K., S.R.K.Iyenger and R.K. Jain, “
Numerical Methods Problem and solutions”, New Age Publications, New Delhi, 166- 168. [4]. Qing S.B.
and Liu Ding Yuan, Computational Geometry – Curve and Surface Modeling, Academic Press,
London(1989) [5]. Rogers D.F., and Adams J.A., Mathematical Elements for Computers Graphics, Second
Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, (1990) [6]. Zienkiewicz,O.C., and Taylor, R.L., The Finite Element Method
Vol.1&2, Forth Edition,McGraw Hill Book Company, London, (1991)

CABLE STAYED PROFILE DESIGN

Cable arrangements Cable-stayed systems are classified according to the different longitudinal and
transverse cable arrangements. Cable layout is fundamental issue that concerns cables stayed bridges. It
not only affects the structural performance of the bridge, but also the method of erection and the
economics [5]. Longitudinal Arrangement The arrangement of the cables involves a number of
considerations. It depends on the bridge requirements, site conditions and aesthetics appearance. The
longitudinal arrangements are classified as follows [4]: 15 Harp or parallel system: The cables are parallel
to each other and are connected to the tower at different heights. The aesthetics of this kind of
configuration are very pleasant. However, the compression in the girder is higher than the others
patterns, and the tower is subjected to bending moments (Figure 2.1) [6]. 7 -, '7 7' .,7 -,. 7' 7 7 77 K N' '~'
'K 'N. N' '. N N N.K K N K K '- N' N '- N '- 'K 'K '.K F1 Figure 2.1: Harp System Fan System: This is a
modification of the harp system; the cables are connected at the same distance from the top of the
tower. The fan system is attractive for a bridge where the longitudinal layout is a single-plane, because
the cable slope is steeper, it needs and consequently the axial force in the girder is smaller [7] (figure
2.2). Figure 2.2: Fan System 16 I Radial System: With the radial configuration, all the cables connect to
the top of the tower. This is a convenient cable configuration because all the cables have their maximum
inclination; therefore the amount of material required in the girder is reduced [6]. However, this
configuration may cause congestion problems and the detailing may be complex (figure 2.3). Al \ \ \ \ \\
\ \\ \\ ~ ~ 1- 1~ Figure 2.3: Radial System Transverse Arrangement For the transverse arrangement the
classification is made according to the positioning of the cables in different planes. Two basic
classifications follow [4]: Single-plane system: This system is composed of a single cable layout along the
longitudinal axis of the superstructure. This kind of layout is governed by torsional 17 behaviour. The
forces are created by unsymmetrical loading on the deck. The main girder must have adequate torsional
stiffness to resist the torsion force. Two-plane system: If the tower is of the shape of an H-Tower, the
layout is a two-plane vertical system. If only one tower is provided in the middle of the superstructure,
then the layout is a two-plane, inclined system. The transverse layout has two options for the
anchorage. The anchorage is located either outside of the deck structure or inside the main girder. The
spacing of the cables varies according the chosen layout and the aesthetics requirements. The current
trend is to employ many cables [5]. Increasing the number of cables reduces the required stiffness of the
girders, and results in more slender superstructure sections. Consequently, the load in each cable
decreases, and the construction process is simplified. 18 2.2 Deck Types The most common deck type for
these bridges is the orthotropic deck, which consists of longitudinal ribs resting on cross-girders.
Orhtotropic decks are a very light, efficient, superstructure solution for long span bridges [1

CABLE STAYED PROFILE DESIGN

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/203d/b932249c3702921e5834fcf006e27e91333a.pdf

