374 The Displacement of Oil and Gas 4.

Introduction to Waterflooding 375

2. Assume R1 = 670 SCF/STB, which is just slightly larger then R„, sug-
6. Calculate cumulative gas recovery:
gesting that only a very small amount of gas is flowing to the wellbore
Go _AGo = 6.952 N Gp2 = and is being produced:
N and
❑
NG p 2 N 13.904
721 + 670 = 695.5 2
7. Calculate R,„:

R1= 6.952 13.904 3. Calculate AN,,:

R
P
0.01 = 695.2 and 1'2
0.02 695.2
56,000,000 - 0 - 0
8. Solve Eq. (9.41) to determine if the left- hand side ANP _27.546 + 0.04609(695.9) - 939,300 STB
equals zero or is within some chosen tolerance, say, ± 10 -2:
4. Calculate N p :
fl= 0.01[1.523 + 0.001155(695.2 - 721)1
1= -.4027 Np = AN„ = 939,300 STB
( 1 . 5 2 3 - 1 . 4 9 8 )
f2 = .02[1.523 + 0.001155(695.2 - 721)]
(1.523 - 1.498) 1 = .1946 5. Det er mi n e Vic o:

939,300 1.463
Neither value is within the chosen tolerance, so the two initial guesses of the = 0.2 + (1 - 0.2) [1
incremental oil recovery for the first pressure increment are wrong. The secant 56,000,000i 1.498 - 0.968
iteration formula is used to determine a new guess for the incremental oil
recovery: From this value of SL, the permeability ratio, Vico, can be obtained from Fig.
= 0.02 - 0.1946 9.16. Since the curve is off the plot, a very small value of Vico= 0.00001 is
0.02 - 0.01 = 0.0167 estimated.
L.
u 1946 - (-0.4027) 6. Calculate R1 and compare it with the assumed value in Step 2:
With the new guess, Steps 2 to 8 are repeated to determine if the tolerance is Ri= 669 + 0.00001(11539 16___ )( _______
met for Eq. (9.41). The left-hand side of Eq. (9.41) is found to be -0.0025, W.06/ W.001155 = 669.4
which is within the tolerance. Thus, the correct value of fractional oil recovery
down to 2300 psia is 0.0167. This value agrees very well with the value of 670 that was assumed in Step 2.
For the numbers of Ex. Prob. 9.1, the three methods of calculation yielded
To compare with the Muskat method, the recovery ratio must be multiplied
values of N,, that are within 0.5%. This suggests that any one of the three
by the initial oil in place, 56 M STB, to yield the total cumulative recovery: methods may be used to predict oil and gas recovery, especially considering
N,,= 56(10)6(0.0167) = 935,200 STB that many of the parameters used in the equations could be in error more than
0.5%.
(c) The Tamer method requires the following steps:
1. Calculate O
= n and 0, at 2300 psia: 4. INTRODUCTION TO WATERFLOODING
1 .4 6 3 - 669 (0.0011 55)
c „ = 1.463 -) 1.498 + (721 - 669)0.001155 - 27.546 Waterflooding is the use of injection water to produce reservoir oil. The
, 0 . 0 0 1 1 5 5
1.463 - 1.498 + (721 - 669)0.001155 = process was discovered quite by accident more than 100 years ago when water
from a shallow water-bearing horizon leaked around a packer and entered an
oil column in a well. The oil production from the well was curtailed, but pro-
,

