Czech Historical

Grammar
by 1
~ ",,~
STUART E. MANN

Revised Edition

• n. . . 10, • •

11 ELMUT BUSKE VERLAG HAMBURG

 First Edition. London /957
Revised Edition. Hamburg /9 77

FOREWORD
WITH its Indo~European background and its connexions in Latin
and Greek, the Old Czech language is a suitable introduction to
Slavonic linguistics. The archaic nature of Old Czech grammar,
obscured only by phonological breakdown, has made reference to
Old Church Slavonic and other Slavonic languages almost super~
fluous, and it is believed that by treating the language on its own,
with explanatory references to Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Germanic,
and Lithuanian where necessary, Old Czech has been given a clarity
of definition which would have been impossible by any other means.
For this reason too, references to Modern Czech have been cited only
when necessary to complete the historical perspective.
The Grammar is based on fourteenth-century texts, and the
earliest forms are given in every case. The spelling of these texts is
highly arbitrary, for which reason the practice of Czech compara~
tivists has been followed, whereby words are respelt in modem
phonematic characters. A departure from this rule was felt to be
CIP- Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek
necessary in setting out the specimen texts; here an average
fourteenth-cen!ury spelling has been chosen, and ambiguities have
Mann, Stuart E. been removed.
Czech historical grammar. - Rev. ed. - Hamburg: Research has been hampered by the lack of a complete Old Czech
Buske, 1977. Dictionary, the scantiness of existing Old Czech and Czech Historical
ISBN 3-87118-261-3
Grammars, and the fragmentary nature of Old Czech texts.
Etymological interpretation is conservative, and speculative
matter has been eliminated. AIl the same a need was felt for a good
deal more interpretation of grapunar than is usual in works of this
kind, and where the evidence of non~Slavonic languages has been
ISBN 3-87118-261-3
unequivocal I have not hesitated to use it. In this way many
Alle Rechte vorbehalten
apparent anomalies in the Slavonic field have turned out to be
© HELM UT BUSKE VERLAG HAMBURG 1977
GesamthersteJJung: fotokopwi lhelm weihert KG , Darmstadt quite normal. Moreover it is the interpretation of grammar, together

'"with the rigorous disciplineFOREWORD
of phonology, which is best calculated to
make of linguistics an exact science. But much remains to be ex·
plained.
The want of technical terms has created a need for introducing
calgues from French or Gennan. Such terms are inevitable, but in a
few, happily rare, cases, I have had to supply a term of my own ad
hoc. A self-explanatory term has always been preferred to an obscure
one, since it is believed that terminology should be an aid to learning,
not an obstacle. For this reason 'purposive construction' is preferred
to 'final construction', and the aspectual division of Old Czech verbs
is represented as 'specific' and 'general',
The following terms need some elucidation.
AsPECT: any modal connotation affecting the form or the wage of a
verb, noun, or adjective. Cf. the difference of aspect between the
past tenses bet and betted, burnt and burned.
BASE: what is left ofa word when stem and ending are removed. The
uninflected torso ofa word. Cr. STEM.
CoNTINUANT: consonant capable of prolonged utterance, s, 4,J. v,
etc.
DACTYLISM: the fixing of the stress no further back than the ante-
penultimate syllable.
EXTENSlON: a modifying syllable, frequently a vowel followed by
1 or r, by which a radical (q.v.) is lengthened. Cf. Eng. chat, &hatt-er;
mid, midd-u; salt, salt-y; till, til-th; Lat. jugum,jug-ulum; Gk. O"r&yoS',
O'TVY-JloS', O'TVY-EPOs-·
GLIDE-PALATALIZATION: the modification of phonemes (in Old
Czech t, d, n, I, and r) by a following i, 'or l, caused by a flattening of
the tongue-tip against the upper gums.
GRADATION (Apophony), or VOWEL GRADATION (Vowel Apophony):
the alternation of internal vowels in related words. The alternation
of internal vowels in a verb to mark tense, mood, or aspect. Cf.
English seat and soot; sit and sat; bite and bait; rise and raise.
INDUCTION: the anticipation of a speech-sound before it is due,
resulting in a repetition. Thus lE ·J.lrankiij 'to the arm' (cf. Rustic
Lat. branctu, Walde-Hofmann, see § 27) is held to have passed
through a prehistoric phase ·rankjaj before reaching Common
Slavonic .,pc!. This theory is used to explain the peculiar history of
pre-Slavonic velars before vowels derived from ·ai, ·oi, etc.
vii
FOREWORD
IOTACISM: actual or historical [j]; its effect on a preceding consonant
or group of consonants. Vb. to iotaci;:.e.
PUONEME: there is much disagreement as to the definition of this
word. The term is here used to denote a speech-sound type regarded
as a unit of utterance. A difficulty arises where a single speech-
sound has become two (as Middle English htls, Mod. Eng. howe) , or
where two or more speech-sounds have become one (as DE scilling,
Mod. E. shilling) . Sound-groups which seem to form organic units
are regarded as phonematic groups, cf. Eau) in Eng. house. Variants of
phonemes which do not affect the sense of a word are sometimes
called 'allophones' (cf. the qualities of the four t's in Eng. tea, light,
little, and eighth [ei-t-th]).
PR..EPALATAUZATION: the effect of an iotacized vowel (je, written l)
on a preceding velar consonant. Vb. to prepalatali;:,e.
PLOSIVE, or STOP: a consonant which is incapable of prolonged
utterance,p, k, t, b, g, d, etc. cr. CONTINUANT.
MORA: a unit ofphonematic duration, equivalent to that ofa single
short vowel. A long vowel, a diphthong made up of short vowels,
and a vowel followed by I, m, n, r, have the duration of two morae. A
triphthong, a slurred long vowel, and a long or slurred diphthong,
have the duration of three morae. A useful if somewhat elastic term.
RADICAL: the root of a word; the immutable part of a word; the
minimum formula to which the base of a word can be reduced with·
out involving any variables. There is some conflict in the usage of
this word. Thus although -."Ibhr- is the immutable residue of type
·bher· 'to bear' it is usual to cite the radical as -."Ibher-. This practice
is unavoidable in instances where a vowel is enclosed by two plosives,
as in -."IbJud- 'dig, prod'. In instances where the base-vowel is
either -d- or -ch as in -."Isthd-/sthii 'stand', usage is unsettled.
REFLEX: a recognized derivative-sound; a phoneme or phoneme-
cluster seen in terms of its historical background. Thus Eng. 0 in
stone is the normal reflex of DE din sMn, of Germanic ·Qi, and of
lE ·ai/oi.
RETRACTED PLOSIVE: the phoneme Et].
RETRACTED SIBILANTS: the phonemes [§] and [:f:].
SIGMATISM: phoneme [8] or reflex of[s]. Any inflection or modification
marked by the presence of s or its derivative (in Old Czech: s, I, and
ch).
viii FOREWORD
SLUR-TONE: a tonal modification suggested by J. Wright in 191:2:
to describe the compensatory lengthening of a syllable through
loss of a vowel or other reason.
STEM: the link between a word-base and its inflection, cf. Lat.
am-a-tu.
UMLAUT, see VOWEL FRONTlNO.
VOWEL FRONTINO: the utterance of a derived vowel higher in the
mouth than was the case with the prototype. Thus Lat. vas> French CONTENTS
vow; Lac. sex> French six. The anticipation in a preceding syllable
of a vowel in the following syllable, resulting in assimilation. Con- FOREWORD page v
trast English woman and women [wlmin]. The assimilation, in Czech, ABBREVIATIONS AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY x
of a vowel to a followingj, thus aj > ri.
INTRODUCTION