HISTORY OF PRESTRESS CONCRETE

The history of prestressed concrete: 1888 to 1963

Dinges, Tyson
The concept of prestressed concrete appeared in 1888 when P.H. Jackson was granted the first
patent in the United States for prestressed concrete design. Jackson’s idea was perfect, but the
technology of high strength steel that exhibited low relaxation characteristics was not yet
available. It was not until Eugene Freyssinet defined the need for these materials that prestressed
concrete could be used as a structural building material. Unfortunately, although Freyssinet, a
brilliant structural designer and bridge builder, lacked the teaching qualities necessary to
communicate his ideas to other engineers. It would take Gustave Magnel to write the first book
of design in prestressed concrete, communicating this idea to designers worldwide. Magnel
designed and built the legendary Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, which revolutionized
prestressed concrete in America. Simultaneously, Urlich Finsterwalder, the German bridge
builder and designer, was revolutionizing the construction means and methods for prestressed
concrete bridges. For example, Finsterwalder invented the free-cantilever construction method
of prestressed concrete bridges, which allowed long span bridges to be constructed without
stabilized shoring. He then designed stress-ribbon bridges, which would eventually allow
prestressed concrete to span distances only steel suspension bridges could achieve. However, it
wasn’t until Paul Abeles and his peer, H. von Emperger studied and tested prestressed concrete
that the idea of “partial prestressing” emerged. Initially, Freyssinet and Magnel were adamant
that prestressed concrete should not be allowed to exhibit any tensile forces at sustained loading.
Later, the Roebling family developed the first stress--relieved wire followed by the first stress--
relieved strand. T.Y. Lin once again brought prestressed concrete back into the spotlight when
he organized the First Prestressed Concrete World Conference in 1957. Shortly after this
conference, Lin published a technical paper in the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) Journal
that introduced a new Load Balancing technique which allowed most structural engineers to
design prestressed concrete very easily.

FORTRAN

Fortran (/ˈfɔːrtræn/; formerly FORTRAN, derived from Formula Translation[2]) is a general-

purpose, compiled imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric
computation and scientific computing.
Originally developed by IBM[3] in the 1950s for scientific and engineering applications, FORTRAN
came to dominate this area of programming early on and has been in continuous use for over half a
century in computationally intensive areas such as numerical weather prediction, finite element
analysis, computational fluid dynamics, computational physics, crystallography and computational
chemistry. It is a popular language for high-performance computing[4] and is used for programs that
benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.[5]
Fortran encompasses a lineage of versions, each of which evolved to add extensions to the
language while usually retaining compatibility with prior versions. Successive versions have added
support for structured programming and processing of character-based data (FORTRAN 77), array
programming, modular programming and generic programming (Fortran 90), high performance
Fortran (Fortran 95), object-oriented programming (Fortran 2003) and concurrent
programming (Fortran 2008).
Fortran's design was the basis for many other programming languages. Among the better known
is BASIC, which is based on FORTRAN II with a number of syntax cleanups, notably better logical
structures,[6] and other changes to more easily work in an interactive environment.[7]
ABstract

Abstract and figures

Owing to their excellent structural characteristics, aesthetic appearance, low maintenance cost, and efficient use of structural
materials, cable-stayed bridges have gained much popularity in recent decades. Stay cables of a cable stayed bridge are post-
tensioned to counteract the effect of the bridge dead load. The solution for an optimum distribution of post-tensioning cable
forces is considered one of the most important and difficult tasks in the design of cable-stayed bridges. A novel approach that
utilizes the finite element method, B-spline curves, and real coded genetic algorithm to determine the global optimum post-
tensioning cable forces is developed. The effect of geometric nonlinearity on the determination of the post-tensioning cable
forces is assessed. The study is further extended to develop the first surrogate polynomial functions that can be used to evaluate
the post-tensioning cable forces in semi-fan cable stayed bridges. The developed post-tensioning functions are then used to
investigate the optimal geometric configurations, which lead to the most uniform distribution of the post-tensioning cable forces.
Details of an optimization code developed in-house specifically to optimize the design of composite cable-stayed bridges with
semi-fan cable arrangement are then reported. The optimization design code integrates a finite element model, the real coded
genetic algorithm, the post-tensioning polynomial functions, and the design provisions provided by the Canadian Highway
Bridge Design Code. An extensive parametric study is then conducted using this optimization code to develop a database for the
optimum design of semi-fan cable-stayed bridges. The database covers bridge lengths ranging from 250 m to 700 m. It describes
the variations of the optimum design parameters, such as the main span length, height of the pylon, number of stay cables, and
cross-sectional dimensions with the total length of the bridge.