4 ) 0.04609 duction from surrounding wells increased. Over the years, the use of water -
376 The Displacement of Oil and Gas
flooding has slowly grown until it is now the dominant fluid injection recovery
technique. The next several sections provide an overview of this process. You
are referred to several good books on the subject that provide detailed design
criteria .1-'3 In the following sections, the characteristics of good waterflood
candidates, the location of injectors and producers in a waterflood, and ways
to estimate the recovery of a waterflood are briefly discussed.
4.1. Waterflood Candidates
Several factors lend an oil reservoir to a successful waterflood. They can be
generalized in two categories: reservoir characteristics and fluid character-
istics.
The main reservoir characteristics that affect a waterflood are depth,
structure, homogeneity, and petrophysical properties such as porosity, satura-
tion, and average permeability. The depth of the reservoir affects the water-
flood in two ways. First, investment and operating costs generally increase as
the depth increases as a result of the increase in drilling and lifting costs.
Second, the reservoir must be deep enough for the injection pressure to be less
than the fracture pressure of the reservoir. Otherwise, fractures induced by
high water injection rates could lead to poor sweep efficiencies if the injected
water channels through the reservoir to the producing wells. If the reservoir
has a dipped structure, gravity effects can often be used to increase sweep
efficiencies. The homogeneity of a reservoir plays an important role in the
effectiveness of a waterflood. The presence of faults, permeability trends, and
the like effect the location of new injection wells because good communication
is required between injection and production wells. However, if serious chan-
neling exists, as in some reservoirs that are significantly heterogeneous, then
much of the reservoir oil will be bypassed and the water injection will be ren-
dered useless. If a reservoir has insufficient porosity and oil saturation, then
a waterflood may not be economically justified on the basis that not enough
oil will be produced to offset investment and operating costs. The average
reservoir permeability should be high enough to allow sufficient fluid injection
without parting or fracturing the reservoir.
The principal fluid characteristic is the viscosity of the oil compared to
that of the injected water. The important variable to consider is actually the
mobility ratio, which was defined earlier in Chapter 7 and includes not only
the viscosity ratio but a ratio of the relative permeabilities to each fluid phase:
kw /µ,v
M=
k,/p,
A good waterflood has a mobility ratio around 1. If the reservoir oil is ex-
tremely viscous, then the mobility ratio will likely be much greater than 1.
When this is the case, the water will "finger" through the reservoir and bypass
much of the oil.
4.2. Location of Injectors and Producers
4. Introduction to Waterflooding 377
The injection and production wells in a waterflood should be placed to accom-
plish the following: (a) provide the desired oil productivity and the necessary
water injection rate to yield this oil productivity; and (b) take advantage of the
reservoir characteristics such as dip, faults, fractures, and permeability trends.
In general, two kinds of flooding patterns are used: peripheral flooding and
pattern flooding.
Pattern flooding is used in reservoirs having a small dip and a large sur-
face area. Some of the more common patterns are shown in Fig. 9.17. Table
9.5 lists the ratio of producing wells to injection wells in the patterns shown
in Fig. 9.17. If the reservoir characteristics yield lower injection rates than
those desired, the operator should consider using either a seven- or a nine-spot
pattern where there are more injection wells per pattern than producing wells.
A similar argument can be made for using a four-spot pattern in a reservoir
with low flow rates in the production wells.
TABLE 9.5.
Ratio of producing wells to injection wells for several pattern arrangements
Ratio
of Producing Wells
Pattern to Injection Wells
Four-spot 2
Five-spot 1
Seven-spot 1/2
Nine-spot 1/3
Direct-line-drive I
Staggered-line-drive 1
The direct-line-drive and staggered-line-drive patterns are frequently
used because they usually involve the lowest investment. Some of the eco -
nomic factors to consider include the cost of drilling new wells, the cost of
switching existing wells to a different type (i.e., a producer to an injector), and
the loss of revenue from the production when making a switch from a pro -
ducer to an injector.
In peripheral flooding, the injectors are grouped together unlike in
pattern floods where the injectors are interspersed with the producers. Figure
9.18 illustrates two cases in which peripheral floods are sometimes used. In
Fig. 9.18(a), a schematic of an anticlinal reservoir with an underlying aquifer
is shown. The injectors are placed so that the injected water either enters the
aquifer or is near the aquifer-reservoir interface. The pattern of wells on the
surface, shown in Fig. 9.18(a), is a ring of injectors surrounding the producers.
A monoclinal reservoir with an underlying aquifer is shown in Fig. 9.18(b).
In this case, the injectors are again placed so that the injected water either
378 The Displacement of Oil and Gas 4.IntroductiontoWaterflooding 379