I. THE INDO-EUROPEAN BACKGROUND

London, 1956 S. E. M. "
11. SLAVONIC AND THE WESTERN SLAYS

HI. THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH

IV. THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH

''..
33
V. MORPHOLOGY
5'
VI. LITERARY EXTRACTS ,,6
VtI. TEXTUAL SOURCES OF OLD CZECH

APPENDICES
A. The Evolution of Czech Orthography 152
B. Changes in Phonology between I lOO and 1600 154
c . Modern Czech Dialects 154
D. The Composition of Czech Vocabulary 159
E. Sentence-Fonnation 160
F. Note on Numerals .62
INDEX TO CZECH REFERENCES IN THE GRAMMAR 167
 ABBREVIATIONS
AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Ala). Die alttscMchisdu Alexturdreis, eel. R. Trautmann (Heidelberg, 1916)
Fr. V. Autrata, Uueden{ t:W mluvnice starolukl (Fourth edition, Olomouc,
1936 )
Fr. BartoJ, DiaUktologie moravskd (Prague, I8gS)
(Bit). Bestdn{ feli, by T. Sdtny (cd. M. Hatta1a, Prague, IBg7)
(eeM). CasopU !e.skJ/w m~a (Prague, 18:.17-)
(Dal). Kronika Dalimilova (ed. V. Mourn. Prague, 1910; cd. V. Flajihans.
Prague, 19\10)
V . F1ajihans. NejsrorJ{ jHJmdtky j(U.yka i pumuri&tvi llski/w (Prague, 1909)
J. Gebauer. Historidcd mltumict tuUho ju.yka (Prague, 1909)
Boh. Havranek. 'Nal'eti &:Sk;\.' (in Ceskoslovenskd uwtivlda: ja.r.yk. Prague,
1936 )
J. Holub and Fr. Kope6ty. Etymowgickj slolmlkjtJ.tJka lesk/Iw (Prague, 19511)
O. Hujer. Ovod do dljinja.qka &skllw (Third edition, Prague, 1946)
(KS) . KnUky Jestny, by T . Stftny (cd. K.]. Erben. Prague, 1852)
A. Novak. Strul1ii dljiny li/eraJury mkt (Olomouc, 1946)
(rtNS). lleli mdllni 12 svdtllnl, by T. Stitny (Prague, 1929)
(St). Sou~ek. Studie Itltl1\.$ki (Prague, 1909)
J. Stanislav. ~skosllJr/QlSkd mlUll1lia (Prague-Pfdov, 1938)
F. Simek. Slouflfak star/le1tiny (Prague, 1947)
Fr. Travrueek. Stnd"nd mlUll1lia leskd (Prague, 1941)
Fr. Travrueek. Historickd m/UlI1Iiaja.r.yka uslwswuensklho (Prague, 1935)
Fr. TnivnJeek. Sbwnfkja{JIM leskJlw (Prague, 1946)
INTRODUCTION
THE GERMAN SCHOOL
IN THE eleventh century Quo ofBamberg, Evangelist of Po mer ani a,
pointed out a striking relationship between Latin and Slavonic.
Illustrating his discovery with a comparative word·list published in
one of his Biographies, he concluded that 'the Slavonic language
resembles Latin in many of its words' . But it is to the nineteenth-
century linguist Franz &pp (I791-IB67) that the comparison of
Slavonic with cognate families owes its beginning. Bopp came to
London in the second decade of the last century to learn Sanskrit in
the library of India House. This led to the publication in 1816 of
his comparative conjugational system Conjugationssystem, Frankfurt
a.M. (of Sanskrit in comparison with Greek, Latin, Persian and
Gcnnanic). The work was followed in 1833 by his more famous
VergleicMnde Grammatik (of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian,
Slavonic, Gothic and German). This was revised and extended in
1852 to include Armenian.
August Schleicher (1821-68) carried Slavonic etymology into the
field.of Baltic linguistics. In 1853 he addressed the philological sec·
lion of the Czech Academy on the relationship of Slavonic and
Lithuanian, and consolidated his researches by publishing a Hand·
budl (/er LitauiscMn SprocM (1856) and a Litauische Chrestomathie (1857).
Much of the Grammar was assembled from the speech of natives and
recorded orally, though tonal distinctions are not observed. The
expounding of this aspect of Baltic speech fell to Kurschat, a native
Lithuanian whose Bdtrage zur Kunde der litauischen SftTache (a phono-
logy) appeared in 1849. to be followed years later, in 1876, by a
Crammar.
August Leskien (1840-19I6) is known for his tonal researches in
B
2 INTRODUCTION
the Slavonic and Baltic languages. Following an essay on the tones of
Lithuanian (1881) there appeared a series of articles on tonality in
Slavonic and its reflexes in Czech and Slovak. Despite his acute
observations the problem still cannot be considered solved.
A true successor of Schleicher and Leskien was Reinhold Traut-
mann, whose careful editing of the Alexandreid fragments and
compilation of the whole of its fourteenth-century Czech vocabulary
(1916) are only equalled by his exhaustive Balto-Slavonic Dictionary
of 1923.
Trautmann's contemporary and friend, Erich Bemeker, author of
an unfinished Slavonic Etymological Dictionary arranged under
'Common Slavonic' captions, and the German Pole A. Brilckner,
based their Slavonic researc.hes on Balto-Slavonic foundations, the
first with a descriptive grammar (Die preussische Spraehe, Strasbourg,
18g6), the second with a monographic article entitled Slavisch-
Litauisch (in Gruntiriss tier itfg. Spraeh- unti Altertumskunde, Strasbourg,
1917). Countless German comparativists have drawn upon Slavonic
materials without making Slavonic their main field,
THE SLOVENE SCHOOL
With Franz Miklosich (1813-g1), a Viennese Slovene, Slavonic
linguistics took a great step forward. Miklosich devoted the whole of
his life to Slavonic linguistics. Without acknowledgement he profited
by the descriptive work of his fellow Slovene B. Kopitar (1780-t844),
author of a grammar of the Slavonic dialects of Carniola, Carinthia
and Styria (IB08) , and that of the Serb Vuk Karadfit, author ofa
Serbian dictionary (IB IB), and was above all inspired by the pioneer
work ofFranz Bopp. A youthful work Radices linguae slavicae (1845) set
the pattern for the remainder of his writings. A 147-page book of
Slavonic Derivations foreshadowed his Erymologisches WiiTttrbuch tier
slaviscMn Spraehen (1886)J which is still the only one of its kind. From
the descriptive work of others Miklosich gathered together all the
words that today would be called ·Common Slavonic', regardless of
date and source, turned them into 'Cyrillic', and labelled the product
'Old Slovene', Such was the raw material of his etymological work,
published as a Lexicon palaeoslovenico-graeco-latinum betvveen the years
1862 and 1865.
INTRODU CTION 3
The life-story of this indefatigable linguist is one fired by a strong
local patriotism that was fruitful, if at times misplaced. A tireless
word-hunter, Miklosich added to bis achievements a list of personal
names (1859), collections of Slavonic loanwords in Rumanian,
Albanian, Modem Greek, and Hungarian (dated variously between
1862 and 1871), a glossary ofloanwords in Slavonic (1862), a list of
Turkish loanwords in the Balkan languages, Russian, Ukrainian,
and Polish, and a list of Slavonic, Hungarian, and Rumanian loan-
words in Turkish! The final appearance of his Vergleichende Grammatik
der slavischen Sprachen was delayed again and again by a habit of
turning aside to collect vocabularies. The Phonology afthe Grammar
appeared as early as 18S:Z, but it was not until 1875 that the Gram-
mar was completed. Weighed down by the bulk of his material,
Miklosich gave himself little time for reflection or interpretation.
Moreover his mechanistic approach led him to normalize the older
Slavonic material in a single pattern and for this reason his work
lacks historical perspective. His Etymological Dictionary of the
Slavonic Languages reveals by its very title one of its author's prin-
cipal faults-that of attempting too much. There is actually more
etymological material in the much smaller Phonology of his Com-
parative Grammar, but here, as in the Dictionary, Miklosich allowed
himself neither the time nor the space to develop etymological
themes, which are all in the nature of brief notes. Much useful work
by his predecessors and contemporaries was ignored.
THE CZECH SCHOOL
In the years 153B and 1544 Sigmund Gelenius (or Jelen) , a Czech,
published two editions of a comparative dictionary entitled Lexicon
Symphonum, in which he compared similar words in Slavonic,
Latin, Greek, and German. This work remained isolated and with-
out offspring. Veleslavin's Latin -Czech-German-Greek Dictionary
entitled Silva Q.uadrilinguis (1598) is no more than a tetraglot
vocabulary, a work betraying a certain contemporary interest in
languages, but without significance for comparativists. After the
invasion of the Czech lands by Austria in 1620 Czech literary
activity languished. Bohusluv Balb!n, a Jesuit of Hradec Kr~Uove
( 1621--88), made a significant contribution with aDissertatio apologetica
4 INTRODUCTION
pro lingua slavonica, prfUcipue boltemica (1672-3), a work which anti-
cipated DobrovskY's Lehrgebdutk tkr bOhmuchen Spradte by well over a
century. Balbfn, too, was intrigued by Latin parallels in other
languages, as his equation Ego haheo unum hortum = lch habe einen
Carten shows. (The equivalence of Latin luzbeo and German Iulben. is
now discredited.)
Subsequent Czet:h linguistic studi~ are in the main independent
of the Slavonic schools of Germany and Austria. Joser Dobrovskt
(1753-1829), a Hungarian-born Czech, educated at Prague Univer-
sity, and aJ~uit pri~t, spent the greater part of his life hunting for
old Czech records, using them as material for the scientific analysis
of the Czech language and the illumination of Czech literary history.
His works are in German or Latin, for Dobrovsky was unpractised
in the art of writing Czech, a technique that had waned under the
Austrian regime in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. More-
over Dobrovskfs schooling had been a German onej he was an
Austrophil and was sceptical of the Czech national revival. His
devotion to the Czech language and its literature was essentially
that of the antiquary and the grammarian, and his tireless search for
old manuscripts took him as far afield as Sweden, Russia, Bavaria,
and Italy.
Dobrovsky, impatient of the fanciful romanticizing of both the
old Cze<:h chroniclers and the contemporary revivalists, was never
deceived by the poetic forgeri~ ofLinda and Vaclav Hanka, an able
but dishonest pupil, whose epics of past Czech heroes were designed
to put the beginning1 of Czech literature into the ninth century.
Hanka, in his capacity of Keeper of the Czech National Museum,
was in a favoured position for his self-appointed task. His 'Ossianic'
poems, replete with aorists, imperfects and dual numbers, betray
their falsity by the juxtaposition of the prehistoric archaisrns MO,
bolia and late fonns such as s tebu, s seMj moreover the transparent
semantics and the romantic style of the poems stamp them as a
product of the nineteenth century. It is surprising that they deceived
.the literary giants of the day, and for so long.
Dobrovsky, content rather to be a drudging scholar than a rap-
turous poet, stimulated the appetite of his contemporaries without
satisfying it, and held back from the mainstream of the Revival with
all its romantic excesses. Like others of his time, he thought of
INTRODUCTION 5
Slavonic as one language differentiated into dialects. His master-
pieces uhrgebiiude tier bohmischm Spraclu (ISog and 1819), and
lnstitutitmn linguae s/awae dialuti vekris (1822), arc marred by lack of
reference to texts, the misdating of Cyrillic in relation to Glagolitic
writing, and a mUWlderstanding of the nature of Slavonic nasal
vowels and semi-vowels. Three ofDobrovsky's German dissertations:
AbJwndlung iibn Ursprung u. Bildung fkr slavischLn, insb. tier bOhm.
Sprac},e (1790). Die Bildsamr.ejl tin slav. SpnuM ( t 799), and Entwurf zu
einem aUg. Erymologicon aer slav. Spradre foreshadowed a large-scale
etymological compendium which was never realized. Dobrovsky's
importance to linguistics is in his valid distribution of Slavonic into
Western, Southern, and Eastern dialects and his rational classifica-
tion of the verb. His strictly descriptive methods were a sound
corrective to the extravagances of the early comparativists. Less
concerned with linguistic comparison than with records, Dobrovsky
made some acute observations on Czech in relation to Greek and
Latin. He was the first to equate Czech lrdti and Latin vorare, ilut
and XAO?j, 1!T1W and granum, zima and hiems, iaiud and glans, from
which it is clear that Dobrovsky realized, as few others had done, that
relationship bet\veen words rests on organic parallelism, not on
chance likeness.
To Josef Jungmann (1773-1847) belongs the credit of assemb-
ling the first exhaustive Slovnlk kskonlmukj (1835-9). This laborious
task was executed from materials in Tomsa's Czech Dictionary
of '790--9, Pelcl's word-list of the year 1800, and DobrovskY's
German-Czech Dictionary, with additions from Veleslavin's SUoa
QJuuJrilinguu of 15gB, and an incomplete seventeenth-century MS
vocabulary by Vaclav Rosa. The entries are supplied with German
meanings and etymological notes. Jungmann planned an etymo-
logical index to the Dictionary, but its execution fell to F. L.
CeIakovsky, whose linguistic equipment was inadequate to the task.
Valuable help was given by the historian Palacky, and by P. J.
Safarlk, who revised the manuscript and the proofs.
P. J. SafaHk (1795-1861) was the outstanding antiquary and
textual critic of the R~vival. Remembered for his important modifi-
cations to Czech spelling, he is the author of a Geschichtt det si(Wischen
Sprache und Literatur nach allen Mundarten (1826), a work of less
Hnguistic interest than his own articles in the Journal of the
6 INTRODUCTION
Czech Museum, of which Safaflk eventually became editor, and to
which he contributed from time to time. His articles are sometimes
shrewd, more often naive. Some betray the influence of Bopp and
Miklosich, but in criticizing the latter's etymologies as over-daring
SafaHk proposed others which were wrong. In this, though with
less arrogance, SafaHk anticipated the eccentric dogmatism of
the German Pole A. BrUckner. A shrewd article on word-formation
by suffixes (1846) is inaccurate, and an article on the Indo-European
numerals is without value except for the possible identification of
Czech pit 'five' with PlJt 'fist'. In an article entitled Transmutations
(COM, 1847, n, p. 127), he pointed out the correspondence ofpho-
nernes which he labelled Greek k1, Latin ,1, Lithuanian 1, and
Slavonic s, and illustrated the point with the common words for 'ten'
and 'right-hand', but in this he is merely quoting Bopp. Bopp was
also the model for Safafik's Vjklad, or outline of Comparative
Slavonic (1847), where he makes the point that the -ch- of the Slavonic
aorist is identical with the Sanskrit suffix -S-, Greek -a- in 1U7"7]ao. and
Latin -siinrtgsi (sic) andscribsi (sic). He thought that aorist sigmatism
was traceable to the original form of Czech jst m 'am', and Latin
sum. To him goes the credit for supplying words overlooked by Miklo-
sich in the first edition of his Old Slavonic Dictionary. His articles
on Old Serbian and on the Glagolitic texts display some original
features.
The contributions of other Czechs of the early nineteenth century
are more trivial. M. Klacel's poetic 'analysis' of Czech sounds
(Poldtky vltkcki mluvnictv{ ltSkiho), written some time before 1844,
recalls the phonic lists in Wallis's Grammatica linguae anglicaruu. More
important is V. Hanka's analysis of Czech vowel-distribution
(,Ablaut') in CCM, 1844-5, where rynu is paired with rjpati, finu with
fibati, kynu with kyplti, kan4 with kapati, njju with naviti, etc. The acute
sense of analogy displayed in this article had served him well in the
propagation of his forged 'Old Czech' epics. Celakovsky-'s 'etymo-
logies' ofthe Slavonic numerals (CCM, 1850) are reminiscent of the
extravagances of Kollar, the pan-Slav poet.
After 1848 panslavist ideals gave rise to a crop of proposed
alphabets by which all the Slavonic languages might be unified!
One of the would-bc unifiers was the lexicographer J. F. Sumavsky,
who is mentioned here because of two articles, one comparing the
INTRODUCTION 7
Slavonic verb-system with that of Latin (1845), the other comparing
it with that of Greek (1851). The oneness of Slavonic was an idea
which persisted after the middle of the century, and in 1855 Martin
Hattala, joint editor with Patera of an edition of the Alexandreid,
was still referring to the Slavonic languages as dialects. A long article
in CCM bears the title 0 pomlTU cyrillliny k nynlj1lm ndftllm slovanskjm
(1855, I, 81). In it Hattala succeeds in identifying the home of
'Cyrillic' with Dacia on the Black Sea. But the normalizing craze was
at its height, and despite the Slovak secession, which had become an
accomplished fact, the pan-Slav bias is prominent in Hattala's
work; indeed Hattala was more impressed by resemblances than by
differences.
Very different was the attitude of Jan Gebauer (1838-1907).
Graduating from an early interest in Bulgarian, Russian, and
Sanskrit, steeped in Bohemian and Moravian dialectology, and
trained in the exact linguistic methods of Brugmann and rus fol-
lowers, Gebauer was an outstanding representative of Czech
linguistic studies, both as grammarian and lexicographer. His work,
written in the tradition ofDobrovsky, matured late, and it is thought
that he, like Miklosich, undertook a programme which was too large
for him to complete. This may be the reason why his important
Historickd mluvnice ja~ka ltskilw appeared so late in life. The Phono-
logy was published in 18g4, the section on Declension in 1896,
and that on Conjugation in 18gB (revised and republished post-
humously in Ig09). Volumes on Word Formation and Syntax
were contemplated. Badgered by carping critics, he unwisely
dissipated his energies answering their charges and turned aside to
write his Slovnlk staroltskj before his Grammar was finished. This
valuable dictionary was published in parts; two volumes appeared
in all, and it had reached the letter N by the year Ig07, when its
author died. Gebauer's careful editing of Old Czech texts gave the
subject new importance, and his followers were many. But the
monumental Dictionary remains as the author left it, unfinished.
Josef Zubaty (1855-1931) is chiefly remembered for his many con-
tribu~ons to linguistic journals. He pointed out the need for a better
semantic interpretation of Old Czech. Vaclav Vondrak (1859-1925)
is mentioned here on account of his VerglticMndt slaviscM Grammatik
(1906), written in German to reach a wider public than his own. His
8 INTRODUCTION
work has been made available in a modified Czech version by Milo!
Weingart (Ucebniceiru;yka staroslofJlnsktho, 1937).
SLOVAK SEPARATISW
The question as to whether Czechoslovak literature would have
benefited from being written in a composite language based on
Czech, Moravian, or Moravian Slovak is one which belongs to
politics, not linguistics. Unification has been achieved in Poland
• After a briefrun it lapsed for two years and re-emerged in 1839 with
France, Britain, and Italy by the imposition ofa single dialect from a
strong political centre. The lack of such a centre in Scandinavia is
responsible for the existence today of three similar languages where
one might have sufficed. The enfeebled prestige of Prague after 1780,
the beginning of the Revival, was insufficient to dominate Slovak
culture, which had for centuries been subject to magyarization, and
to which the culture of Bohemia and Moravia was largely alien. For
better or worse the Slovaks have chosen to propagate a language
which is grammatically in contrast to Czech, though its vocabulary
is similar. But the survival of Slovak was not achieved without a
struggle.
Pioneers of separatism were Anton!n Bernolak (1762-1813), J. 1.
Bajza, and Jan Holly (1785-1849). BernolAk, a Jesuit writer,
operated from Trnava, and used its dialect in his writings; Bajza, a
parish priest and pedagogue, and Ho1l1, an idyll-writer in the
classical manner of J. KoDar, represented the dialect of Nitra.
Bohemia had a growing literary centre in Prague while Slovakia had
none. Sundered by its dialects, and handicapped by the lack of
literary tradition, Slovak was slow to emerge.
As early as J832 Jungmann rebuked Moravians and Slovaks for
trying to set up independent literary languages, and praised the
Slovaks Palkovic, Kollar and SafaHk for writing in Czech. When
certain Slovak writers chose the dialect of Nitra as their medium
J ungmann condemned the choice as an act of literary suicide, and
pointed to the Slavonic manifesto of Budapest made in 1823 in
favour of Czech.
J ungmann was equally harsh with Moravian separatists. He
joined Palack1 in condemning Fr. Tmka, who, in an apologia
entitled 0 leskim jru;yku. spisovnim (Bmo and Olomouc, 1831-2),
INTRODUCTION 9
attempted to introduce Moravian Slovak grammatical fonus into
the standard language. Jungmann did not, however, object to
Moravian and Slovak words in Czech settings, indeed the Slovakisma
J:.lIQlnj, QUJliti, jarmo, and u.leif, and the Moravianisms ndfe8 and
(lfu/mlt were welcomed by him, and art now part of the literary
language.
Continued efforts were made by Czech writers to prevent Slovak
from evolving on its own, but by the year 1836 the die was already
cast m its favour. In this year there appeared a Slovakjournal Zora.
a eulogistic review of Hollfs epic-style idyll Sldv. The spelling used
was little different from that in use today. It signalized the break with
Czech by substituting v for Czech w, and by rationalizingi as a con-
sonant, adopting f as the symbol for the long vowel, a reform sub-
sequently made in Czech by Safaflk in 1842. But, as frequently
happens, the most zealous propagators were the least gifted; indeed,
<ora owed its revival to one Hamuljak, an obscure journalist. A Czech
reviewer deplored the Slovak language in which Ho1l1 had com-
posed his poem and quoted the poet against himself in the words
'nesvomost' il.ikdi dobreho il.emivala konca' (disunity never had a
happy ending). But the movement was not to be halted. About the
year 1844 a Slovak society called 'Tatrln' was formed to propagate
Slovak writings, and the unrestrained tone of its journal Pozornlk
made an anti-separatist Slovak, Zaborsky, appeal to its editor to
prevent the breakaway before it was too late.
Zaborskfs arguments followed the familiar lines. Which of the
dialects could be regarded as standard, smce Be.rnolik's norm had
found no adherents? A break in Czech-Slovak political and literary
unity would be disastrous for both. A norm for Siovak grammar was
difficult to find, and if established, would not compensate for the
poverty of Slovak literary expression. Moreover. a separate Slovak
language, being intelligible to Czechs and Slovaks alike, would
merely serve to widen the political rift between them; indeed, rather
than be irritated by reading works in Slovak, the Czechs might well
turn to books written in Polish or Russian. The dearth of Slovak
schools and libraries, the fewness ofSlovak books, and the difficulty
Slovaks had in finding work among Czechs should decide them against
Slovak. The Czech 'K.ralice Bible' (1579-93) should be their model
 INTRODUCTION
for all time. To consolidate his arguments, Zaborsky established a
fund of five hundred florins at Pi-dov for the studyof'Czechoslovak'.
An appeal by the journalist and editor of CCM, J. E. Vacel, came
too late to have effect. L'udevit Slur, Slovak poet and patriot, pub-
lished a journal Slcvenski nouiny which ran till June 1848, when the
organ was suppressed, and Stur's band of followers was dispersed by
the Magyar authorities. To offset Czech influence, the Kossuth
regime launched a pro-Hungarian journal at Bratislava under the
name of Slovticki noviny, but this came to an end with the invasion of
Hungary by Imperial troops. With its disappearance, another
journal, Slovenskj po{ornik, came out under the editorship of Lichard.
In the middle of 1849 a semi-official journal appeared in Vienna
under the name Slovenski noviny. Whatever the underlying motives,
political or literary, Slovak journals continued to appear and dis-
appear, but the Slovak movement had taken root. By 1850 literary
Slovak was a reality.
I
THE INDO-EUROPEAN BACKGROUND
I . An Indo-European prototype-language (protoglossa) must be
postulated for the languages of the Indo-European group, since these
languages, clearly related in grammar and vocabulary, cannot be
derived from each other. Since no language is uniform, it follows
that Proto-Indo-European will show variations. But there is a sur-
prising degree of uniformity in the words and inflections which can
be reconstructed out or known material, especially when reconstruc-
tion is founded on such well-preserved languages as Sanskrit,
Lithuanian, Greek (whose value is lessened only by the loss oflE .j
and ·11 and the partial loss of lE ·s), and Latin (where the lE
diphthongs have become obscured, and the aspirated consonants
have undergone unusual changes). Indeed the whole oflE phonology
- its consonants, vowels, semivowels, and diphthongs-<an be re-
constituted on the evidence of Greek and Lithuanian alone, except
for the aspirate groups .sph-, .stk-, etc. (to be found only in Sanskrit
and Armenian), initial ·lIl- and ·I!r- (ascertainable only from
Sanskrit, Germanic, and Celtic), and the laryngeal (laryngal)
sounds or 'breathings' postulated for lE on the evidence of Hittite.
2. The vocabulary that emerges from reconstruction gives a seman-
tic picture in which the following items are represented: wild animals
(beaver, otter, wolf, lynx, stoat, weasel, squirrel, red-deer, mouse,
hedgehog, and horse), domestic animals (bull, ox, pig, sheep, goat, and
dog), birds (goose, duck, thrush or blackbird, crane, capercailie or
blackcock, crow, and jackdaw),jisk (salmon, eel), insects (fly, wasp,
a nd hornet), trees (birch, willow, aspen, ash, elm, hazel, apple, and a
mast-tree--oak or beech), grains (wheat, barley), plants (heather,
madder, moss, vetch, dropwort, flax, and garlic), and crafls such
as house-building, cart-construction, wood~carving, hunting. and
12 THE INDO-EUROPEAN BACKGROUND
THE INDO-EUROPEAN B'ACKGROUND 13
The vowel -{ is held to be the first vowel of a reduplication; -4
soil-cultivation. This evidence seems to place the 'cradle' of
alternates with -a and may be identical with -6 (the obscure vowel
Inde-Euro~an c~lture in the park-lands of Northern Europe, in or
near theBalttc platn. But aseparate group ofanimal-breeding nomads of English a-hout, com17llltld).
ofl?do-European speech and with little or no knowledge of fanning 4. The next step is to break up the words into their respective
or umber-craft seems to have given rise to a clistinct culture serving phonemes for comparison. Two presumed cognates, especially if
as prototype to those of Anatolia (Hittite, etc.), Northern Indi<l, and they are Greek and Lithuanian, may be sufficient to provide the
the plateau of Iran. The absence of most of the lE agricultural reconstruction. Thus
terms from the languages of these areas, as well as finds of early Lith . k4iTlil,
Gk. 1I"OW~, f.
battle-axes, corded ware, and separate graves in the Ukraine, 'price'
'ransom, bride-price'
suggest a prehistoric division of 'lnde-European' speakers into Analj'1is: k is lE k or qll
Analysis: 11" is lE P or g¥
parkland-dwellers and steppe-dwellers. aisIEaoro
o is lE 0
,islEi i is lE i
3. The reconstruction of an lnde-European prototype involves the
vislEn n is lE n
following steps. Thewordswhicharedeemed. tobe akin are assembled
'lislE/ora a (finally in fems.) is lE 11
from reco~d~d or living languages, preferably the older ones (Latin,
Greek, Hlttlte, and Sanskrit) and those which are well preserved The phonemes common to Greek and Lithuanian are Ij/,l-o-i-n-ll,
(Lithuanian, Gothic, Icelandic, and Slavonic). From these a form hence -ql.l0ina is held to be the prototype of both words. The root
has to be deduced which will contain all the data without remainder. may be that of Lat. quid 'what'. quot 'how much', etc. Such recon-
The deduced form must be expressed in the known phonemes of structions are marked with an asterisk, since they are inferred, not
primitive lnde-European, which are believed to be recorded. Where variants occur, the varying fragment is added to
CON SO NA NTS
the reconstruction; variations, whether of noun or verb, mark
fluctuation in aspect or gender. Thus
Labials P (Ph) b bh m
ut. stabulum, n. 'stable' Old Cz. stodDw, f. 'barn '
D entals t (th) d dh 0
Analysis: si is lE st or sth
Analysis: st is lE st or sth
Palatals t (th) i th (') oislEo,aorl
aislEaor6
Velars or Gutturals k (kh) g gh (9) b is lE b, hh or (medially) dh dislEdordh
Labie-Vdars q. (wh) Cl! gf!h It is lE u or 6 (in extensions), o is lE 0, a or ,
Sibilants , «) Liquids , or a late fill-vowel la is lE la