Abstract

During the construction control in order to better control the elevation, the need for sensitivity
analysis of the design parameters, the sensitivity analysis of design parameter adjustment principle,
so as to adjust the measured deflection and deflection calculation error of judgment, and for the
cross section should be the main design parameters of stress sensitivity. This method can identify
accurately fast parameter error during the bridge construction, and ensure the smooth and long
construction Liang Qiao. To provide reference for construction control of this kind of bridge
deflection.

abstract sensitivity

Abstract
Three sensitivity analysis methods are employed to achieve the optimum selection of the
dominant random variables of selected concrete structures. The first of these methods uses the
nonparametric rank‐order statistical correlation between the basic random input variables and the
structural response output variable. The second is neural network ensemble‐based sensitivity
analysis and the last of them is sensitivity analysis in terms of coefficient of variation. All of the
methods were utilized and compared for two selected concrete structures: a prestressed concrete
bridge made of MPD girders, and T‐shaped prestressed concrete roof girder. The obtained
information was used to set up a stochastic model and response surfaces in an optimum manner
and was employed in the subsequent determination of selected uncertain design parameters
followed by load‐bearing capacity and reliability assessment.
 1 INTRODUCTION
Sensitivity analysis is a crucial step in computational modeling and assessment. Through
sensitivity analysis we gain essential insights into the behavior of computational models, their
structure and their response to changes in model inputs. Several sensitivity analysis methods
have been developed, giving rise to a vast and growing body of literature, for example,
Kleijnen,1 Borgonovo and Plischke.2

In order to achieve structural safety, the computational analysis of concrete structures using
partial safety factors can be a pragmatic solution, but the most advantageous way of tackling the
issue is to perform nonlinear analysis and utilize the fully probabilistic approach. This approach
provides a more realistic consideration of the randomness of input parameters as material,
technological, loading, and environmental characteristics. All these parameters affect
load‐bearing capacity and thereby reliability. It is extremely important to determine the
significance of random variables in the context of reliability analysis, see for example, Novák et
al.3 With respect to the treatment of uncertainties in stochastic computational mechanics, three
main task categories can be generally distinguished:

 Statistical analysis: Approaches focused on the estimation of the statistical moments of response
quantities such as means, variances, etc.;
 Sensitivity analysis: Approaches aimed at the quantification of the sensitivity of outputs (responses,
failure probabilities) on the variation of input basic variables — uncertainties input into a response
function;
 Reliability analysis: Approaches aimed at the calculation of theoretical failure probability —
uncertainties input into a limit state function.

Sensitivity analysis is very often considered to be a supporting method providing information

important for decision making, for example, for the reduction of the number of random variables
involved in a task, for checking and assessing a production process (i.e., which properties should
be evaluated more carefully), for constructing the response surface approximation of a
computational model, for the selection of design variables in reliability‐based optimization, etc.

Three types of sensitivity analysis methods were employed for the optimum selection of the
dominant random variables of the prestressed concrete structures analyzed in this paper. These
methods were nonparametric rank‐order correlation, neural network ensemble‐based (NNE)
sensitivity analysis and sensitivity analysis in terms of coefficient of variation. Moreover, three
different alternatives were used in case of the neural network procedure. The first alternative
employs a standard back‐propagation network, while in the second one a back‐propagation
network is combined with the particle swarm optimization (PSO) of initial network parameters,
and the last alternative utilizes a radial basis function network. All of the sensitivity methods
were utilized and compared for both prestressed composite bridge made of MPD girders and for
T‐shaped prestressed concrete roof girder. The obtained information was used to set up
stochastic models and response surfaces in an optimum manner, and for the subsequent
determination of selected uncertain design parameters followed by load‐bearing capacity and
reliability assessments.

This current paper is based upon conference paper Lehký et al.,4 but includes a more detailed
theoretical explanation of all used sensitivity analysis methods. Additional alternatives have been
studied in the case of neural network‐based sensitivity analysis, including the utilization of a
radial basis function network, and of PSO in combination with a back‐propagation network. In
addition, the application of the methods to T‐shaped prestressed roof girder is also included for
demonstration purposes. A detailed discussion and comparison of the results and the practical
usability of all approaches is included.