❑ A
 0  0 ❑ 0
0 ❑ 0
0
0 0 ❑
0
I A o rAo ❑ o c(/
❑

 0 0 " F a  00 A

 0 ❑ 0 ❑0 QA❑ 0
Four-spot Five-spot

A 6 0 A A
o
 0
 ❑ 0 \
A /
0
A 4 o p a ❑
o o ❑ ❑ 0 0
 0 A O ❑ ❑ 0
❑
0
Seven-spot Nine-spot 0
❑ ❑ 0
0
0 0 0 00 0 0 00 0
 ❑
A---A---6---A--A A----A--- -A--A

0 0 0 00 0 0 00 0

o fir' o o ❑  ❑
 ❑ 0 A 0 0 ❑
A
 ❑
A O A O
❑
lb)
 A L A A  ❑ ❑
Direct-line-drive ❑ Fig. 9.18. Well arrangements for anticlinal (a) and monoclinal (b) reservoirs with
Staggered-line-drive underlying aquifers.
 producing well
zs, injection well

Fig. 9.17. Geometry of common pattern floods.

enters the aquifer or enters near the aquifer-reservoir interface. When this is
done, the well arrangement shown in Fig. 9.18(0, where all the injectors are
grouped together, is obtained.
 4.3. Estimation of Waterflood Recovery Efficiency

Equation (9.1) is an expression for the overall recovery efficiency for any fluid
displacement process:

E = EvEd (9.1) where,

E = overall recovery efficiency

Ev= volumetric displacement efficiency
Ed microscopic displacement efficiency

The volumetric displacement efficiency is made up of the areal displacement

efficiency, E„ and the vertical displacement efficiency, Ei. To estimate the
overall recovery efficiency, values for E„ Ei, and Ed must be estimated. Meth-
ods of estimating these terms are discussed in waterflood textbooks and are
too lengthy to present in detail here."' However, some brief, general com-
ments concerning each of the displacement efficiencies can be made.
380 The Displacement of Oil and Gas 5. introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes 381

There are several methods of obtaining estimates for the microscopic dis- There have been several investigations of the effect of viscous forces and
placement efficiency. The basis for one method was presented in Sect. 3.1 in interfacial tension forces on the trapping and mobilization of residual oi1.3.20.21
this chapter. The areal displacement, or sweep, efficiency is largely a function From these studies, correlations between a dimensionless parameter called the
of pattern type and mobility ratio. The vertical displacement efficiency is pri- capillary number, N,, and fraction of oil recovered have been developed. The
marily a function of reservoir heterogeneities. and thickness of the reservoir capillary number is the ratio of viscous force to interfacial tension force and
formation. is defined by Eq. (9.58).
Waterflooding is an important process for the reservoir engineer to N„ Up,
understand. It has made and will continue to make large contributions to the = (constant) = (constant)_ koAp
recovery of reservoir oil. crow (9.58)