'" •
[um is lE wm (finally)
Semivowels I • I r
The bracketed phonemes are held to occur in association with other
The phonemes common to both languages provide the reconstruction
-st(h)adlulom,d or -st(h)6dluwm,ll. For this example no known
phonemes, and lE *11, *1), and *t are without separate history. The language provides the clue to the vowel ofthe first syllable, and it is
groups -ph, etc., occur most commonly after initial -s. therefore advisable to write -4 to r epresent 'lE -a or -/. The group
VOWELS -sth~ ' can be inferred from the Sanskrit verbal root -stlul- 'stand',
hence the most satisfactory reconstruction is lE - sth4dlulom,a.
Short at; 0 u 6 (t. If)
Longali~il
Diphthongs ai tj oi li or 4i; au tU ou 6U or 4u
14 THE INDO - EUROPEAN BACKGROUND VOWEL GRADATION (VOWEL APOPHONV) 15
the sounds of any given language may be affected by sentence-
CENTUM LANGUAGES AND SAT;)M LANGUAGE S position, degree of stress, consonant-grouping, taboo,~olk-etymology,
and other factors; such incidental influences give rue to 'by-laws'
5. The languages of Northern Europe (Baltic and Slavonic), which may considerably modify the expected pattern. Thus despite
together with Albanian, Armenian, and to some extent Sanskrit, the correspondence of German Htim and English home, Stein and
distinguish the palatal sounds postulated for lE as "r, "1 and ·gh sto1l4, Eithe and oak, Ttil and dou, German tin corresponds (a) to
from the velars "", "g, and "gh. Since these languages represent the English 0114, (b) to English a, an, and (c) to the first part of English
word for 'hundred' with an initial 1-, s, -or i- (Albanian and Armenian on-9' Here we have twO important deflections from the expected
alone lack the word), they have come to be called sa/im languages
after its Iranian form (sat1l1f, related to Lith. Jimt4r: Latv. .nmts: norm.
OCz. sto: OPer. sata) . By contrast, the languages of Southem Europe 8. But rhymes are on the whole more frequent than non-rhymes,
(Latin and Greek), together with Celtic, Germanic, Hittite, and and here, by way of example, is a table illustrating the reflexes of
Tokharian, do not indicate whether the prototype-word for 'hun- lE .ai/oi in four languages. The more distant the relationship
dred' contained lE "If or lE ·k, and are accordingly called tentum between the languages, the fewer are the correspondences.
languages after the Latin form of the word. The minimum require- Indo~European ·ai/oi
ment for a valid lE reconstruction is generally a form from a sahm ENGLISH M. SCOTS OERMAN oc.
language and a form from a tentum language. Occasionally four or MU dad Teil dJI.
more forms have to be compared jn order to deduce the prototype.
6. T he I ndo-European languages which provide the essential data
w/wu
,,",w
hoel ""I &lIb
snltiti
for reconstruction are as follows: ba'"
"""
boe. Bein
(a) Baltic, Slavonic, and other sabm languages, which supply ,ak oel Eithe
the evidence for the presumed palatals ·E, .g, and ·gh. moan
(b) Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, which supply the evidence for do<
""""
doe
the aspirates "hh, ·dh, "gh/gh, and ·C1Ih. fa< foe
(c) Latin, Brythonic, and Hittite (with Greek and Armenian),
which supply the evidence for the labiovclars .911, .g1', VOWEL GRADATION (VOWEL ApOPHONv)
and .g,p,.
(d) Latin, Greek, and Celtic, which supply the evidence for 9. The Indo-European languages are characterised by a system in
lE "0 as distinct from lE ·a. which the internal vowel of a word may be changed while the
Armenian alone provides evidence for both palatals and aspirates, surrounding consonants remain unaltered. This alternation of
thus Arm. d<.mn 'hand' can be derived only from lE "gher~ (not vowels is known as vowel gradation, or vowel apophony (G. Ablaut).
from • ghtr- nor from • gtr-). Armenian sometimes suppLies the The commonest of these fluctuations is that from e to 0 with the
evidence for lE ·0 (if originally in a stressed position, as in orb occasional occurrence offorms from which the vowel has disappeared
'orphan') and for "qll as in k'arra- 'four'. altogether. The three grades are represented in the English strong
7. The most convincing indication of kinship between languages is verb sing, sang, and sung respectively. (See §75)· .
the fact that owing to the almost mechanical operation of sound-laws Another vowel gradation series of common occurrence ID the lndo-
a rhyme pattern emerges; the more closely the languages are related European languages is one which gave rise to the vowels of the
the greater the number of rhymes. It should be said, however, that English strong verb take, took, and the noun-pair grave, groove.
16 THE INDQ4EUROPEAN BACKGROUND .THE VERBAL PATTERN OF INDO-EUROPEAN
US-, u-declension: persons and objects with function; u-declension
GRAMMATICAL GENDER IN INDO-EuROPEAN (also) liquid substances (grammatical nominative not dis-
10. Grammatical gender has evolved on similar lines in many of the tinguished).
derived languages of Indo-European origin. Gender was not
primarily related to sex, but rather to function and aspect, and the THE VERBAL PATTERN OF INDO-EUROPEAN
three grammatical categories masculine, feminine, and neuter
12. From the complex pattern ofmoom and tenses in the derived
merely indicate the way in which folklore has rationalized function
languages a scheme emerges which emphasizes aspect rather than
and aspect by emphasizing their main attributes. Chief of these are
tense. Since few, if any, verbal notions are capable of displaying all
the IUtilJf role attributed to the male (hence the 'masculine' gender of
the possible aspects, it is difficult to illustrate them from the inflec-
the words for 'fire' and 'rain'). and the passil!l role attributed to the
tions of anyone lE verb. Differences of aspect are sometimes illus-
female (hence the 'feminine' gender of the words for 'earth, night'.
trated by the association of two distinct verbs, as for instance Latin
etc.) . Single isolated objects of active function are deemed 'mascu-
JerD and tuli, Greek q,lpw and l1"EYKo". In English the verb 'to carry'
line'. whereas parts of objects. receptacles, and things without out-
is purely descriptive, while 'to bring' denotes an act without reference
line or shape are considered 'feminine'.
to the manner of its performance. Thus it appears that a verbal
11. The distribution of the lE declensions was broadly as follows: category in Indo-European is distinguished by the manner of an
os-declension: isolated objects; objects with active function; objects operation rather than by any notion of time. In the following scheme
which are the results of acts. an attempt is made to show how the aspectual mechanism works.
om-declension: objects (the grammatical nominative not dis- Examples are drawn from Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Old Czech, and
tinguished). Lithuanian.
If-declension: objects with passive or negative function; objects
without definite shape; hollow objects and containers; lands and 13. THR ASPECTUAL SCHEM.E
countries; some parts of the body; birds which are hunted. EXAMPLES
FORMULA CONNOTATION
chased, or bred; some insects, tools, substances; collectives;
qualities. un-(o/t) durative-progressive fer" = q,EPW = bhdrami = beru;
jos-, ~m-, j4-decleruioru: attributive tenus, fonnerly adjectives or vehfJ = vdluImi = vezu; aTlvw;
possessives. Myw; p..lvw; W(.TOp..o.l.
"n/ m-declension: objects and acts associated with or derived from un-(mi) present absolute sum = E:iJ-l = dsmi = jsem.
other objects and acts. leni- intenruttent aTe:lvw; meru; fdu; feno; wlauw.
mtJ-decleruion: verbal-nouns with med.io-passive sense. ltli~ instant present capiD; rapiD; veniD; {jatllw; 8cfit~w;
mtlt-decleruion: collective objects (grammatical nominative not {3cf)')'w.
l8allOv; IftaAov; EZSOII (·e-ltidom);
distinguished) .
er-declension: family relationships.
'p- instant past
.vilkafl.
Is/os-declension: durative or pennanent notions (grammatical "M- instant future, future- K£llTEW; K'"EW; aTEplW; moveD;
nominative not distinguished). present blu; Ep..lw = Li. vemiu.
is-declension: creatures and objects of common gender; parts or existent ('verbs of mane"; IuJbeo; caleD; paleD; laUD;
'ot- valeD; tlleju; rubeD = rdlju si;
derivatives oflargcr objects. Nouns in -tis denote acts or results state')
of acts. faveD = Iwvlju.
c
,8 THE INDO·EUROPEAN BACKGROUND
tin· completed or final dpi; 'em£; veni; IfJTJII; sldi; 19ij
co-ipi; m~Di; scab!; ldi = Skt.
ada (but Lith. Imiaf1, skohiaa,
Idtiau, etc.) .
tm/- static sede~ = sez:.u~sedlti.; vide6 = Diz:.u.
Didlti; kiu·ldlti; trpiu, trplti. II
Un4j- progressive, iterative sldare = sidati; tlkoti.
11",- incompleted vixi; traxi; flu.xi; mansi; foxi; SLAVONIC AND
E1I".\t"vua = pltu:h; dixi = 18H,a. THE WESTERN SLA VS
unsl- inceptive-progressive criscO; gnosco; Piisc" = pasu; disc6;
hisc6 = XauKoo.
14. The Slavonic group of languages occupies a position inter-
un-nu- instant-mutative apllvp.w; 8pllvIU = ronu-ronuti
mediate between the Germanic languages in the west, the Baltic
= .n:Wmi.
languages (Lithuanian and Latvian) in the north, and a lost group
tltln- localized, intensive gign6 = yiyvop.at; sist6 = tOTTJIJ.t;
.
sid6 = t{0f'4'i 8l8oop.'; p.lpovoo;
, ,
WXOO; '"t1T1'ooj'TUC'TOO.
of languages in the south-east, of which Scythian was no doubt one.
The earliest southern neighbours of the Slavonic languages can only
be inferred, but as Slavonic is in the sabm language-group it is dis-
tdon- resultant .\(.\0'11"0..
tinct from the Mediterranean types of Indo-European, represented
tlnt/i. (I) habitual (I) IIVK'T£pEOoo, cf. nociju~nocluati;
in the main by Latin and Greek, to which it bean an equally close
q,vmJoo = u-bytouati.
resemblance.
(li) functional (2) ·O"Ttynloo (OTtYE"Us) = sle-
Iwvatij 130.0'4.\(.)00; panovati; 15. Slavonic is held by some to show a closer affinity to Baltic
krallvati. (Lithuanian, Latvian, and Old Prussian) than to other groups of
tonij (I) factitive (I) moneo; doceo; t/>ofJEoo; (~ wiu languages. This assertion is supported by the similarity of the
-(po~)loliti; vrdcu-vrdtiti. Baltic and Slavonic declension patterns (though that of Lithuanian
(li) frequentative (2) OXioo = volu.vociti; t/>oploo; is considerably the more archaic), and by some close coincidences of
noIu-nositi. vocabulary (thus OCz. prst: Lith. pirItas 'finger'; OCZ. nesu: Lith.
un/ tondj (I) denominative (I) flmdre = djrnati; lIiKaoo; nelll 'I carry'; OCz. /Mdu: Lith. ",dll 'I lead'). Moreover cognate
'Tip..4.oo; arare = vrati. words which are otherwise widely documented bear Slavonic
(li) ejaculative (2) murmurare; ovare = Wd{oo; meanings which are closer to those of Lithuanian and Latvian, while
uluLire; tondre; mlare = 'eh- their counterparts in Latin are closer in meaning to Celtic. Thus
tati; stonati; volati. OCz. mina 'change': Lith. mainas 'change', but Lat. milnus 'gift':
lonli- denominative ?ToMooj 1I"OpEoo; potitij po-hlliti Olr. moln 'gift'. Similarly OCz. tur 'bison': Lith. lailras 'bison', but
= glutire; O'T04XEoo = stiliti. Lat. taurus 'bull' : Olr. larh 'bull' .
tonii (I) denominative /wstire = po-Iwstili; O"TO'X"oo. 16. Again, Slavonic and Baltic display modifications of verbal
(2) ejaculative grunnire; IIJitofili. aspect by means of prefixes, and both groups have a distinct adjective
tonuj- denominative 8alCpow; p.(90oo; statu6; u-mrtIJiti. declension with a pronoun as suffix. On the other hand Slavonic and
ton·n- adjectival '\aYYEoo; (Go.) waknan; (Go.) Baltic display dissimilar patterns of conjugation; indeed, the
follnan; moknUti. Lithuanian future tense has its counterpart in Greek, Armenian, and
'0 SLAVONIC AND THE WESTERN SLAVS SLAVONIC AND THE WESTERN SLAVS
lodo-Iranian, and the past tense is similar in some ways to the Latin . 5. ·berdb, ·beretb. berefi, bereh;..
perfect and the Albanian aorist. 6. ·oblh, ·pblm., ·-CbrnD, DI?J:b, pl'bttb, Q'bnD, SI1I'6rtb (but
17. Common features beyond theanes cited above are found in other ·SI7Ibrtb. the Ostromir Gospels have
grou~ of languages besides Slavonic and Baltic. Similarity of oblh. etc.).
vocabulary is a criterion of little value. Lith. DilV41 'God', f!fttu 7. ·grbdJc, ·ordlo. gr&lo, raiD.
'man', slntll 'old', and Ilaunu 'buttock' have cognates in Latin but 8. ·jlda (or ·'da). jada.
not in Slavonic, whereas DOz. fldova 'widow'. hos, 'guest'. d4m 2:1. Serious objections to a postulated Common Slavonic are (a) the
'house', and w(.!'middle path' have cognates in Latin but not in unverifiable forms ·velk-, ·volk-, ·"",.t-, .oort-, etc., within the
Lithuanian. Slavonic period, and (b) the uncertain prehistoric value of some
18. The Slavonic languages, with their sharply-defined. well- clusters of consonants, palatalized in recorded Slavonic. such as are
preserved hut complex grammar, show a high degree of basic found in the words for 'night' and 'thing' (OCS noItb beside OCz.
similarity. The number of declensions has been multiplied because of noe; Des l!iJtb beside OCz. oIe). Moreover the true representation of
modifications to consonants and vowels within the 'Slavonic' period the vocalic consonants .J and ·r is in some doubt. Otherwise the
of evolution. There are six cases, a vocative, and a dual number, the adjustments required for postulated Common Slavonic are minor
last having all but disappeared from some of the Slavonic language! ones based on the evidence oflanguages that exist today or in records
spoken today. The conjugation system of Slavonic has been con- of the past.
siderably simplified within historical times; the older languages of 22. The following passage is designed to give some idea of a Slavonic
the group possessed three types of aomt, an imperfect and a present language (Czech) in terms of its common vocabulary with Latin.
tense, with an inflectedjussive-imperative. All other tenses are com- Inflections do not always agree.
pounded from auxiliary verbs and participles, or are formed from
the present tense with the addition of an aspectual prefix. A movable Vdooa[a]mdt' sedt 0 doml. Vidua [etJ m4ter sethnt in dOfflll.
stress, and the existence of at least two tones are factors which have Vdooa fije; mdfpleu. Vidua suit; main pltctit.
had some influence on the shaping of Slavonic grammar. Vdooa ntU vid!. Vidua nDs oitkt.
Jejl sestra stojl [u] ohM a pele Eius soror slat [anteJ ignemre~,oqllit
:19. Since Old Church Slavonic (OCS), the oldest Slavonic lan- pro ambdbus.
pro obl.
guage, antedates Old Czech (DOz.) by only !wo years there is no
Ohm<!jmJ. IgnisjUmat.
need to cite forms from both languages unless Des shows some dis- Doa bratn sekajl housera v 111)01 DuD jratrh secant {h)an.rerem in
tinctive feature not to be found in OCz. An archaic feature ofOCS, novD stabulD.
sto40u.
for instance. is its nasal vowels, which have disappeared from 002.
71eH "ratr ord; lturtj, !tm4n4f, Tertius jrdter orat; quartus, simi-
20. The basic uniformity of Slavonic makes it sometimes desirable vete trnl;!kvef je mele. tulriw, vehit grana; levir ea mdlit.
to postulate a Common Slavonic (ComSl) for items of grammar or Pdtj bratr jest sedldf. QJlintwfrater est sellarius.
vocabulary that can be covered by a single formula. DCS diffen Sest) braJr, bradatj,jest pastjf. Sextus/rllter, barM/us, esl pdstor.
from this postulated basic pattern as follows: Tdta jejieh by[1] vlnaf,. nynl jest Tata eDrumjUil Idndriw; nun[eJ est
COMMON SLAVONIC OLD CHUR.CH SLAVONIO mrteu. mortuus.
I • • velk-,
volk-; ·vert-, vorl-. vllk-, vlak-; vrlt-, vrat-. Veler jsou bratn doma. Vesperi suntjratrls domi.
2. ·kuPjp, ·ljubjp, ·slovjp, ·m'bmjp. kupljp,ljubljp, slovljp, m'bmiip. Md! Md/dla [a] nil, [a] dd j. Mater firt ediilium [et] !lil, [etJ dot
3. ·vorljp, ·medja. vraItp, metda. bralffm [a] sestrdm. eojrdtribus [et] sorQribw.
4· ·i6g0. ,go. Vlrujestdllmpln liooM. VtrD est domus pllM vittU.
 SLAVONIC AND THE WESTERN SLAVS
CHARA CTERISTICS OF CZECH AS A WESTERN
SLAVONIC LANGUAGE
23. The distinctive features of Czech can be illustrated by comparing
them with their equivalenu in Serbian (Southern Slavonic) and
Russian (East Slavonic) respectively.
t. lE *f~, *iJl as in Lith. !vairyti, lvaigldl: OCz. Iwlt; hvl{da,
5rb. coel; {De{da, R. cvlt-ok; {vl{da 'flower; star'.
2. lE .tj, ·dj, *dhj as in Lat. dillOTtium, odium, media, ruhia: OCZ.
theuj r.cl, Srb. cUi rdJa, R. thoro; rla 'I wish; rust'.
3. lE *kti as in Lat. nolli-, Lith. naktis: OCz. not, Srb. noc, R.
nol/) 'night'.
4· lE ·,ai, *ar, *01, *or, and another consonant, as in Lat. s(Jllere,
pullus (adj.), barba, Lith. saidUs, paluas, bar~dd: OCz. slad; hrad, Srb.
si&!, grad, R. sO/od; gorod 'malt; fortified town'.
5· lE *el, er and another consonant as in Gk. 8EA,pVs, Lat.
vertebra: OCz. lUb, llab; uflteno, 5rb. lub; DTeteno, R. lOlcb; vmteru}
'trough; spindle'.
6. lE vocalic *1 (a) as in Lat. liiM, (b) as in Lat. indulge6: OCz.
vIno; dluh, Srb. vUM (wool); dug, R. vointJ (wave); dolg 'wave or
wool; debt'.
7· lE vocalic ·r (a) as in Lat. granum, (b) as in Lat. fumus: OCz.
{rno; hrn-ec, 5rb. {rno; grn-ac, R. {erno; gorn (furnace) 'grain; pot'.
8. lE initial *al, *ar, *01, *or and another consonant, as in Lat.
armus, orbus, Lith. alkuni. Cr. 4. OCz. lokd; rami ; r04-, Srb. lakat;
rame; ra{-, R. ldkotb; rameno; ra4- 'elbow; shoulder; apart'.
g. lE. initial *a and *e followed by *e/i as in Lith. Ueras, Gk.
AX'pwlI: OCz.Je.cero, Srb.Je.ceTO, R. o4ero 'lake' .
10. lE *ker, *ler, *ser before another consonant as in Lat.
tertdmen, Gk. K/p8os, KfPIIOS, Lith. kerpiJ, lerd/.s: OCZ. Iflp; stfld,
Srh. crtp; md, R. l/rep; sered-ina 'sherd; middle'.
11. lE ·dhI after *r and vowels: OCz. hrdlo; sddlo, Srb. gr1o; saio,
R. gorlo; solo 'throat; lard'.
1.2: lE *i in monosyllables and extensions, as in Gk. >.tIlOV, Lat.
tafnhum: OCz.ien, kOnJ!c, Srb. ion, konac, R. lin, konec 'flax; end'.
13· lE *u in monosyllables and extensions . as in Gk. U'IfVOS,
Lat. angulus: OCz. sen; uhd, 5rh. san; ugao, R. son; ilgol 'dream;
angle',
CZECH AMONG WESTERN SLAVONIC LANGUAGES 23
14, l E .j arter labials as in Lat. vindlmia: OCz. ztml, Srh.
zemlJa, R. ztmJJd 'land'.
Other features of Czech are vowel-length, which is quantitative,
not tonal, a nd the formative prefixes !!Y- a nd V4- which are a bsen t
from Serbian.
THE POSITION OF CZECH AMONG THE WESTERN
SLAVON I C LANGUAGES
24. The features which distinguish Czech from iu western Slavonic
neighbours, Slovak, Lusatian, and Polish, are fewer than those which
distinguish it from Southern and Eastern Slavonic. The uniform
stressing of the first syllable of words is shared with Slovak and
Lusatian, where also monosyllabic prepositions containing a vowel
are stressed as if fonning part of the following word. The lengthen-
ing of masculine nouns in the nominative singular (OCz. koff,
vo.c) is also a feature of Polish and of Carpathian Ukrainian. Two
forms of the lE semivowel .J are distinguished in Cz. (pIn, dluh)
and in Polish (pelrry, dlug), but not in Slovak (pIn, dlh). Polish, how-
ever,like Russian, distinguishes two forms of vocalic ·1 (smierc, targ;
R. smertb, torg), while Czech and Slovak do not (srnrt, trh; smrt', trh).
Czech shares with Slovak the distinction of long and short vowels;
long vowels sometimes coincide with Eastern Slavonic stressed
vowels, short vowels with Serbian slurred vowels. Unique Czech
features are the fronting of fonner nasal vowels before e, i, I, J, or "
and of a by a precedingJ (iotacism). Hence OCz. pit 'five' (cr. Skt.
panJctiM beside pal} 'fifth' (Gk. TTfP.TTTOS), a modification similar in
cause and origin to German 'Umlaut' . Again, SlavonicJa appears as
jl, I when final (moJI duIl), with prepalatalization when internal
(stiUh',abylej, and initially when e,l, i,J, or' occur in the following
syllable as in JltJl beside javo; In beside Jaro; jlsnl beside Jamj. OCz.
I, a dental r, is a product of lE *ri, -ri, and corresponds historically
to Polish r.c and Lusatian , (phonetically = l) .