2 NONPARAMETRIC RANK‐ORDER
CORRELATION
The relative effect of each basic random variable on structural response can be measured using
the partial correlation coefficient between each basic input variable and the response variable.
With respect to the small‐sample simulation techniques of the Monte Carlo type utilized for the
reliability assessment of time‐consuming nonlinear problems, the most straightforward and
simplest approach uses nonparametric rank‐order statistical correlation.5 This method is based
on the assumption that the random variable which influences the response variable most
considerably (either in a positive or negative sense) will have a higher correlation coefficient
than the other variables. For a detailed discussion of rank‐order statistical correlation see
Vořechovský.6 Nonparametric correlation is more robust than linear correlation and more
resistant to defects in data. It is also independent of probability distribution. Because the model
for the structural response is generally nonlinear, a nonparametric rank‐order correlation is used
by means of the Spearman correlation coefficient:

(1)
where q ji is the rank of a representative value of the random variable X i in an ordered sample
of N simulated values used in the jth simulation and p j is the rank of the response variable obtained in
the same simulation.

The crude Monte Carlo simulation method can be used for the preparation of random samples.
However, it is recommended to use a proper sampling scheme, for example, stratified Latin
hypercube sampling.7-9 This method utilizes random permutations of the number of layers of the
distribution function of the basic random variables to obtain representative values for the
simulation. When using this method, the ranks q ji in Equation (1) are directly equivalent to the
permutations used in sampling.

Nonparametric rank‐order correlation can be depicted using parallel coordinates.10 Instead of an

orthogonal representation of (q ji,p j), they are drawn in parallel and pairs of points are joined by
lines. A strong positive influence (high‐correlation coefficient) results in parallel lines between
the input variable and the response variable, while a strong negative influence results in a bundle
of intersecting lines.

3 NEURAL NETWORK ENSEMBLE‐BASED

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
The second sensitivity approach is based on an artificial neural network (ANN). ANNs are
powerful, flexible, versatile techniques which are often employed in the solution of various types
of engineering problems including prediction, classification, approximation, etc.; for example,
Cladera and Mari,11 Sakellariou and Ferentinou,12 Novák and Lehký,13 Lehký and
Novák.14 Apart from these prevailing applications, the use of ANNs to perform parameter
sensitivity analysis for engineering systems is still uncommon, although the huge potential of
ANNs has become evident in this area of research.

Existing studies, for example, Hadzima‐Nyarko et al.,15 Hao and Wang,16 mostly describe the
application of a single ANN. However, it is difficult for a single neural network to arrive at an
accurate result concerning parameter sensitivity. This is due to the uncertainty of neural network
modeling. To address this deficiency, NNE sensitivity analysis is used.17 In this approach, a
group of preselected neural networks is trained to independently carry out neural network
modeling and perform parametric sensitivity analysis.

NNE‐based parameter sensitivity analysis is designed to overcome the deficiencies of existing

ANN‐based parameter sensitivity analyses. The procedure involves four basic steps:
 A sophisticated type of neural network is empirically chosen as the seed;
 the seed produces a family of k candidate neural networks with dissimilar network structures;
 with the removal of inferior neural networks, n (n ≤ k) superior neural networks with better
performance are selected to form an NNE model;
 a selected sensitivity analysis algorithm is implemented on the NNE model to perform parameter
sensitivity analysis, leading to the ranking of sensitivity for all the parameters pertaining to the
engineering system of interest.

Figure 1 shows a schematic of NNE‐based parameter sensitivity analysis. The components are
clearly identified, that is, the seed, candidates, NNE model, and ranking.

Figure 1

Open in figure viewerPowerPoint

A schematic view of neural network ensemble‐based (NEE) parameter sensitivity analysis

Apart from network structures, sensitivity analysis algorithms also somewhat influence the
results of NNE‐based parameter sensitivity analysis. Various sensitivity analysis algorithms can
be found in the literature, for example, the partial derivatives algorithm,18 the input perturbation
algorithm19 and the connection weights algorithm.20 Among these algorithms, the most widely
used is the input perturbation algorithm, which performs sensitivity analysis based on the
assessment of the effect of a small perturbation in each input on the outputs.21 The greater the
impact on the outputs, the higher the significance of the input variable. The result of the
sensitivity analysis is obtained by ranking the effects on neural network output induced by the
same type of perturbation in every input variable. In general, the mean squared error of neural
network modeling increases with the degree of perturbation caused by adding noise to the
selected input variable. The change in the ith input variable takes the form P i = P i,ini + δ,
where P i,ini is the initial value in the selected input variable and δ is noise. δ increases in steps of
5% of the mean magnitude of all input values up to 15%. In accordance with the increased
magnitude of the mean squared error due to the change in each input variable, the importance of
input variables can be ranked; the input variable whose perturbation most strongly influences the
output possesses the highest sensitivity, or importance. In this study, the input perturbation
algorithm is implemented on the NNE model in order to perform the parameter sensitivity
analysis of engineering systems.