where v is velocity, µw is the viscosity of the displacing fluid, fy,,, is the inter-
5. INTRODUCTION TO ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
facial tension between the displaced and displacing fluids, ko is the effective
PROCESSES permeability to the displaced phase, 4) is the porosity, and ❑pIL is the pressure
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) refers to the process of producing liquid hydro- drop associated with the velocity.
carbons by methods other than the conventional use of reservoir energy and Figure 9.19 is a schematic representation of the capillary number cor-
reservoir repressurizing schemes with gas or water.' On the average, conven- relation in which the capillary number is plotted on the abscissa, and the ratio
tional methods of production produce about one-third of the initial oil in place of residual oil saturation (after conducting an EOR process to the residual oil
in a given reservoir. The remaining oil, nearly two-thirds of the initial re- saturation before the EOR process) is plotted as the vertical coordinate. The
source, is a large and attractive target for EOR methods. The next few sec - capillary number increases as the viscous force increases or as the interfacial
tions provide an introduction to this important topic in reservoir engineering. tension force decreases. The EOR methods that have been developed and
applied to reservoir situations are designed either to increase the viscous force
5.1. Mobilization of Residual Oil associated with the injected fluid or to decrease the interfacial tension force
During the early stages of a waterflood in a water-wet reservoir system, the between the injected fluid and the reservoir oil. The next three sections discuss
brine exists as a film around the sand grains and the oil fills the remaining pore
space. At a time intermediate during the flood, the oil saturation has been de-
creased and exists partly as a continuous phase in some pore channels but as
discontinuous droplets in other channels.-At the end of the flood, when the 1.0
oil has been reduced to residual oil saturation, S„, the oil exists primarily as
a discontinuous phase of droplets or globules that have been isolated and
trapped by the displacing brine.
The waterflooding of oil in an oil-wet system yields a different fluid dis-
tribution at S. Early in the waterflood, the brine forms continuous flow paths
through the center portions of some of the pore channels. The brine enters (Sod after
more and more of the pore channels as the waterflood progresses. At residual 0.5
(Sod before
oil saturation, the brine has entered a sufficient number of pore channels to
shut off the oil flow. The residual oil exists as a film around the sand grains.
In the smaller flow channels, this film may occupy the entire void space.
The mobilization of the residual oil saturation in a water-wet system
requires that the discontinuous globules be connected to form a continuous
flow channel that leads to a producing well. In an oil-wet porous medium, the
film of oil around the sand grains must be displaced to large pore channels and 0.0
10 -R 10 > 10 6 10 6 10-4 10 3 10- 2
be connected in a continuous phase before it can be mobilized. The mobiliza-
tion of oil is governed by the viscous forces (pressure gradients) and the inter- Capillary Number
facial tension forces that exist in the sand grain-oil-water system. Fig. 9.19. Capillary number correlation.