III
THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH
25. The simple consonantal system of Czech differs little from that
of Common Slavonic, which bean the following relationship to the
lE system:
lE .P. t, t, Jr., qr; ComSI.: p, I, I, k, " with poai-
tional variants land c (=ts) .
lE ·0, d, I, g. gr; } CornS!.: h, d, 1;, g. g with posi-
lE ·bh, dll, ih, gh, gllh tional variants l and ~ ( - dt) .
lE ·1, r, rn, ", I, (z), i. '" Com.S1: l, r, m, n,!, (.,j, v.
26. From the above table it will be seen that the lE aspirates and
labio-velars are not differentiated, and that CornS!. s represents both
IE·l and lE -K. For distinguishing these two phonemes Lithuanian
is a useful ally, since this language represents lE ·1 by S (sldtti 'to
sit'), but lE *£ by 1 (!ifiltas 'hundred'). Reference to Latin, Greek,
Germanic, Sanskrit, or Armenian is essential for determining which
phonemes of thc Slavonic series b, d, ~,g, and g were once aspirated.
English, Dutch, Low German, Frisian, and Old Norse indicate,
without expressing, which of the corresponding consonanu were
aspirated, for in this event they are identical with Slavonic. English
however shows the velar and palatal aspirates variously as g,)" and
w. Thus OCz. berw and Eng. blaT point to lE -bh; OCZ. dlvi and
Eng. door point to lE -dh; OCz. alju and Eng. yawn point to lE -Jh;
OCz. host (CornS!. gostb) and Eng. gunt point to lE -gh. Aspiration
in these words is confirmed by further reference to Latin J where the
cognate forms are f ero, forls,hi6, andhO$tis respectively. On the other
hand English, Dutch, etc. indicate which of the Slavonic sounds
were not aspirated in lE, since they show p, t, k, and k (Eng. c) for
lE -b, -d, -I, and -g respectively. Thus OCz. vdbiu and Eng. wtep
point to lE -h; OCz. dvl and Eng. two point to lE -d; OCz. z rno and
Eng. corn point to lE-I, and OCz.jho and Eng.yoke point to lE -g.
THE CONSONANTS OF OLD OZECH 25
These conclusions are confirmed by Latin, where the cognate forms
[_ ], duae, grdnum, and jugum show una5pirated consonant!.
The Conunon Slavonic phonemes x/I (Czech ch/I) represent
lE -s in the presence of lE -u/il or after lE -I. Otherwise they are
derived from a group ofconsonanu (cf. OOZ. muchati and Eng. mU).
Old Czech modifies the simple Common Slavonic consonant! as
follows: CornS!. g, C, rb : OCz. h, ~, f.
21. THE UNVQICED PLOSIVES
IE'p > Oc..p
pro 'for': Lat. pro: Eng.jor. lE -pro beside -Pro.
po 'after': Gk. a,7TO 'from': Eng. off. lE -apo.
lE -t > OCz. ,
ry 'thou' : Lat. la: Eng. ,hou. lE -ta.
tfi4 'three': Lat. trls: Eng. three. lE -trejes.
lE -r > OCz . .r
sto 'hundred': Lat. centum: Eng. hunt/-red. lE -l'1ltom.
(milo-)srdu 'mercy': Lat. (miseri-)cordia. lE -lldijom, lldip.
lE -k > OCZ. k before -a, 0, u, a, 0, Ii, and certain consonanu; l
before -e, i,l, i, j; c before -ai, oi, aj, oj
kopec 'hill': Pal. Iwpuc 'mound': Lat. capitium 'peak, bonnet' (cf.
It. cappuccio ' head of cabbage' beside Sp. cabeVl 'head') . lE
-ko,pitjq- beside -kaputi,o-.
Iwpu 'kick, dig': Gk. K01M"W 'hit'. lE -Iwp-.
aio 'forehead', cf. Lith. keiti 'raise', and Lat. ex-u1l6 'stand out'.
lE -kel-.
Umefiu 'sneezewort': OHG lumna 'sneezewort': Lith. kemeras
'hemp agrimony'. lE -kemer-.
dl-j 'whole': Ger. Mil: Eog. whok. lE -kailos.
ruel 'to the hand' : Lat. hraTl&tu 'to the paw' (Walde-Hofmann,
LAteinisches etymologiscMs WOrterbuch). lE -lIran.taj.
lE -1Jll > OCZ. k before -a, 0, u, a, 6, a, and certain consonant! ; f
before -e, i, I, i, j; c before -ai, oil aj, oj
kteTj 'which': Gk. 1fonpos: Eng. wluther. lE -q1JfJteros.
It'whose', cr. Lat. quius, cuius. lE -qlliios or 91140$,
elna 'price': Gk. 1fOtV~ 'ransom, bride-pricc': Lith. kdina 'price'.
lE -qfiOina.
,6 THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH
stlliti 'bring': Gk. flTO'X€W 'move in battle order'. lE ·stoightio.
28. THE VOICED PLOSIVES polozi 'to position': Lith. palagai 'to an erected weather-shield',
lE *b > OCz. b lE ·upo·loghiij.
blabtati, blbotan 'twaddle, rave': Lat . .balbutire 'stammer': Arm. stzi 'footpath', cr. Gk. flTlXES' 'lines' and Lett. stigo 'path':
PrNam 'bubble'. Cf. Skt. Balbillha~ (a man's name). lE OE stige 'ascent'. lE ·stigluIi.
*6, [b1t-, • h11huI-. lE .g}!h > OCz. h before .0, 0, u, a, 0, il, and certain consonants; l
lE *d > QCz. d before *e, e, i, i, 1; z before ·ai, oi, di, Di
dvl 'two, f.': Lat. duae: Eng. two. lE *dlPi. mieh 'snow' (snlhovj 'snowy': Lat. niv-eus 'snowy'): Eng. SMW. lE
dualy 'tenth': Gk. 8ll<(l1'os: Eng. tithe. lE *dtK1]Itos. snoig/lh-.
lE ·1 > OCz . .t hovlli 'favour': Lat.fovere. lE ·g/lMJr.
Q1kl 'grain': Lat. granum: Bng. corn. lE *ifnAm. tEla 'vein': Lith. gjsla id.: Latv. dzisla 'vein, sinew': Arm. Ail
,{,It' 'son-in-law': Lat. gens, gentis 'tribe', cf. Bng. kith. lE *jentis, 'nerve, sinew': Lat.filum 'thread'. lE *g/lhisla.
CV tis .
lE *g > OCZ. h before *a, 0, U, a, 11, il, and certain consonants; I
29. THE LIQ.utDS
before *e, i, i, i, i; <:: before -ai, oi, ai. 6j
jlw 'yoke': Lat.jugum: Eng.yoke. lE *jugdm. lE ·1 > OCz.I
luna 'moon': Lat. lilna: cf. Av. raoxlno 'bright' . lE ·10uksn4.
l~ju, bdti 'chew': Bng. duw. lE ·giau-,
rod 'horns': Lith. ragai, cf. Bng. raJu. lE ·rogDi. rE ·r > OCz. r
rodj 'red': Lat. riifw: Eng. red. lE *roudhos.
ho.ci 'gods', er. Skt. bhdgai) 'lord': Av. bayo 'god', lE *bhdgoi,
lE -Cl' > OCz. h before *a, 0, U, a, 11, ii, and certain consonants, l
THE NASALS
before · e, I, i, i, j; z before ·ai, oi, ai, oj
hav-ld' 'beast': Lat. bOs 'ox': Eng. cow. lE ·g/lo/l-. IE·m > OCz. m
mole 'sea': Lat. mare: Eng. mere. lE *mllri-.
tlltti 'suffer': Gk. 87}Mop.a, 'hurt, am harmful': Ger. qulilen
'torment'. lE ·gf!ll-. IE·n > OCz. n
noc 'night': Lat. nox, nocti!: Eng. night. lE *noktis.
THE ASPIRATES
lE ·bh > OCz. b 30. THE SEMIVOWELS
beru 'I take': Lat.fn o: Eng. bear. lE ·bhno. lE·j >OCz.j
bdti, baju 'relate': Lat.fori 'say': Gk. ~7}p.l 'say'. lE ·bluI-. jho 'yoke': Lat.jugum: Eog.yoke. lE ·jug6m.
lE .dh > OCz. d lE ./1 > OCz. v
dfui 'door': Lat. forlr: Eng. door. lE ·dhy,fejts. vdova 'widow': Lat. vidua: Eng. widow. lE ·/lidluf!.a.
ddl'hollow, valley': Gk. DOMS' 'hollow, dome': Eng. dale. lE *dlwl-. For lE ·1, r see §§ 88, 8g. For .1(1, tl see §§ 69, 70.
lE ·Ah > OCz. Z
vezu 'I convey': Lat. veM: Eng. wtigh. lE ·J.U!AhO.
31. THE SIBILANT
,dma 'winter': Lat. hitmS: Gk. 'X"rp.a.. lE ·gluim-.
lE .gh > OCz. h before ·a, 0, u, 0,0,11, and certain consonants; l lE *s > OD:. s, but chi! in the presence of *u, il, and after */
before · e, I, i, i, j; z before ·ai, oi, ai, oi sedlo 'saddle': Lat. sella: Eng. settle. lE · sed-dhlom, a, ·sedlom, d.
host 'guest': Lat. /wsti! 'stranger, enemy': Eng. glUst. lE ·ghosti!. uJi 'ears' (dual): Lat. auris : Eng. ears. lE ·ous-.
,8 THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH CONSONANT CROUPS 29