Several types of ANN have been tested. Among these a back‐propagation neural network (BPN)
and a radial basis function network (RBFN) have appeared to be the most suitable. Two training
procedures have been used in case of the BPN. The first of these was a standard
back‐propagation approach utilizing Bayesian regularization. In the second approach, PSO has
been combined with a BPN (BPN + PSO) in order to improve training speed and accuracy. PSO
belongs to the class of global optimization algorithms whereas the utilized BPN has a strong
ability to quickly find a local minimum. The BPN + PSO combination has achieved success
across a wide range of applications, though only a few of those applications are related to
sensitivity analysis. A theoretical description of BPN + PSO methodology is reported in Zhang et
al.22 and Das and Chaudhuri.23

The second network type which has been tested is a radial basis function network. As shown in
for example, Veeramuthuvel et al.24 and Yang et al.,25, 26 this kind of network can produce a
better approximation than a BPN in the case of nonlinear models which are used in the presented
applications.

4 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS IN TERMS OF

COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
Sensitivity analysis in terms of coefficient of variation3 is the third method used for the optimum
selection of dominant random variables in the examples presented in this paper. In this approach,
the ratio between the partial coefficient of variation of resistance and the coefficient of variation
of a selected basic variable is calculated for a case in which the selected random variable is the
only one treated as random in the simulation process.

When using a Monte Carlo type simulation, a simulated set of realizations of structural response
variable R j (j = 1, 2, …, Nsim), where Nsim is the number of simulations, is statistically evaluated
and its coefficient of variation COV R can be determined. The number of variables Nvar,
representing for example, material properties or load, can be defined as random in the simulation
process. Let us designate the partial coefficient of variation (i = 1, 2, …, Nvar) for a case in
which the variable X i is the only one treated as random and is defined using its mean value and
coefficient of variation . The other basic variables are kept as deterministic constants at
their mean values. The partial sensitivity factor for the basic random variable X i is then
defined as:

(2)

This procedure requires additional computational effort, since the set of values of structural
response variable R i and its coefficient of variation need to be evaluated with
additional Nvar sets of simulations. Therefore, in cases when the evaluation of an original model is
time‐consuming, for example, a nonlinear finite element method (FEM) model is employed, a
suitable type of surrogate model is needed in order to reduce the computational time to an
acceptable level.

Sensitivity factor in Equation (2) expresses the relative influence of individual input
random variables on the variability of structural response. If Nvar basic variables are considered as
random ones, the coefficient of variation of the response variable COV R can be calculated using
an approximate formula in the form:

(3)

It can be seen from Equation (3) that the actual influence (not the relative one) of random
variable X i is represented by the value. Such sensitivity may be easily depicted using a pie
chart.
5 SURROGATE MODELS
The computational time needed to obtain load‐bearing capacities related to analyzed
limit states can be relatively high when the nonlinear FEM is utilized (one nonlinear FEM
calculation can last from a couple of minutes up to several hours). Therefore, the
utilization of a surrogate model is often an appropriate way of reducing the
computational effort to a reasonable level. The general principle of surrogate modeling
(also known as metamodeling) is to replace the original model, which requires
enormous computational effort, with an approximated (simpler) model whose evaluation
is not so time‐consuming. Metamodels that have gained popularity among researchers
over the last few decades include an ANN,27polynomial chaos,28 support vector
machine,29 and Kriging metamodel.30, 31 In case of the practical applications
presented in the following section ANN‐ based surrogate models were used. An ANN is
a signal processing system composed of simple processing elements, called artificial
neurons, which are interconnected by direct links (weighted connections). The aim of
such a system is to perform parallel distributed processing in order to solve a desired
computational task. One advantage of an ANN is its ability to adapt itself by changing its
connection strengths or structure.

Implementation of an ANN‐based surrogate model is schematically illustrated using a

simple flowchart in Figure 2. It consists of the following three steps:

1. Preparation of training data for adjusting ANN parameters. It is done by randomizing the
input variables of the structural model using appropriate sampling methods and the
subsequent numerical simulation of the original (FEM) model.
2. Creation of the ANN structure and its training in order to obtain a reasonably accurate
surrogate model. The training set consists of generated random samples of input
variables and the corresponding simulated responses of the structure.
3. Utilization of the ANN surrogate model in sensitivity analysis when the evaluation of
structural response for given input data is needed.