382 The Displacement of Oil and Gas
the three general types of EOR processes: miscible flooding, chemical flood-
ing, and thermal flooding.
5.2. Miscible Injection Processes
In Sect. 2.1 of this chapter, it was noted that microscopic displacement effi-
ciency is largely a function of interfacial forces acting among the oil, rock, and
displacing fluid. If the interfacial tension between the trapped oil and dis-
placing fluid could be lowered to 10-2 to 10-3 dyn/cm, the oil droplets could
be deformed so that they would squeeze through the pore constrictions and
combine with other droplets to yield a continuous oil phase. A miscible pro-
cess is one in which the interfacial tension is zero; that is, the displacing fluid
and residual oil mix to form one phase. If the interfacial tension is zero, the
capillary number becomes infinite and the microscopic displacement effi-
ciency is maximized.
Figure 9.20 is a schematic of a miscible process. Fluid A is injected into
the formation. When the fluid contacts residual oil droplets, an oil bank is
formed at the leading edge of the injected material. A mixing zone develops
between fluid A and the oil bank and grows as a result of molecular diffusion
and other processes. Fluid A is then followed by fluid B, which is miscible with
fluid A but not generally miscible with the oil and which is much cheaper than
fluid A. A mixing zone is also created at the fluid A—fluid B interface. It is
important that the amount of fluid A injected be large enough that the two
mixing zones do not come in contact but still be small enough to avoid large
costs for injected chemicals.
Consider a miscible process with n-decane as the residual oil, propane
as fluid A, and methane as fluid B. The system pressure and temperature are
Injection Production
Well Well
Fig. 9.20. Schematic of a miscible injection process.
5. Introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes 383
2000 psia and 100°F, respectively. At these conditions, both n-decane and
propane are liquids and are therefore miscible in all proportions. The system
temperature and pressure indicate that any mixture of methane and propane
would be in the gas state; therefore, the methane and propane would be misci-
ble in all proportions. However, the methane and n -decane would not be mis-
cible in all proportions because one is a liquid and the other a gas. Notice that,
in this example, the propane appears to act as a liquid when in the presence
of n -decane and as a gas when in contact with methane. It is this unique
capacity of propane and other intermediate gases that leads to the miscible
process.
There are, in general, two types of miscible processes. One is referred
to as the single-contact miscible process and involves such injection fluids as
liquified petroleum gases (LPG) and alcohols. The injected fluids are miscible
with residual oil immediately on contact. The second type is the multiple-
contact, or dynamic, miscible process. The injected fluids in this case are usu-
ally methane, inert fluids, or an enriched methane gas supplemented with a
C2-05 fraction; this fraction of alkanes has the unique ability of behaving like
a liquid or a gas at many reservoir conditions. The injected fluid and oil are
usually not miscible on first contact but rely on a process of chemical exchange
of the intermediate hydrocarbons between phases to achieve miscibility.
These processes are discussed in great detail elsewhere.4'5•22
5.3. Chemical Injection Processes
Chemical flooding relies on the addition of one or more chemical compounds
to an injected fluid either to reduce the interfacial tension between the reser-
voir oil and injected fluid or to improve the sweep efficiency of the injected
fluid by making it more viscous, thereby improving the mobility ratio. Both
mechanisms are designed to increase the capillary number.
Three general methods are used in chemical flooding technology.• The
first is polymer flooding, in which a large macromolecule is used to increase
the displacing fluid viscosity. This process leads to improved sweep efficiency
in the reservoir of the injected fluid. The remaining two methods, micellar-
polymer flooding and alkaline flooding, make use of chemicals that reduce the
interfacial tension between an oil and a displacing fluid.
The addition of molecules of large molecular weight (i.e., polymers) to
an injected water can often increase the effectiveness of a conventional water-
flood. Polymers are usually added to the water in concentrations ranging from
250 to 2000 parts per million (ppm). A polymer solution is more viscous
than a brine without polymer. In a flooding application, the increased
viscosity alters the mobility ratio between the injected fluid and the reservoir
oil. The improved mobility ratio leads to better vertical and areal sweep
efficiencies and thus higher oil recoveries. Polymers have also been used to
alter gross permeability variations in some reservoirs. In this application,
polymers form a gel-like material by cross-linking with other chemical
species. The polymer
384 The Displacement of Oil and Gas
gel sets up in high permeability streaks and diverts the flow of subsequently
injected fluids to a different location.
The improvement in oil recovery when using polymers is a result of an
improved sweep efficiency over what is obtained during a conventional water-
flood. Typical oil recoveries from polymer flooding are in the range of 1 to 5%
of the initial oil in place. It has been found that a polymer flood is more likely
to be successful if it is started early in the producing life of the reservoir.
The micellar-polymer process uses a surfactant to lower the interfacial