such) 'dry'; Lith. sausas: Bng. sear. lE ·stIusos.
my/'mouse': Lat. miis: Eng. moust'. lE *miis.
jUcha 'soup, sauce': Lat.jiis 'soup'. lE ·ias.,
splch 'haste': Lat. spls. lE .spes-.
CONSONANT GROUPS
32. LABIAL GROUPS
lE ·Pt, pn, ps; -ht and *bht, *bn and *bhn; *mn
nef, nt ttf, gen. sing.: rutefe 'niece': Lat. neptis: Skt. naPti~ beside
nopm!}. 'grand-daughter': OLith. neptland mptis, id. lE ·ruptis,
*nepter-.
vasa 'wasp': Lat. vlspa: Lith. vapsvd: Eng. wasp. lE ./lops4
(< *lIobhsii).
os-ika 'aspen': Wel. aethnen: Eng. aspen. lE *apsn6, -en-.
sen 'sleep. dream': Gk. ihrvoso. lE ·supnos.
Cr. for loss ofp the pairs topitij tonuti 'drown'; kapati j kanuti 'drip',
and z-trnuti 'be dumbfounded': Lat. torpto: Lith. tirpstu.
The verb skUsti (beside skubu) 'tug' and the noun doo 'bottom'
seem to show loss of b; the reconstruction of dno however is un-
certain in view of the conflicting evidence (Lith. dugnas, Latv.
dibens 'bottom', and Olr. doman are all equally possible cognates,
though unrelated inter se).
tnu 'cut': Gk. T'aflllW beside T"flIlW, id.: Olr. tamnaim 'lop': Lat.
temno 'despise' (for the semantic analogy cr. Olce!. sndJa 'cut;
sneer at, ignore') . lE. -t,pno, temrW .
33. DENTAL GROUPS
lE -tt, ti, i{l; dt and -dht; -dst and -dhst; *di and *dhi; *dn and
-dhn; -dhst
skjsti beside skytu 'proffer'.
Cisti beside ftu 'count, read'.
vrdcu 'return', cr. Lat. di-vartium. lE *(lorti -.
tU 'yew': Lith. tl!isas, id. lE *t{lis-.
tichj 'silent', cr. Gk. Ut'W7T7) 'silence' ( = OCz. *ticho-oka1i short
vowel in Olcel. Pwis! 'silence!' probably also Lat. for 'thief'.
lE *t~ls; -t{lu" This equation is supported by that of oes
linb 'thong': Lat.fonu 'rope' < lE t{lin- (I), and by the equation
of Gk. uivOfl(U 'perish': OE pwinan, id.: Lat. flnw 'death',
lE .t{lin- (2) 'die'. Note that lE ·I{l > OCz. tv before a, a, and
semivowels (tllOnti, tvrdj, etc.).
Misti beside brdu 'wade',
visti beside vedu. 'lead'.
vieste 'know ye'. lE ·{loidte.
slast 'sweetness' beside sladk} 'sweet'.
r6st 'growth' beside rad 'kind'.
cud 'foreign', a Genoanic loanword, er. Goth. Piudisks 'Genoan',
bfl;:,ie 'fertile', er. Lat.forda. lE *bher-did.
mezl 'baulk': Lat. media: Eng. mid. lE ·medhp.
ven 'out'; radical in Skt. ud· 'up-, out-', cf. also DE iltan ·outside'.
lE ·u.dn-.
vlna 'dowry': Gk. 18voII 'bride.price': OE weatuma 'dowry'. lE
.{ledrpno-, ·{ledno•.
vjml 'udder' contains *iidh-, cf, Gk. oiJ9ap : Lat. iiber 'udder', lE
*iidhmQ.
raslu 'grow' beside rad 'kind', cf. Du. (umun 'grow' . lE *ordhsf-.
34. PALATAL GROUPS
lE ft, Its, and sfi gt and ght
os 'axle': Lat. axis. lE *aJtsis.
pasu 'tend': Lat. pllsco. lE *ptis"o.
mast 'ointment' beside mtlZati 'smear'.
See further under Sibilant Groups § 36, s"-.
35. VELAR GROUPS
lE -M, !wel !ri, kstJe, qf!.S
mlch 'bellows': Lith. mdi!as 'bag': Ir. maou 'bag': Olcel. mrus 'box,
basket'. lE ·rnoiksas.
mlicl'midge', cf. Lat. mwca 'fly' and Sp. mosquito. lE (OCz. type)
·muksitp.
OCz. ch· possibly embodies a merged prefix (·Its?) followed by
lE *k, er. OCZ. chovati 'keep, hide' and Lat. (ex·)caveo; chopin
30 THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH CONSONANT GROUPS 31
'seize' and Lat. (ex· )cipio beside capi~ . Cr. however Ietfiti lE • ski, skr
'watch, care' and Skt. qatram 'dominion, rule': Av. xla8T'1m, id., chlUd'stick,log': Lith. sklanda 'bolt, bar, pole': ONor. slanta 'bolt,
xla8ri.s 'mistress of house' and Hitt. sxassaras, id. lE ·hjelr- (?) . taper'. lE .sklondos, 4.
c/wt' 'desire': Po!. chp, id.: Arm. xand, id.: Bret. chwant, id.: Mlr. Dual representation of lE ·skr· appears in chftJdtWti 'wither' and
saint, id. lE ·WSanJis. in skfehtati 'squeal', for which the reasons are not clear.
c"yba" 'waver, sway', er. Skt. kfuMytImi 'sway'. lE .huM-, ·lcsubh-. lE ·sk before ·a, 0, U, etc. ; lE ·sk before ·e, i, ai, oi, etc.
chvlju si 'tremble' : Du. zwtuUtn 'sway'. lE ·ksJ!li~ or ·sqllii~. skop 'wether'; Lith. skapas 'eunuch': Arm. xo 'ram', cf. Gk.
lie 'harness': Gk. #AtOV beside ljIaAtOII: Olce!. seli 'harness'. lE O'K07T£Ms 'cliff'. lE ·skop-.
qllJelio-, p. IlJp 'graft, cutting': Lith. skiepas, id.; Gk. O'KOL7T0S' 'rafter' or
lE ·kt and .qJlt sim. lE "'skoipos.
pletu,pllsti 'weave, knit': Lat. plecto, id.: Ger.fleehlm, id. lE ·plekt6. lE ·skh before ·a, 0, u, etc.; lE ·skh before" i, ei; lE .skh before
pot 'sweat': We!. (a5!Iimilated) poeth 'hot'. lE ·poqlltos. ·ai, oi
lE ·kti, qllti, ghti, etc. sMla 'gap, chink': Gk. O'Xa'Ms 'cleft stick'. lE "'skluIl-.
mu 'night': Lat. TIOX, noctis, id.: Eng. night. lE ·noktis. list} 'pure, clear': Latv. lkists, id., cf. with short vowel Gk. O'XlO'TOf>
peci 'bake', pee 'oven': Gk. '1T'I/J~f> 'cooking'. lE ·peqlJtj·. 'separate': Lat. scissus 'cut': Skt. a-lhittal} 'un-cleft'. lE "'skhidt-
moci 'be able', moc 'power': Eng. might. lE ·moghli-. > •sHist· (skhidt· > skhist-) .
Early loanworos embody this feature, thus locika ' lettuce' from tiediti 'sift, purify': Latv. skaidit 'water down, sift': Lith. skaidyti
Lat. lactilea. 'analyse'. lE ·skhoid(h) •.
lE .fqJI
36. SIBILANT GROUPS chvojlfir-branches': Let. skuja, id. lE .sql!oj-.
lE • sph, spl, spr lE .rsn
pro·splju 'succeed': Skt. spluiye 'wax fat, increase'. lE ·sPhli6. lrn} 'black': OPr. kirsnas, id.: Skt. krrodfl, id. lE ·ql!lsnos (i-basis) .
sUQI 'spleen': Gk. 0'7TAl}II, id.: Av. spmVl, id.: Lat. liln, id. lE
·spelighn·.
pfahu, pfieci 'harness': Lith. sprengiu, ·ti 'stretch out, force open'.
37. lE ·Vl, vr BEFORE A VOWEL