Nomenclature
Ac

cross sectional area of concrete

Ap

cross sectional area of prestressing steel

a

internal radius of cylinder

external radius of cylinder

the nominal diameter of the prestressing

dx

length of small element in longitudinal direction

Young‫׳‬s modulus

Ec

concrete Young‫׳‬s modulus

Ep

prestressing steel Young‫׳‬s modulus

eccentricity, which defines the rate at which the function approaches the
asymptote

fcx

average longitudinal stress in concrete at x

fcu

concrete compressive strength after 28 days in MPa

fpx

longitudinal stress in prestressing steel at x

fbx

bond stress at x
fpe

effective prestress (beyond transmission zone)

fpi

initial prestress

ft

tensile strength

Drucker–Prager hyperbolic function of flow potential

Gf

fracture energy

Kc

ratio of the second invariant on the tensile meridian to that on

compressive meridian

lt

transmission length

np

number of mesh segments around the tendon

radial pressure

pi

applied internal pressure in the radial direction

pe

applied external pressure in the radial direction

p¯
 hydrostatic pressure
q¯
von Mises equivalent stress

r
deformed nominal radius of the prestressing strands or bars

rp
nominal radius of prestressing steel bar

rc,1
internal radius of concrete cylinder which equals radius of steel bar after
prestressing

rc,2
external radius of concrete cylinder

t
age in days

T
degree of temperature

ur
radial deformation at a radius equal r
urp
radial deformation of pre-stressing bar at the outer perimeter
urc
radial deformation of concrete cylinder at the inner perimeter

x
position along the transmission length
αT
coefficient of thermal expansion

∆T
change in temperature

εsh
shrinkage strain

ν
 Poisson‫׳‬s ratio

νc
Poisson‫׳‬s ratio of concrete

νs
Poisson‫׳‬s ratio of steel
σb0
initial equibiaxial compressive yield stress
σc0
uni-axial compressive yield stress
σ¯^max
maximum principal effective stress
σt0
uni-axial tensile stress at failure

σz
applied stress in the longitudinal direction

τ
tangential stress
μ
coefficient of friction

ψ
angle of dilation

FLOWCHART
I. INTRODUCTION Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in
tension. Prestressing results in lighter members, longer spans, and an increase in the economical range
of application of reinforced concrete .It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer
span than what is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressed concrete could be pre-
tensioned or posttensioned. The design of prestressed beams is more complicated problem specially
when dealing with continuous beams. The design of prestressed concrete is basically a trial-and-error
process in an effort to reach the best proportions (T. Y. Lin, 1981). Manual computations of the design
may take a time for the engineers to arrive in best design. Somehow, with the possible iterations in
steps, some values are assumed, the engineer may lose patience and come up with a noneconomical
proportion. The Excel Spreadsheet on the other hand is a powerful tool not only in Accounting but also
in Engineering. Spreadsheet is mostly used in modification of the traditional hand written method of
calculations. The equations are solved exactly the same way in the computer. The computer only makes
it easier by doing the calculations and keeping a record for reuse. One has only to become familiar with
the Excel functions, many of which are similar to Microsoft Word. In addition to Excel's extensive list of
worksheet functions and array of calculation tools for scientific and engineering calculations. Excel
contains a programming language Visual Basic and it allows users to create procedures sometimes
referred to as macros, and build a Graphical User Interface (GUI) icons, that can perform even more
advanced calculations or that can automate repetitive calculations. This study seek to enhance the
lengthy and trial-anderror design computation of post-tensioned prestressed concrete beams by
developing a spreadsheet with Visual Basic applications. Also, the study attempted to develop an
automated design process wherein the user may see and interact on the flow of the design and a design
computations that can be used not only by the designer but also can serve as classroom instructions for
professors handling the subject matter. The study aimed the following: 1. Simplify the trial and error
manual calculation of post-tensioned prestressed concrete design by developing a spreadsheet program
that will enhance the design of post-tensioned prestressed concrete beam. 2. In the spreadsheet
developed, user can change

Flowchart of post tension concrete