tension between the injected fluid and the reservoir oil. A surfactant is a
surface-active agent that contains a hydrophobic ("dislikes" water) part to the
molecule and a hydrophilic ("likes" water) part. The surfactant migrates to
the interface between the oil and water phases and helps make the two phases
more miscible. Interfacial tensions can be reduced from —30 dynlcm, found
in typical waterflooding applications, to 10' dynlcm with the addition of as
little as 0.1 to 5.0 weight % surfactant to water-oil systems. Soaps and deter-
gents used in the cleaning industry are examples of surfactants. The same
principles involved in washing soiled linen or greasy hands are used in "wash-
ing" residual oil off of rock formations. As the interfacial tension between an
oil phase and a water phase is reduced, the capacity of the aqueous phase to
displace the trapped oil phase from the pores of the rock matrix increases. The
reduction of interfacial tension results in a shifting of the relative permeability
curves such that the oil will flow more readily at lower oil saturations.
When an alkaline solution is mixed with certain crude oils, surfactant
molecules are formed by chemical reactions between the alkaline solution and
the oil. When the formation of surfactant molecules occurs in situ, the inter-
facial tension between the brine and oil phases can be significantly reduced.
The reduction of interfacial tension causes the microscopic displacement effi-
ciency to increase, thereby increasing oil recovery.
5.4. Thermal Processes
Primary and secondary production from reservoirs containing heavy, low-
gravity crude oils is usually a very small fraction of the initial oil in place.
These types of oils are very thick and viscous and as a result do not migrate
readily to producing wells. It is not uncommon for viscosities of certain heavy
crudes to decrease by several orders of magnitude with an increase of tem-
perature of 100 to 200°F. This suggests that if the temperature of a crude oil
in the reservoir can be raised by 100 to 200°F over the normal reservoir
temperature, the oil viscosity will be reduced significantly and will flow much
more easily to a producing well. The temperature of a reservoir can be raised
by injecting a hot fluid or by generating thermal energy in situ by combusting
the oil. Hot water or steam can be injected as the hot fluid. Three types of
processes are generally used in the industry: (1) the continuous injection of
hot fluids, such as hot water or steam; (2) the intermittent injection of steam,
5. Introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes 385
referred to as steam cycling; and (3) the injection of air or oxygen-enriched air
to aid in the combustion of reservoir
The continuous injection of hot fluids is usually accomplished by inject-
ing either hot water or steam and is much like a conventional waterflood.
When steam is injected into the formation, the thermal energy is used to heat
the reservoir oil. Unfortunately, the energy also heats the entire environment,
such as formation rock and water. Some energy is also lost to the underburden
and overburden. Once the oil viscosity is reduced by the increased tem-
perature, the oil can flow more readily to the producing wells. The steam
moves through the reservoir and comes in contact with cold oil, rock, and
water. As the steam contacts the cold environment, it condenses. A hot water
bank is formed and acts as a waterflood, pushing additional oil to the produc-
ing wells.
Several mechanisms responsible for the production of oil from a steam
injection process have been identified. These include thermal expansion of the
crude oil, viscosity reduction of the crude oil, changes in surface forces as the
reservoir temperature increases, and steam distillation of the lighter portions
of the crude oil.
The intermittent injection of steam, referred to as the steam stimulation
process or the cyclic steam process, begins with the injection of steam for a
period of days to weeks. The well is then shut in, and the steam is allowed to
soak the area around the injection well. This soak period is fairly short, usually
from one to five days. The injection well is then placed on production. The
length of the production period is dictated by the oil production rate, and it
can last from several months to a year or more. The cycle is repeated as many
times as economically feasible. The oil production decreases with each new
cycle.
Mechanisms of oil recovery that result from this process include (1)
reduction of flow resistance near the wellbore by reducing the crude oil viscos-
ity and (2) enchancement of the solution gas drive mechanism by decreasing
the gas solubility in an oil as temperature increases.
In heavy oil reservoirs, the steam stimulation process is often applied to
develop injectivity around an injection well so that a continuous steam injec-
tion process can be conducted.
The injection of air or oxygen-enriched air is referred to as the in situ
combustion process. Early attempts to apply the combustion process involved
what is called the forward dry combustion process. The crude oil was ignited
downhole, and then a stream of air or oxygen-enriched air was injected into
the well where the combustion was originated. The flame front was then prop-
agated through the reservoir. Large portions of heat energy were lost to the
surroundings with this process. To reduce the heat losses, a reverse combus-
tion process was conceived. In reverse combustion, the oil is ignited as in for-
ward combustion, but the air stream is injected into a different well. The air
is then "pushed" through the flame front as the flame front moves in the
386 The Displacement of Oil and Gas Problems 387