lE ·sprmg., cr. pndnj 'springy' and OCS pre6'b 'grasshopper': No certain Slavonic instances of initial ./lJ. occur, though in view of
MHG spranke, id. lE • sprong•. the equation of Lat. lama 'puddle': Latv. [Qmtl, id.: Lith. lorrui 'low-
lE ·sth, sdh (I;dh), sgh land' and lvILG wlom 'muddy', the loss of lE ·If· in this position
stajl'dwelling.place': Skt. stluiya~ 'station'. lE .stluiios, d. seems probable for Slavonic. For lE "'vr. there is the probable
prost) 'simple, plain': Skt. prastJra~, -am, n. 'plain'. lE ·pro-sthos equation of Rustic Latin brafICa 'paw, limb of tree': OCz. ruka:
(cpd.). Lith. rankd. Cf. a lso fieVluti 'cut': Gk. PWvVf'l 'break'. lE ·/lrig-nu•.
ml;da 'reward': Gk. p.w8tk, id.: Eng. mud. lE ·misdlws, If (fr. ·mit·
d/ws, a).
38. OTHER CONSONANT GROUPS
mo-th 'brain, marrow': Lith. mii{gas 'knot, tangle, bunch, bud':
Gk. p.60'xof> 'bud'. lE "'mosghos. The evidence for initial "'qW· is limited to chvrasten 'shrubby', of
lE "'SK and "'sKi uncertain history. An uncertain lE type "'qJ!4rmos (or "'KllMmOS)
stien 'shade': Ck. O'K1JII~ 'tent'. lE *sKjan-. seems to have given risc to Olcel. /warmr 'eyelid': Gallo-Latin parma
For "'s~- see further under ./Cs-. 'shield': OCz. chram 'church', lit. 'shelter, cover, sanctuary'. Other
32 THE CONSONANTS OF OLD CZECH
assimilations are represented in mdzdra 'membrane'. cf. Lat.
mlmbriina. lE .mbnsTii; m{.(ia 'pay, reward': Gk. J.'~a8o<.;, id. ulti·
mately fr. ·mit-dhos 'fixed return'; po;:.dl 'late' fr. ·pos-dh-; mdslo
'butter' to mazati 'smear'; vulo 'oar' to vb:.ti 'convey'; Itsla 'adze' to
tesatj 'carve' and tIll 'hungry'; Lith. tuJlias 'bare, void': Skt. tuccluJ{I
'empty, vain'. etc. See §§ g8, 99. First and Second Palatalizatioru.
Assimilation is represented in feflvy 'burning' « *it,·); dissimila-
tion in modern Czech lebro 'rib' (OCz. febro), and in jefdb 'crane'
« '(,,-).
IV
THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
39, IE·a > OCz. 0; lE *a followed bye, i > OCz.je initially
moie 'sea'; Lat. mare, id.: Bng. mere. lE *mari-.
os 'axle'; Lat. axis. lE ·aw.
jet;.tTO 'lake': Lith. iltras, id., cf. Gk. AXEPWII 'a river in Epirus'. lE
"aghero•.
jelen 'stag': Lith. dlnis, Ilnis, id., cf. Ger. Eltn(titr). lE ·alm·, ·den·.
jedtn 'one', cf. Ok. ciOLVOS' 'massed, in one, together' . lE "adin·.
j esen 'autumn'; Arm. alun, id.; OPr. assanis, id. lE ·asen·.
The loanword jeptiJka « abbatissa) 'nun' shows fronting from
a· to je·.
40. lE "e > OCz. e, initially je, before ·ll > 0
mld 'honey'; Gk. p.iOv 'wine': Eng. mlad. lE ·mldhu.
vt-tU 'convey': Lat. veM: Eng. weigh. lE ·f/egM.
beru 'take': Lat.feTe: Eng. bear. lE ·bherc.
jest 'is': Lat. est: Eng. is. lE "esti.
plow 'flow': Gk. ,"'M.w 'sail', cf. Lat. pluit 'rains'. lE ·plef/e.
slovu 'am called': Gk. IC'M.W 'extol': Lat. clueD, id. lE ·1let;6.
41. lE . j > OCz. e in monosyllables, extensions, and triliteral
clusters; lE ·i appears as a residual palatalization in words
ending in tl, n, and sometimes t (f); it appears as a modification
in final f (dental r); it disappears in other positions
/en 'flax': Gk. ),,[vov, cr. Eng. linen.IE "linos, om.
lest 'cunning' : MEng. list. lE ·listis.
men! 'less': cf. Lat. minus. lE ·min·.
kopt(; 'hill': Pol. kopiec 'mound'; Lat. capitium 'peak', cr. Lith. kapCius
(loanword?) 'mound' and Olce!. hpfhi 'headland'. lE "kapitic-
beside "kaputjo·.
smrt 'death' (a compound), beside mod. mr( 'dead matter': Lat.
mors, mortis; Ger. Mord 'murder'. lE "mrtis.
D
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
34
pa-ml( 'memory' (a compound): Lat. mens, mentis: Bng. mind. lE
*m{ttls.
hrut 'guest': Lat. Mstis 'stranger, enemy': Bng. guest. lE ·ghastis.
rel'rye'; Lith. rugjs, id.: Bng. rye. lE ·ruthis.
kt'lie': Ger. Liige, id.: Eog. lie. lE ·'ughis.
vdoV4 'widow'; Lat. vidua, id.: Eng. widow. lE *Jlidhqa.
Loanwords behave similarly, thus mIl 'mass' from Lat. missa.
42. lE .0 > OCz. 0, but 6 (mod. tl) in the nom. and ace. sing. of
several monosyllabic masculine nouns
ddm, gen. sing.: domu 'house': Lat. domus. lE ·domus.
"'" 'night': Lat. fUlX, noctis, id.: Eng. night. lE *noktis.
slon 'groan': Gk. O"TOllOS'. id. lE ·stonos.
l E .io appears as e in mofe 'sea', IDle 'bed', cf. Gk. '\'OXtOV 'of
childbirth' (neut.).
43. lE .u functions like lE *j (q.v.), but does not cause palataliza-
tion
rdlju si, rdieti si 'blush': Lat. rubto, rubire, id. lE ·rudhli~·
rd 'rust': Lat. rubia 'a plant producing red dye', cf. Eng. ruddy. lE
·rudhjl.
sen 'dream, sleep': Gk. V1TVOS'. lE ·suprws.
re('rye': Lith. rugjs, id.: Eng. rye. lE ·rughis.
let 'lie': Ger. Luge, id.: Eng. ii4. lE ·lughis.
r7Uch 'moss': cf. Lith. milrai, id.: Eng. moss. lE ·musos, oi, beside
milIos,oi.
Uhel'angle, corner': Lat. angulus. lE ·angulos or ·anghuIol.
jho 'yoke': Lat.jugum: Eng.yoke. lE ·iug6m.
tIll 'empty': Lith. lultias, id.: Skt. tucchafi, id. lE ·tuk.rtiOl.
Loanwords behave similarly, cf. mest 'must of wine' from Lat.
mustum; mnich 'monk' from Greek (via Germanic ·munika.t), cc.
Milnc/wz.
44. lE ." 4 > OCz. 0
tivet 'life': Lat. vita: Lith. gyvatd, id.: Skt. jivitam: Gk. f3loTos and
f31.O'T~. id. lE ·g~i~tos, a, om.
iOlos 'salmon': Lith. iaJiId, id. (with assimilated consonants): Ger.
Lachs, id. lE ·ldK~sos, a.
Ikofu 'hasten': Gk. ClKatpw 'jump' (with epenthetic -i-): Av. Ikar-
'jump': Bret. Ikara 'run'. lE ·skdr-.
THE LONQ VOWELS 35
Cz. ron{m, roniti 'run, drip': Gk. patllw 'shower, sprinkle'. lE ·r,n-.
inofu, mofiti 'kill': Arm. mDrem 'extinguish', marim 'swoon': Ir.
mDirim 'wear out'. lE ·nur-.
Cz. lunnolj'mutilated': OHG hamaJ, id., cc. Gaul. camuJa-. lE ·kam;kJS.
The relationship between the vowels of STP 'sickle': Late Lat.
sarpa 'billhook'; bIbj 'stupid': Lat. balbus 'stammering'; and krpec
'bast-shoe': Saro. crapitliJ « .carpitja) is due to the Latin representa-
tion of lE ·I,.i before labials, cC. palma, palpare, etc. The isolated aliei!
'fire': Lat. ignis : Skt. agn(~: Lith. ugnls seems to show a reduced
vowel of i-type, lE ·ignis. It may be necessary to postulate diverse
developments of lE shwa [;)] according to the surrounding vowels
and consonants. See §§ 88, 89.
THE LONO VOWELS
45. IE·d> OCz. a, initially ja-
milti and mdll, gen. sing.: matefe 'mother': Lith. mAtt, gen. sing.: m6ters
'woman': Lat. mater 'mother': Eng. math4r. lE ·matj;, ·mater-.
bratr 'brother': Lat.frater: Eng. brotmr. lE ·bhratr-.
a 'but, and, yet': Gk. if 'or': Lith. 0 'but': Skt. d 'also'. lE ·a.
ddvna 'long ago': Gk. S~II 'for a long time'. lE ·ddJ.ln-.
kal 'mud': Gk. 1f'l'jAOS' 'clay' . lE ·q/ldlos.
jaJof!j 'vain, haggard, barren': !.ett. alava 'restless cow, barren cow':
Gk. ~A£6s 'raving'. lE ·i!etlOl, ·tIhJiOs.
46. IE·i > OCz. I, ie; initially j.; after OCz. f, J, t,j > a (but I if
e, i,j, ' follow); after lE ·J.li, fJIIi > i
sinnl, gen. sing.: sll7Wl4 'seed': Lat. slmen, id.: Ger. Sdmm, id. lE
·simO.
stfllo, 'arrow': Lith. str/la 'shoot, sprout': Latv. strilo, 'streak in
cloud': Ger. StrahI 'beam': OE str.il'arrow, dart'. lE ·striios, d.
vitra 'faith', vlru 'indeed': Lat. virus 'true', cf. vlro 'indeed': Ger.
wahr. lE ·(liros.
Un Clazy': Lat.linis 'smooth' . lE *linis ceasy_going'.
~vH 'game animal': Gk. 8~p, id.: Lith. tvlris, id. lE .bhir-.
jiem ' I eat': OLith. idmi, id., cf. OCz. jiedlo 'food', Lat. edillium id.
l E ·id-. '
After f, t
fdr 'magic': Late Av. lard 'remedy, means': Per. ltIre; short vowel in
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
Lith. kiras, kerai 'magic', Gk. -r/pas, a.-ros 'omen, wonder'.
lE ·qrJir., ·'lFer-.
ill 'sorrow' (umlaut); tillti 'regret' (umlaut): Gk. 81jA€oJL«lo 'harm':
Ger. Q;uil 'torment': quiiun 'to torment'. lE .gIjiJ•.
After ·1-li. ·qf.li
viju 'twist': Lat. vieo, id. lE ·l!iliD . ..
otpoCinuti 'rest', radical: {i., cf. Lat. quieo, id. lE ·qf.lilio.
41. lE i > OCz. i, initially ji
liv,lil!Y 'alive': Lat. vivus: Skt.jiudQ: Lith. gjvas. lE ·gf.lirJos.
rUina 'strait': Lat. angina 'constriction'. lE ·ang1-lhinii.
lirj 'mere, sheer': OE stir 'clear, bright'. lE ·sKiros or ·skhiros.
piu, Piti 'drink': Skt. prye, id., cf. Gk. fut. 7TWP.a.,. lE ·prio.
divl 'wonderful' (mod. dillj 'strange'): Lat. dius 'heavenly, excellent':
Gk. 8toS', id.: Skt. ditO'aQ, id. lE ·dillios.
48. lE • " > OCz. a; initially ja; before e, i, etc. > jl
dva. m . 'two': Lat. duo. lE ·drJ0{ll)·
nas, vds 'us, you': Lat. nDs, vos. lE ·nos, 1-I0s.
do.r 'gift': Gk. 8wpo", id.: Per. ddr, id. lE ·doros, om, us.
t'/lZU, vaditi 'egg on': Gk. w8/w 'thrust, egg on'. lE ·J!.odheiD.
jasan,jlsen,jls 'ashtree': Lat. ornus 'wild ash': Lith. UlIsis 'ashtree', cf.
Gk. (&XE:p)wiS 'white poplar'. lE ·osis, oun-, etc.
The isolated form vajce 'egg' is not reflected in OCS, where it is
jaje: Gk. WO". Early loanwords show change of 0 to a as in kWter
•
'monastery' from MHG kJ6sUr (Lat. claustrum).
49. lE u > OCz. y; initially vy; after i > i or u (after OCz. j and
1 > i; after j sometimes> u)
ryn 'son': Lith. mnUs, id. : Skt. siinuQ, id., cf. Go. sunltS, id. lE ·sunus.
f>' 'thou': Lat. tu: Eng. thou. lE ·til.
my.I 'mouse': Lat. mlls: Eng. mouse. lE ·mw.
djm'smoke': Lat.fomus: Lith. damai, plur. id.: Gk. 8vp.ck 'breath,
spirit'. lE ·dhimUJs.
vydra 'otter': Gk. iJ8pa. 'water-snake', (,,'v8ptS', otter', short vowel in
Eng. otter. lE ·ildra.
jUcM,jicha 'soup': Lat.jw. lE ·iilh
Jiu, .Iili 'sew': Lith. siilvll, nati: Lat. suo, suere: Eng. sew. lE • sjUl,lD, sjili6.
Loanwords: mjto 'toll' from either Medieval Latin milla or OHG
THE DIPHTHONGS 37
miUa, id. Greek l?anwords with v arc represented with y. The i in
risiw: 'thousand' is due to assimilation, contrast oes ryspIla.
TaE DIPHTHONGS
50. lE .ai, ,i, tIj > OCz. I, ie; initially jl,jie; finally when part of the
radical, or when intervocalic > oj. Triphthongal, or with
slur·tone > y
ell, cllj 'whole': OPr. kails, id., cf. Osc. kaiitJ 'shrine' or sim.: Eng.
whole. lE ·kailos.
lerj'left-hand' (e after l): Lat. ituvus, id. lE .lail,lOs.
vdool ' to the widow': Lat. viduae. lE ·l,lidhel;ai.
dvl, f. 'two': Lat. duae : Eng. two. lE ·dJPi.
jlskati 'seek': Lith. idkoti, id.: aIr. aiscim 'search': Skt. iechdmi 'seek':
OHG eiskon 'seek, ask': Eng. ask. er. Umbo nscurenJ 'they shall
demand'. lE ·aihsKo.
Evidence for ·ai in radical open syllables is wanting. Triphthongal
or slur tone ·aje, ai, ai, etc. is suggested by gen. sing. and nom. plur.
vdo/!y 'of the widow, widows'. For the gen. sing. cf. Gk. -TJS', OLat.
-dr (but Plautine comoediiii), Goth. gi06s, Lith. raflkos, etc. For the
nom. plur. cf. Skt. aJllIi~, OHG gebd, Goth. gihiis, Lith. railkos, and
above all Lat. viduae beside Osc. Umbo scriftar, urtas, etc. for which
the prototype inflection may be ·-iijes.
51. lE .ei > OCz. i; initially ji
vid 'aspect': Lith. vlidas 'face': Gk. ftSos, n. 'fonn'. lE ·~d-.
ni 'neither': Lith. and OLat. nei, id.: Lat. ni. lE ·nei.
slimdlc 'snail, slug': Lat.limiix, id.: Gk. >.E:ip.at. lE ·sleim4k-.
jll 'clay'; Gk. €l>'Js beside t>.w 'mud'. lE ·eilus (or ilus).
Note that triphthongal lE ·eje > OCz. je in tfje. m . 'three' < lE
·trejes, cf. OHG dri, and in l'udie 'people' < lE ·Jeudhejes, cf. Lith.
lidudis, sing. and OHG liuti, plur. Similarly OCz. hostje 'guests':
Lat. hoslis: OHG gestio
52. lE ·oi > OCz. I, ie, but oj finally when an open radical, or
when intervocalic; initially j/,jie; in weak sentence position> i
snieh, gen. sing.: snlhu 'snow': Lith. snilgas, id.: Eng. snow. er. Lat.
niv-ew: Cz. snlhorj. lE ·snoigtlhos.
viem 'I know' (a perfect·present): Gk. ot8a., id.: Skt. veda, id. Cf. Lat.
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
vfdi 'I have seen': OCz. vldl 'I know': Eng. wot. lE .1I0id'1l beside
·lIoici1i.
dui 'part': Ger. Teil: Eng. dou. lE ·dhoilos.
vlloa 'branch': Gk. olaUu 'withy' . lE ·J,Witll-.
elna 'price': Lith. kdina, id.: Gk. '!TOtll,? 'ransom, bride-price'. lE
·qlloirW.
jld 'poison': MHG ei;; 'abscess': Gk. olaos 'tumour'. lE ·oid-.
jil{.Dtl 'wound, gash': OPr. tySfJO (= aizvo) 'wound': cr. Let. al{.tl
'gulf, gorge, cleft': Lith. diliti 'crack open': Gk. oiyw, ol)"'vfU
'come open'. lE ·oil-.
mln 'measure', mlna 'change; valuable, trinket': OLat. rnilnlLf
'gift, favour': Lith. mainas 'change': OIr. moln 'gift'. lE ·moin-
'requital' .
OPEN RADICAL
doj-ka 'wetnurse, milch cow', cf. Skt. dh/nd 'milch cow', Sw. dlja
'dairymaid'. lE ·dhoi-.
01'1 'shaft of cart', cf. Gk. orat" 'tiller' and Hitt. eya. lE ·oj-.
WEAK SENTENCE POSITION
tun 'bison', plur.: Gk. 'TCl.vpo, 'bulls': Lat. taurf, id.: Lith. taurai
'bison', plur. lE ·-oi.
befit 'take': Gk. (optative) 4>'po'~. Cf. OLith.pa-ftTalairn 'let us ask'.
lE .-ois.
mi 'to me', ti 'to thee' (unemphatic): Gk. fLOC, crot (weak enclitic),
id.; Skt. me, u (weak enclitic), id. lE ·moi, ·wi.
Triphthongal or slur-tone ·oje, ·oi, etc. is implied in ij:
Gk. '!TOWs 'what kind of', and in nov-j 'new': Lith. naujdsis (gen.
sing.: ndujoio), from a type ·lUJ.los-is.
53. lE ·au, 114 > OCz. u
/ur 'bison': Lat. taurus 'bull'. lE ·ttiuros.
uJi 'can' (dual): Lat. auris (plur.), id.: Eng. ears. lE ·4us-.
sueh, suehj 'dry': Gk. avoS', id.: Lith. sailsas, id.: Eng. sear. lE ·s4usos.
{.uf-ivj 'violent': Gk. yaiipoS' 'arrogant': Lith. liaurW 'cruel, fierce':
Olr. garb 'rough' . lE ·14uros.
54. lE ·eu > OCz. ju (> ji); > u when iotacism is absorbed by a
preceding palatalized consonant
THE FRONTING OF UNSTRESSED VOWELS 39
ludie 'people': ORG liuli, id. lE ·lludlujes.
lubj 'dear, kind': lubiti 'revel in': Ger. lilb, lieben. lE ·leubh-.
Ju-l 'already': Lith. jail 'already', jailgi 'indeed'. lE ·jeu-ghi.
Note that lE ·w ceases to be a diphthong when it is followed by a
vowel, and becomes .ql. This, by Slavonic assimilation, becomes
OCz. OD . Hence mlh-ooj: Lat. niv-Ius 'SDOWY'; slolJ(J 'word': Gk.
KAlOS 'rumour, glory'; nov, mIDj 'new': Gk. vios, id.
55. lE ·014 > OCz. u
[una 'moon': Lat. luna, id.: OPr. lauksnos 'stan'. lE ·louksn4.
rudj 'red': Lat. dial. riifus 'red-brown': Eng. red. lE ·roudlws.
THE FRONTING (M£TAPHONV) Of UNSTRESSED VOWELS
BEFORE I, m, n, r, AND S
56. This theory is required to explain the incidence in Slavonic of
b, i, 'b, andy where cognate forms in other languages show lE . " t, 0,
and.o respectively. Thus, if the lE vowels ·',l. o. iJ occurred in an
unstressed position before ·1, rn, n, r, or·s they underwent Umlaut
to ·i, i, 14, ii respectively before their final passage into Slavonic.
57. lE ., via . j to b
tru 'rub': Lat. teriJ. (lE plur. stressing .terimes, ·terdnti influenced the
singular, hence ·terd > via ·tiriJ > OCz. tru) .
stru 'spread', cf. Lat. sterniJ.
ote-vru 'open', za·vru 'shut', radical in Skt. vdrtfmi 'shut': Lith. rJeT"itJ
'open, shut'.
tnu 'cut off": Gk. 'TiIJllw beside 'Tap.llw, id.
mru 'die'. cr. Arm. mtrrnim, id.
lAu 'reap': Gk. fut. 8£J1w 'shall kill'. lE ·gr;lun- 'strike, kill, hunt'.
dru 'flay': Gk. fut. 8fPW 'shall flay'. lE ·der-.
By their form and meaning the above verbs are of 'aoristic' type,
with fluctuating stress. The stress fell upon the root syllable in the
singular, and on the stem syllable in the plural and dual as in Skt.
hdnmi 'I kill', third plur.: ghndnti: Hitt. kwemi (for .kwenmi) 'I strike',
third plur.: kunanci. lE ·g~hinmi, third plur.: ·et#lndnti. It is not
certain from the evidence of the documented languages how far the
radical vowel was reduced in the dual and plural, but a residual
vowel occurs in Hittite 'aoristic' verbs throughout the plural where
no implied aspirate (such as ·bh, dh, gh, gllh) is present. Note the
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
contrast of aspect in the related pairs dru 'flay' and deru 'plunder' and
in [nu 'reap' and lenu 'drive'.
lE *-e- arises in the unemphatic dative jmu 'to him' beside the
emphaticjemu, id. Umlaut has spread by analogy to include the weak
formjho 'him' beside the emphatic formjeho, id.
58. lE I via *i to i (Oez. -ie-)
s.bieraju 'collect'. lE *bhiT- (via *bir-), DeS -biT-.
u.tieraju 'wipe'. lE *tir- (via *tir-), DeS -/ir-.
ot-vieraju, <.a-uieraju 'open, close'. lE *tdr- (via *[lir-). oes -vir-.
u-mieraju 'die'. lE *mlr- (via ·mir-), oes ·mir-.
Contrast the evolution of the same lE vowel [*e] before other
consonants than I, m, n, r, s, as in u-tiekaju 'run away', .ca-mittaj"
'refute', .ca-sldaju 'lay snares', etc. (OeS ·l-, not -i-). The verbs of
this type are usually compound, and are durative-frequentative in
aspect.
59. lE *0 via *u to 'b
mnohj 'many a'; mfU)ho 'many': oes rmnog?J, m'bnogo: Goth. mtJnags.
lE *mon6gh- (via *munog-).
tUT, nom. and acc. sing. 'bison': oes W1"b: Lith. ta/iras, tdurq: Lat.
taurus, taurum: Gk. -raiipos, -ravpov. lE *·os, *-om (via *-w,
*-urn).
mnl 'to me': oes m'bnl. Type *monOi (via *munoi, contrast OOz.
tobl < */obMi via *toboi).
The preservation of the neuter ending 0 may be due to generalizing
of the oxytonic stress of typesjho 'yoke' (lE *jugdm), .cr1W 'grain' (lE
*lfndm) to include s-stems of type slorJo 'word' (lE */eUIiOS, -4$-), kow
'wheel' (lE *qI,dlos, -u-), etc.
60. lE *0 via *Q to y
ny, vy (unemphatic) 'us, you' beside emphatic nds, vd.!: Lat. nos, uos.
lE *nOs, liDS (via *nw, utlr).
pas!#, 'shepherd': Lat. pastor, -6ris. lE *pdstor- (via PastilT-), perhaps a
Vlach loanword.
OOS has a form kamy 'stone': Gk. a.1(fl-WV 'anvil'. lE *dkmon (via
akmiln).
An interesting contrast in pre-Slavonic stressing is seen in the
diverse history of the active participle 'being' (Homeric £wv) in oes
and oez.:
METATHESIS 4'
lE */son via *e.riln, siln to OCS sy 'being'.
lE *e.rdn (= Gk. (wv) via *ison to OOz. jsa 'being'.
Contrast also the divergent evolution of lE *e and *0 before lE
.-hh- (where the vowel remains unaltered in Slavonic even though
unstressed), and the evolution of the same vowels before _no:
lE *tehhi- via *tehe (vowel unchanged) to OCz. tebe 'thee'.
lE *tobhdi via ·Ioboi (vowel unchanged) to OCz, tobl'to thee'.
but lE *mene- via *mine (vowel fronted) to OOz. mne 'me'.
lE *mondi via ·munoi (vowel fronted) to OCz. mnl'to me'.
The fronted vowels implied for OCz. mne and mm are confirmed by
those of the Ostromir Gospels of circa 1060, where we find mb1U' and
rmnl respectively.
METATHESIS
61. A feature of recorded Slavonic is the treatment of lndo-Euro-
pean forms in which a vowel is followed by I or r and another
consonant. The sequence vowel + +
liquid consonant is illustrated
by such words as Latin alhw, orhus, sallere, pullw (adj .), vertD, rmTtex,
harba, marmor, area; Lithuanian saldiLs, parvas, velk", vafnas, verliu;
Greek EAxW, rl>tpfW., I(tpvos, oprpav6s; Englishfilm, salt,fallow, hirch,
arm, heart, etc.
In Slavonic these clusters retain their primitive sequence only in
prehistoric loanwords preserved in Finnish, Greek, Rumanian, and
Albanian, and in the scantily recorded Polabian Slavonic of LOne-
burg, which was still spoken by a few old people at the beginning
of the eighteenth century. This was recorded by Pastor Henning
in his Vocahularium Vendicum, a work composed between the years
1706 and 1709. By the middle of the same century the language was
extinct. From Henning's record we learn that not only were the
nasal vowels heard in LUneburg Polabian, but words retained the
sequence vowel + liquid + consonant. Thus bMna 'gateway', gord
'castle', korvo 'cow', mOT.c 'frost', andporse 'pig'. The following loan-
words from Slavonic illustrate the same sequence:
Finnish talUa 'chisel': Rumanian dalt4, id.: Albanian daiti, id.
Modern Greek fiaA'ros 'marsh': Rumanian bal/4, id.: Albanian
balM 'mud'.
Finnish palthfUl 'linen' also shows the primitive sequence.
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
When we turn to recorded Slavonic however, the picture is different.
Western and Southern Slavonic reverse the order of the vowel and
the liquid; Eastern Slavonic introduces a second vowel. The prin-
ciple is well illustrated by the Slavonic reflexes of the Germanic
name Waldemar. This appears in Czech and Slovak as Vladimir, but
in Old Russian as Volodimir. Again, the formative element of
Germanic place-names like Stutt-gart has its counterpart in Czech
names of type Vy§e-hrad, and in Russian names of type Nov-gorod.
Thus Western (and Southern) Slavonic trUlalhtsis (with vowel-
lengthening) contrasts with Eastern Slavonic (vowel
doubling or 'polnoglasie').
62. lE ·el + consonant
pIeku 'pull': Lith. velku, id., cr. Gk. 1>"KW, id. lE -J,lHlkiJ with variants.
tUh. llah 'trough': Lat. volha 'vulva' (A. M eHlet): Gk. 8€AcPVs
'womb'. lE -gJ#!lhhd, Us 'hollow, etc.'.
lUza, lldza 'gland'; llez 'garlic' or sim.: Gk. ylAytS' 'clump (of
garlic),: MHG kelch 'goitre, double chin', cf. Lith. geltfys.
geIelaunls 'gland, glanders, goitre'. lE -gell-.
63. lE -er + consonant
rnlteno 'spindle, contrate wheel of mill': Skt. varlantl} 'felloe of wheel':
Per. vardane 'rolling-pin' . Cr. Lat. verle-hra. lE -lIerten-.
tfln-ka, mod.: slfen-ka 'handle': DCS lTln'b 'handle, holder': Gk.
KlpvoS' 'holder for dishes': Mlr. cem 'dish. platter'. lE -kern-
'holder' .
lUmen, mod.: stfetrUn 'stirrup': oes lTlm'b 'tent': Skt. ldrman 'skin,
leather': Gk. Klpp.a. 'cut piece, slice'. lE -kerm- 'cutting'.
64. lE -01 + consonant
vIal. 'load', mod.: 'train'; po-vlaka 'cataract on eye': Lith. palktU
'dragnet, cataract on eye': Skt. valkdl} and valkdm 'bark, bark-
cloth': Lett. valks 'dress'. Cr. Gk. 'OAK6s 'drag, furrow'. lE
-1I01k- 'pull', with variants.
plap, plauj 'fair-haired': Lith. pa[vas 'light, fallow': Lat. pullw
'tawny, dun (of hare)': Eng.fallow. lE -polt,los.
sldma 'straw': Lett. salm! 'single straw': Lith. lamala; (sic) 'haulms':
Lat. culmus 'single straw, haulm': OHG halam, halm 'haulm':
Eng. haulm. lE -Kolm-, Koum-.
THE NASAL VOWELS OF SLAVONIC 43
65. lE -or + consonant
mata 'gate': Lith. vaf'tai, id., cr. Lat. port-ex. lE -J.lOrt- 'turning'.
mds-ka 'wrinkle': Lat. versus 'furrow' (Lat. ue- represents lE -t..Je- and
-1I0-): Olcel. VP", id., er. Lith. varsnas 'strip of ploughed land'.
lE -lIors-.
prtUl 'pig': Lat. ponus: Eng.farrow. lE -porK-.
66. lE -al + consonant
slad 'malt', sladkj 'sweet': Lith. saldUs 'sweet', cf. Lat. saIflre. lE
-saldos.
67. lE -er + consonant
hrada 'chin, beard': Lith. harzdd 'beard': Lat. harha, id. (assimilated
consonants): Eng. beard. lE -hharsdha.
krdkofu 'croak': Gk. KapKatpw 'rumble'. lE -kdrkar-.
The principle of metathesis extends to Latin and early Germanic
loanwords, cf. mramor 'marble' from mannor; krabicl 'box' from
corhila 'bumboat'; mliko 'milk' from Gmc. *lTreluk-; miok 'salamander',
cr. Ger. Moleh.
68. A modification to the above scheme arises when *al-, ar-, 01-,
and *or- occur initially as in Lat. albus, orbus. Subsequent evolution
in OCz. depends on an original difference of tone according to some
authorities, though others with equal conviction believe that the
distinction depends on whether or not a reduced vowel once followed
the liquid consonant. Thus OCz. rtdlo 'ploughshare' is explained
either as lE -drdhlom (with emphatic tone) or as -ar.,dhlom (with a
following reduced vowel, viz. - ,) . Otherwise OCz. converts initial
-al-,ol-; ar-, or- into 10- and ro- respectively, cr. role 'field': Pol. rol, <
a type -arImC/; roM 'child', cf. Lat. orbus, type -orhhmC/; loni 'last
year': Old Lat. oUi 'formerly' < -olni; Iodl 'ship', a Germanic loan-
word, cc. OIcel. ellibi and Lith. aIdijd 'boat made out of hollow trunk';
rolen, gen. sing.: rolnu 'spit', cf. Gk. cipX~ 'corner' (of sheet), hence
'point, beginning'.
THE NASA L VOWELS OF SLAVON I C
69. The Common Slavonic treatment of the Indo-European nasal
clusters is extremely simple. lE *em, en, im, in, and -1]1, C/ if not fol-
lowed by a vowel became Common Slavonic -, - (believed to have
44 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH VOWEL GRADATION (VOWEL APOPHONY) 45
sounded like French -ain). whereas lE "am, an, om, on, urn, un under 72. The CornS!. Back Nasal appears in OCz. as u and u in all
similar conditioIl3 became ComSl. -p- (as French on). These are positions:
known respectively as Front Nasal and Back Nasal according to the lE ·om, on
position of utterance. The positional variant [Q] is not differentiated, ;:.uh.'tooth': Gk. y&p.4»os 'spike, nail, tooth'; Skt.jdmhhafl 'tooth,
nor are long vowels. fang'. lE ·gomhhos.
The Czech representation of the nasal clusters is more complex. jsu 'they are': Lat. sunt: Skt. santi: Hitt. asanci. lE ·(e)sonti.
Tonal difference accounts for the twofold representation of the front put 'journey, pilgrimage': Lat. pons, ponlis 'bridge'. lE ·pontis
nasal asja-, andjd-. Internally j is lost or is merged with the pre- 'passage, crossing'.
ceding consonant which is then palatalized, and the vowel appears as
a or d. A following e, I, i,j, or' converts the front nasal into jl and 73. lE ·am, an
ju respectively. Internally these two new vowels also lose} leaving uhel 'angle': Lat. angulus. lE .anghulos or ·angulos.
I and ie. The whole development is illustrated in the following ju 'her': Lat. earn, id.: Skt.yam, id. lE ·j4m.
scheme: lE ·um, un
huhel 'bladder': Pol. bqbel ' bubble': Lith. bumbulas 'lump': Arm.
INITIALLY jat jdtra jllie juti
6mbul 'fluffy animal, eiderdown', cf. Gk. -rrol1-cpo)..vf 'bubble'
'taken' 'liver' 'taking' 'to take'
INTERNALLY fad fdd ·flditel IUditi
(lE .u + u > Gk. 0 + v, cf. lColClCvg 'cuckoo', p.oPI1-VpW 'mur~
rnur', etc.): Eng. bumble.foot, a disease in fowls. lE ·bhumbhul·.
'line' 'order' 'director' 'line up'
klub 'knob', cr. also mod. klub-ko 'ball of wool'; OCS klpbo 'lump,
All the above examples contain reflexes of ComSl. ,. Cr. § 84. ball': Ir. clomh 'flax-beater': Wel. clwm 'knot': Eng. lump. lE
·klumb·
70. lE .em, en The CornS!. loanword kpi'o ; OCZ. kUt 'corner' derives from
maso 'flesh': Skt. mamsam, id.: Go. mirnz, id.: Arm. mit. lE ·mlms·. Gk. Kav8~ 'corner (of the eye)" though by what route is not
jalra 'liver': Gk. bnpa 'entrails'. lE ·enter,. certain.
WITH VOWEL·PRONTINO
NASALS IN WEAK SENTENCE POSITION
;:;If 'son·in-Iaw': Lith.lintas, id.: Lat. gens, gentit 'tribe'. lE ·gentis,
"'.
pit 'five': Skt. pankt£~ 'group of five' . lE ·penrwti·.
74. In Common Slavonic all lE nasal groups in weak position are
reduced to a simple vowel 1.1, initially 170. Thus, Old Czech st~
'hundred' (CornSI. nto) from lE .bp.t6m (Lat. centum, Gk. €-KO:T'OV
71. lE ·im, in, 1/1, tI 'one hundred'); v 'in' from lE ·en (Lat. in, Gk. w). Modem Czech
pat 'twisted': Lith. pintas, id. lE ·pintos. vtdina 'second', from a dialect variant of uterj 'second day, Tuesday',
jat 'taken': Lith. imlas, id.: Lat. emptus. lE ·rptos. illustrates the same principle « lE .anter·, cr. Lith. antras 'second':
desdtj 'tenth': Gk. 8€Ka'To!>, id.: Eng. tenth. lE ·delrptos. Ger. andere 'other').
WITH VOWEL-FRONTINO
VOWEL GRADATION (VOWEL ApOPHONV)
juti 'to take',jltie 'taking': Lith. ifhti 'to take', et Lat. emptio.
·jlllti 'squeak': Lith. inksttti 'stammer'. 75. An important feature of Indo-European is the alternation of
Early loanwords behave similarly, cf. mala 'mint' from Lat. vowels to distinguish aspect, a principle which survives in the English
mmtha; ;:;tkvor 'ginger' from OHG (11th century) gingihero. strong verbs of type sing, sang, sung; drive, drove, driveTJ, etc. The same
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH VOWEL GRADATION (VOWEL APOPHONY)
47
principle is observable in Latin, where there is vowel alternation as A B C D
between pend6 and pondus, tego and toga, terra and lomo, fero and
forda, uertO and vortex. The principle is well established in Greek With added *i:
4
4; 4j
• i ,
where >.I.yw 'say' alternates with >.6yos 'word'. rrrJlIw 'groan' with With added *u: 4u a~ u ii
O'T ollOS', etc. That the vowel, denotes a durative aspect is clear from The modifications with added *j and added *u are very rare and
the present tense of verbs, and from nouns and other parts of speech. seem to be fully iUustrated in only three radicals: *dd;- 'divide',
Thus Y(IIOS': Lat. gmUJ 'race' is of durative aspect, whereas yovoS' *Ili- 'be silent', and ·stLd- 'glow'.
'offspring' is, like >'OyOS". pondus, and toga aoristic or 'resultant', cf.
77. The following distribution illustrates how the two gradation
S/fLW 'build': SOfWS' ' (resultant) building, house'. The members of
series, e/o and di d, affect Old Czech, Latin, and English. No series is
these alternating pairs are described as in '-grade and o-grade complete.
respectively. Related to '-grade and o-grade in an aspectual
e/ o GRADATION WITHOUT ADDED VOWEL
relationship are radicals containing lE *-i- and *-0-, and these are
termed respectively long-'-grade and long-o-grade (or I-grade, bern vy-~' s-bor
o-grade). A third grade arises when the vowels, or 0 disappear,
cr. bear bier bare born
leaving a syllable said to be in zero-grade, i.e. a syllable without an (=bore)
sedlo ~dati saze
alternating vowel. Zero-grade is also found in a lengthened form,
when it is known as long-zero-grade. The alternating vowels, and 0 cr. settle seat ,at soot ne-st
and sedea sedire solium ni(*s)dus
are called mobile: residual vowels i and u with which the mobile
tece s-tiekati se tok (DeS,
vowels combine to form the lE diphthongs *,j and *oi, *tU and *ou
are called stable, since they persist in all vowel grades unchanged takati)
ld;c!ti pro-Iehati n-Ioh
except fGr occasional lengthening. The following scheme represents
all the known elements of t/o vowel gradation.
cr. lie lay
stiem- strom strmy
I la 2 2a 3 3a hlav
e-grade e-grade o-grade a-grade zero-grade long-zero-grade pletu, -pletati plot
t I 0 0 pl6ti
With added *, (becoming *i after a long vowel): hiebu, -biibati hrob hrabati hfbieti
ei li oi oj j i hf6ti
With added *u (becoming *", after a long vowel) : ileravy, Ur hoiiti Mrati hfieti
'u i1I DU 0", U
• feftvy (de)
76. Besides the '/0 gradation (apophonic) series there is in Indo- 78. e/ o GRADATION WITH METATHESIS
European a second series, in which the vowel *d alternates with *d. vftteno vrata vrt~ti
Traces of this alternation are found in Latin, where for instance we strehu, strUe!
find status beside slamen: in Greek where rrrBTOs- alternates with stfc!ci
;rrr'1UB: in English where take (with lE *a) alternates with look (lE c£ crrJpyw rrropy~
*d), grave with groove, and stand with stood; and in Old Czech (and vleku, ~vIekati vlak vlk
other Slavonic languages) where sto)u 'I stand' alternates with stdjl vIeci
'dwelling' . The d/a relationship is expressed in a formula as follows: dfe!vo z-drav
 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
VOWEL-FRONTINO 49
79.e/o ORADATION
zabu,
z~b~,
ziebsti
matu,
metd,
WITH HISTORICAL NASAL VOWELS

mtititi lav-are
d,
aus-culttire
.
(and hb-itj): hjbati; do-tek: tjkati se; nt1-sep: sypati. Latin represents the
first two tenns of the series *du/aIl as au (av) and ~ respectively, thus
,
~-men, ~s-men
l~tum
, •
of. OE lape 'easy' iJtium
miesti
Go. sauil 'sun' ,6/ OCz. sln-iti Skt. sUms
80. e/o GRADATION WITH THE ADDITION OF -i- There are traces of a gradation series elf! represented by the Greek
Yid, vid~ti - ved, vede ved, vede prepositions and prefixes Ev(: &.va; brl: a."IT& and "lTEpl: ,"apt!.
cf. ElaoS' olaa laou
and visUS vim in-vidia VOWEL-PRONTINO
u-svit svet, stvie s~
svietiti 84. Vowel-fronting is a feature peculiar to Czech among the
m' kvet kvte,3 S. Slavonic languages (though a similar process is posited for ComSl.je
when it derives from lE *jo). It takes place in the OCz. vowel a,
81. e/o ORADA TION WITH THE ADDITION OP -u- whether it derives from a front nasal (ComSl. , ) or from initial ja
plovu plUti plavati pU plytva (lE *a, 0). The modification occurs before a syllable which contains
slovu, slUti, sl!va -slech sly!~ti,
or contained Slavonic e, /, i,j, or '. Of the two historical vowels thus
slovo sluch slychati modified only the reflex of the front nasal has survived consistently
duch, dech vz-dychati in modern Czech, while the reflex of lE *a/~ is subject to much
du!, fluctuation, and many words in their passage from old to modern
Czech have reverted to a prehistoric prototype.
An isolated series embodies the radical .tIlisk 'press' in the follow-
ing combinations: ·t§#:isk-, .t/lOisk-, ·tusk-, and .Wsk-: Consistently represented is the ComSl. vowel, which, because of
vowel-fronting and variation in vowel quantity, has produced the
tisk, t8Citi teskntiti, s-tjskati four reflexes given under Section 69 and repeated herewith:
tiskntiti ttid!
SHORT LONG SHORT LONG
82. A/a ORADATION WITHOUT ADDED VOWEL UNMODIFIEO UNMODIFIED MODIFIED MODIFIED
stoju staje fad fdd *flditel fiediti

A/a GRADATION WITH THE ADDITION OP -u- The radical ·rut- is vouched for by its cognates: Lith. rinda: Gk.
a.paaa. Compare also the following pairs:
um javo
trOVll, tr!viti (oes UNMOOIFIED MODIFIED
tniti tryjl;) 'rub') jat 'taken': Lith. imtas:{iltie 'act of taking': cc. Lat. empM.
naviti nyju, n-yti Lat. emptus. j uti 'to take': Lith. imti.
or again:
83. A small number of verbs shows nothing more than the alter_ patj 'fifth': Lith. penktas: Gk. "lTll-''TtTOt; beside (modified) pit 'five':
nation of the two vowels ·u and *11. Such are modern Czech o-heb Skt. pailktiQ.
E
50 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
The principle of vowel-fronting accounts also for the modifications
seen in SVQry 'holy': Lith. Iveiftas: Av. sptIiflo, id . beside (modified)
solll 'holily'. svltlj(I)1 'holier'. The last fann is still the current onc;
the first has reverted to svatlby analogy with the prototype adjective.
Thus also llst/'often'. late OCz. lasio.
A number of once-nasalized verbs shows vowel modification, thus
tied 'to grasp', with Present Tense salw, silt!; similarly miesti 'stir up',
present tense: motu, mltd. Old Czech alone shows the Cronting of
historical a as in najlvl,loc. sing. ofjavo; najH 'in spring' besidejaro;
jlsnl 'clearly' besidej4t7lj 'c1ear';jisen 'ashtree' besidejasan.
I-BASIS AND U-BASIS
5'
IsOLATED INSTANCES OF VOWEL-FRONTINO
87. An isolated example of vowel fronting is found in the limited
class of nouns to which nehet 'fingernail' (contrast R. nogotb) belongs.
This may be an instance of two fill-vowels (see § go) occurring in
one word, cf. Macedonian denes 'today', Srb. danas. Another instance
of isolated vowel-franting is that of teneto 'net', plur. tenata, where
the singular form may have been induced by the analogy of the
commoner type of neuter noun ~vieFl 'animal', pIur. ~uiefata.