Opposite direction. Researchers found the process to work in the laboratory, (g) What is the relative permeability ratio kik., at 40% water saturation? (h)
but when it was tried in the field on a pilot scale, it was never successful. In Show that the effective permeability ratio is equal to the relative permeability
the field, the flame would shut off because there was no oxygen supply. When ratio.
oxygen was injected, the oil would often self-ignite. The whole process would
9.2 The following permeability data were measured on a sandstone as a function of
then revert to a forward combustion process. its water saturation:
When the reverse combustion process failed, a new technique called the
forward wet combustion process was introduced. This process begins as a S, 0 10 20 30* 40 50 60 70 75* 80 90 100
forward dry combustion, but once the flame front has been established, the kro 1.0 1.0 1:0 0.94 0.80 0.44 0.16 0.045 0 0 0 0
oxygen stream is replaced with water. As the water comes in contact with the k„,,. 0 0 0 0 0.04 0.11 0.20 0.30 0.36 0.44 0.68 1.0
hot zone left by the combustion front, it flashes to steam, using energy that
* Critical saturations for oil and water.
otherwise would have been wasted. The steam moves through the reservoir
and aids in the displacement of oil. The wet combustion process has become (a) Plot the relative permeabilities to oil and water versus water saturation on
the primary method of conducting combustion processes. Cartesian coordinate paper.
Not all crude oils are amenable to the combustion process. For the com- (b) Plot the relative permeability ratio versus water saturation on semilog paper.
bustion process to function properly, the crude oil must contain enough heavy (c) Find the constants a and b in Eq. (9.3) from the slope and intercept of your
components to serve as the source of fuel for the combustion. This usually graph. Also find a and b by substituting two sets of data in Eq. (9.3) and
requires an oil of low API gravity. solving simultaneous equations.
Most of the oil that has been produced by FOR methods to date has (d) If µO = 3.4 cp, µw = 0.68 cp, B,= 1.50 bbl/STB, and B,.. = 1.05 bbl/STB,
been a result of applying thermal processes. There is a practical reason for what is the surface water cut of a well completed in the transition zone where
this, as well as several technical reasons. To produce more than 1 to 2% of the the water saturation is 50%?
initial oil in place from a heavy oil reservoir, thermal methods had to be em- (e) What is the reservoir cut in part (d)?
ployed. As a result, thermal methods were investigated much earlier than (f) What percentage of recovery will be realized from this sandstone under
either miscible or chemical methods, and the resulting technology was devel- high-pressure water drive from that portion of the reservoir above the tran-
oped much more rapidly. sition zone invaded by water? The initial water saturation above the transi-
tion zone is 30%.
(g) If water drive occurs at a pressure below saturation pressure such that the
PROBLEMS
average gas saturation is 15% in the invaded portion, what percentage of
9.1 (a) A rock 10 cm long and 2 sq cm in cross section flows 0.0080 cu cm/sec of a recovery will be realized? The average oil volume factor at the lower pres-
2.5 cp oil under a 1.5 atm pressure drop. If the oil saturates the rock 100%, sure is 135 bbl/STB and the initial oil volume factor is 1.50 bbl/STB.
what is its absolute permeability?
(h) What fraction of the absolute permeability of this sandstone is due to the
(b) What will be the rate of 0.75 cp brine in the same core under a 2.5 atm least permeable pore channels that make up 20% of the pore volume? What
pressure drop if the brine saturates the rock 100%? fraction is due to the most permeable pore channels that make up 25% of
(c) Is the rock more permeable to the oil at 100% oil saturation or to the brine the pore volume?
at 100% brine saturation? 9.3 Given the following reservoir data:
(d) The same core is maintained at 40% water saturation and 60% oil satur- Throughput rate = 1000 bbl/day
ation. Under a 2.0 atm pressure drop, the oil flow is 0.0030 cu cm/sec and Average porosity = 18%
the water flow is 0.004 cu cm/sec. What are the effective permeabilities to Initial water saturation = 20%
water and to oil at these saturations? Cross-sectional area = 50,000 ft2
(e) Explain why the sum of the two effective permeabilities is less than the Water viscosity = 0.62 cp
absolute permeability. Oil viscosity = 2.48 cp
(1) What are the relative permeabilities to oil and water at 40% water satu- kolk„ versus 5,, data in Fig. 9.1 and 9.2
ration? Assume zero transition zone:
(a) Calculate f:„ and plot versus Sw.
(b) Graphically determine afivIOS„, at a number of points, and plot versus S„.