THE SEMIVOWELS I AND r

VOWEL-PRONTING BY IOTACISM
88. That semivowels existed in primitive Inde-European is accepted
85. A feature distinct from the above is the fronting of a to t (not I) by most linguists, but it is still denied by some. Analysis of two cog-
by the presence of i, whether preceding or following. This occun nates will serve to illustrate the presumed lE semivowel.
normally whenj is part of the syllable in which a occun; when this Lat. (vi-, con-) cordia 'heart' Gk. l(apSta 'heart'
is not so the vowel is unaffected. Thus tej-nl 'secretly' beside ta-JemnJ, Analysis: c is lE It or " Analysis: I( is lE It or lE
id. (note the division of the syllables). But the rule is inconsistently or is lE or or [ apislEaror[
applied; thus we find OCZ. kraJC£ 'tailor' beside mod. krejC£, Javo dis lE d or dh S is lE d
beside mod. ~-,jw; llwstajnj beside mod. llwstejnj, but OCz. and mod.
Old Czech (milo-)srdie 'mercy' supplies the clue to lE -lE, hence the
toJnj 'seeret'. For older teinl 'seeretly' the fourteenth-century
reconstruction is -lrdip (with semivowel -f). Or again
Alexandreid already has tajnl. This inconsistency is carried into
modern Czech where we find u-daj 'datum' beside pro-dej 'sale'. A Lith. pilnas 'full' Goth.fulls 'full'
confusion of causes is seen in the declension of plietel, mod. pfitel, Analysis: p is lE p Analysis: fis lE p
where the Old Czech internal vowels are due to a following [,J, il is lE il or I ul is lE uJ or I
the modem vowels to the working of 'dactylism' (the fixture of nislEn 11 is lE In
the primitive stress no further back than the penultimate Old Czechpln 'full' confirms the reconstruction -Plnos, and OIl'. Jan,
syllable). Skt. pa~(I 'full' supply the evidence of quantity (-pines) .

THE CHANGE OF COMMON SLAVONIC -ja TO -e I-BASIS AND U-BASIS

86. A feature related to vowel-fmnting by iotacism, the change from
-,ja to -1, is older, indeed there is no certain record of -ja in Old
Czeeh. Thus ComSl. -voija 'will' appears as vdle, -media as me~l.
Traces of a ia-ending occur in Czech names found in eleventh-
century Latin texts, but these may be due to deliberate archaizing.
89. At this point however the evidence for the lE semivowels must
be reviewed in the light of their peculiar development in Slavonic,
for here we find lE -I and -[ each represented in two ways. To
account for the duality it is usual to assume that -I and -[ each had
two vowel-colourings, referred to as i-basis and u-basis respectively.
Of the Slavonic languages only Polish distinguishes all four variants.
Czech distinguishes two types of -I; Russian two types of -[. Slovak
and OCS do not distinguish i-basis and u-basis.
54 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
INDO-EuROPEAN *j AND ·U AND THE FILL-VOWEL
90. Old Czech represents lE *l and ·u uniformly bye, This vowel.
however, appears only in some monosyllables, in extensions, and in
some triliteral groups. Elsewhere lE ·1 and .u have disappeared.
This is especially true where the lE syllable contained a short vowel
*1/11 followed by a liquid (*1, r); here the vowels have disappeared,
and their function has been taken over by the residual liquid, which
has become a semivowel. Thus lE ·pluUs 'floating': Gk. 7TAVInS":
OCz. plf'raft', Residual glide-palatalization in Old Czech is often
due to a final lE i-stem inflection, and appears sporadicaUy in bases
ending in on, -t, and -d. Final·-n- becomes dentalized to f.
91. Since Czech e represents lE *e as well as *1 and ·u it is necessary
to interpret the vowel with the help of an older Slavonic language
such as the Eastern-style language of the Ostromir Gospels (I056-7),
where the three vowels are kept distinct. Further confirmation is
usually available from non-Slavonic languages.
Thus IMt 'cunning', den 'day', len 'flax', vu 'village', kopec 'hill',
lep 'birdlime', men! 'less', and tfelt 'third' all display lE ·1 on the
evidence of Ger. List, Skt. dinab. Gk. 'AtVQV, OLat. mum, Lat.
eapitium, Lat. lippus, Lat. minus, and Gk. TptTOS respectively. That
lE ·lhas disappeared from tma 'darkness', m{da 'pay', vdova 'widow',
and mhla 'fog' is clear from their respective cognates: OSax. thim
(,dark'), Gk. p,tu86s, Lat. vidua, and Gk. JP,tX)1'f7.
In the same way tru t 'reed', sen 'sleep, dream', rei 'rye', lel'lie',
meeh 'moss', and uhel 'corner, angle' display IE·u on the evidence of
Ir. trost (,stick'), Gk. vrrvos, Lith. rugjs, German Liige, Eng. moss,and
Lat. angulus respectively. That lE ·u has disappeared from b/cha
'flea', pU 'raft', and slblo 'straw' is clear from their respective cog-
nates: Lith. blusd, Gk. 1TMuts, and Eng. slubble.
A similar history is observable in early loanwords, thus OCz.
mese, gen. sing. msta, and mstu 'new wine' derives from Lat. mustum.
Met, gen. sing. mla 'bushel' derives from OHG multo, and this in turn
derives from Lat. modius.
92. Strictly speaking the term Fill-vowel is applied to OCz. e when
it is without historical significance like the ~ -vowel heard in Eng.
prism [prizam]. Thus mrtev 'dead': Lat. mortuus; vl tev 'branch': Gk.
VOWEL QUANTITY 55
olaVa 'osier'. The fill-vowel is commoner in modern Czech than in the
older language, thus bkeha 'flea', stiblo 'stubble, haulm', pestrj (OCz.
pstry') 'gaily-coloured'. A useful observation on the position ofthe fill-
vowel in modern Czech is that it usually falls on the penultimate b/1>
in terms of its ComSl. prototype, thus svee 'shoemaker' « ·SbV"'b),
but gen. sing. Jevee « *sbvbCja). A similar rule applies to the pairs
pastvu 'herdsman', gen. sing. pastevce; Mec 'actor', gen. sing. heru;
lber 'vessel', gen. sing. lebra; snem 'parliament', gen. sing. senma.
Modern Czech inserts the fill-vowel after land l as in Eerl 'devil'
(OCz. Ert), lernj 'black' (OCz. Ernj), Eerpati 'draw' (OCz. Erpati),
lert 'joke' (OCz. lrt), but retains the older vocalism in tui-lrt 'out·
line'. The vocalism of Old and Modern Czech llun 'boat' (loanword?
cf. Lat.u[onium'bucket'),kaldj 'each', and snacha 'daughter-in-law' is
of obscure origin.
VOWEL QUANTITY
93" Old Czech vowels possess two quantities, short and long. They
are a and aj e and i j I and ie; i and t; 0 and 6; u and Ujy andj.
The vowels i and y are historical symbols only; they are written
indiscriminately. The short vowels correspond to the slur-tone
vowels of Serbian, and less systematically, to those of Lithuanian.
Occasionally Old Czech short vowels coincide with the circumflexed
vowels of Greek. But the underlying reasons for vowel quantity in
Old Czech are not fully understood. Of the various theories three
are at least plausible. They are (a) that vowel quantity arose out of
tonal distribution within the sentencej (b) that vowel quantity is
related to the historical Slavonic stress-position as it was when the
stress was movable; (c) that vowel quantity is due to a mechanical
mora-distribution as in Greek, where the accentuation of a penulti-
mate long vowel is determined respectively by the acute-formula
(2 morae + 2 morae) or by the circumflex-fonnula (3 morae +
I mora). For convenience the three theories may be termed the
trisyllabic, the dissyllabic and the monosyllabic theories respectively.
THE TRISYLLABIC THEORY
94. It has been observed that with few exceptions trisyllables with-
out prefixes have short quantity in each syllable, thus vidina, mi{ina,
56 THE VOWELS OP OLD CZECH
mm:leha, ltTanUl, pmna, Itwtina, lakota, ianitva, spasikl, etc. But
diminutives behave inconsistently, thus laMdka 'drug' beside Iwlomek
'servant'. Moreover the theory fails to explain the curiow fluctuation
in the quantity of -dIj -af in hospoddf, hospodafiti, etc.
THE DISSYLLABIC THEORY
95. It has been observed that some, though not all, dissyllables
which show length in the radical vowel reflect the stress-position or
presumed Common Slavonic 8.8 displayed in modem Bulgarian or
Russian. Thus .IlIa: R. sUa; Ma: R. vlra; vdu: R. oolja. Contrast
.cima: R . .cimd and hJw;hj: R. glwc~j. But the exceptions are many,
thus krdsa: R. krasd; sW}: R. s16hyj (rustic s14hOj); hlmlkj: R. glddkij
(rustic gladklJj), etc. and the vowel relationships of muJca ' torture'
and "wka 'flour' compared to their Russian counterparts are
reversed, thus R. mUka 'torture' and mukd 'flour'. The same is true
of ulno, pioo, contrast R. vi~, pWo. Some support to the diuyllabic
theory of stress-position, however, is afforded by the fact that Old
Czech t-participles consistently show a short radical vowel. This
vowel is unstressed in both Greek and Sanskrit, 80 that the following
show agreement:
-byt (in compounds) Gk. ~"'Os Skt. hhDt~
pit ' drunk' Skt. Pit~
lil'sewn' SkI. 'Y"td/o
THE MONOSYLLABIC THEORY
96. Neither of the above theories satisfactorily account3 for the
quantity of monosyllables. Thus kraj 'region', dar 'gift', kal'mud,
cloudiness', hmyr. 'insect', uyk 'call', pial 'pay', v/aJc 'load of wood' are
short in quantity, whereas hdj 'copse', tllr 'glow', vdl 'roller', kHl
'cross', bjk 'bull', rjl 'spade', and mdk 'poppy' are long. Of some
significance here may be the semantic reason underlying oxytonic
and paroxytonic stressing in Indo-European as reflected in Greek.
Thus Gk. 'Top.6s-, adj. 'cutting, sharp' is semantically activt, while
'T6p.o~ 'cut, piece' is semantically passivt. Now it is a striking fact that
of the two set3 of Old Czech monosyllabic masculine nouns listed
above, the first, with short vowels, are semantically a&tiVt and verbal,
THE THREE PALATALIZATIONS 57
and are roughly interpretable as follows: kraj 'act of cutting' dar
'act of giving', ka! 'act of clouding', uyk 'act of calling', plaJ ,a::t of
payment', Dlak 'act of drawing'. Are we then justified in tracing
Czecl1 monosyllabic masculine nouns with short vowels to oxytonic
prototypes? Even 50, the short vowels of had 'snake' and nul 'barttl'
nouru without verbal connectioru, are enigmatic. '
97. The triliteral fOnD! hUuJ,ltTad, etc. as opposed to mrdJ:, prtlk have
apparently had their vowel quantity determined by tonal distribu-
tion. This is reflected in the stressing of their Russian counterparts
gIJW, glJrod and morlJr., jXlrlJg respectively. A possible formula for
reconciling the second theory with the third has been put forward
by Leskien and others, viz. that slur-tone occurs on the penultimate
syllable of oxytonic words. This entails among other things the
assumption that I-participles of lE type -hhDMs. -pitOs, -sjilMs first
passed through a phase -b(/t}l1tOs, -PiMs, -sjQMs before reaching the
.tage of OOZ. -hyt, pit, lit (Srb. htt, pit, HI). A prehistoric rising tone
before the stress, similar to that heard in modem Swedish or German
6}' jd, could easily account for thU development.
THE THREE PALATALIZATIONS
98. The palatalization represented by Slavonic l, t, and 1 when
followed by front vowels or by iotacism is held to be older than the
palatalization represented by CornS!. e and r; (= dr.), and by 0Cz. e
and r.. This is because loanwords from Latin and Greek show no
trace of l, t, or 1. Thus Gk. ICVp'(1K~ appears as OOz. cierav 'church"
Lat. wu as OOZ. oeel 'steel'; Lat. a&liwn u DOz. oeet'vinega/
Hence the modification t. i, / is called the First PaJatalir.atiml the
modification e. r; the Second Pa14taJization. '
99. The Second Palatalization is observable not only in loanwordt
~ut .in na~ve te~ where th~ lE clwters -.tai-, ·koi-, -qJl4i_, -qtJoi.,
gaJ-, -gOI-, -ghat- and -glwi- occur. Thus elM 'price', on the evi-
dence of Gk. 'ITOw1f 'ransom', derives from lE -~n4. CII'whole', on
the evidence of Ger. Mil, derives from lE -kailM. Std 'path', on the
evidence of Ok. rrrtXfS and OE stige, derives from lE -stighai or
-stigMj. Since lE -vi in weak final position becomes OCz. (and
ComSI.) i, second palatalization takes place in the nom. plur. of
58 THE VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
masculine nouns of type !,ok 'stream', nom. plur. roci; boh 'god', nom.
plur. bod. It also takes place in imperatives of type peri! 'bake' from
an optative second pen. sing . • pefllPJis. But the effect of the second
palatalization on ch is to produce s, hence eech, nom. plur. Cui
(modem CeJi). Second palatalization also arises in the dative and
locative singular offeminine a-stem nouns, in the locative singular of
neuter o-stem nouns, and in the dual number nominative and
accusative of a_feminines and a-neuters, Thus ruel 'to the hand (in
the hand, the two hands)': Lith. ranhli 'to the hand': Lat. branctu 'to
the paw'. Similarly notl'to the foot' .
100. A Third Palatalization is postulated by some scholars to ac-
count for the diminutive ending! observable in such words as 01«, m.
'father', ovcl, f. 'sheep', and srtk" n. 'heart' . A convenient name for
this principle is Induction, since it is assumed that in words of this
type a stem-vowel . j or ·f in the prototype is echoed, or induced, in a
following syllable. Thus a prototype ·atikos 'little father' passes
through a phase .atikjos before reaching CornS!. otbCb, OCz. otec.
Similarly a prototype .ol.likii 'little sheep' (Skt. avika, id.) passes via
.ol,likjd before reaching ComSl. OVbca, OCz. ovcl. In the same way
lE • Itrdikom'little heart' passes via frdilrjo- to ComS!. sbrdbCe, OCz.
srd".
This principle extends to loanwords, as is seen in OCz. krabicl
'basket' (Lat. corbita 'bumboat'), A peculiarity of Old Czech is the
representation ofLat. -la as -le in koIule 'shirt' from Lat. casula; kupole
'dome' from Lat. cupola;fabule 'fable' from Lat. fobula;feruk ' ferule'
from Lat. ferula, but the reason for this is not clear. Still more
puzzling is the apparent inconsistency with which induction has b~en
carried out in words of Slavonic origin, thus OCS has a masculine
diminutive my1bCb 'little mouse': Skt. miliiMQ, id. but a feminine
diminutive my1Ma (not ·myIbCa): Skt. miliihr, id.
Glide Palatalization has not been considered in the above scheme.
This is an assimilative modification which takes place in t, d, and
n before i, before residual b, and before I . Hints of its early appear-
ance in Czech occur in the A1exandreid (circa 1306) where we find
radosc!i, doscy as alternative spellings to radosti, dosti.
v
MORPHOLOGY
NOUNS
lOt. The nouns of Old Czech, like those of Common Slavonic, are
of three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Their declension
is a pattern of six case inflections: nominative, accusative, genitive,
dative, instrumental, and locative, and there are three numbers:
singular, dual, and plural. Some nouns possess a distinct form of
vocative singular.
Modern Czech has preserved most of the features of the Old
Czech noun, but the dual number survives in only a few paired
names of parts of the body (eyes, ears, etc.), in the declension of the
words for 'two' and 'both', and in the word for 'two hundred' .
The declension pattern of Old Czech, as of Slavonic generally,
somewhat resembles that of modern Lithuanian, though the latter is
more archaic. There are parallels to some of the case-endings in
Latin, Greek, Hittite, Sanskrit, and the older Germanic languages,
the last in particular refl«ting the plural inflections of the Slavonic
dative and instrumental. The scantiness of Old Czech records, how-
ever, makes the reconstruction of complete paradigms for anyone
word difficult, if not impossible. A plan has therefore been followed
whereby a single word-base with lE connexions has been selected
and inflected on the evidence of other words in the same class. The
selection of a familiar lE word for inflection should help to identify
it in tenus of general historical grammar.
Modern Czech forms are sometimes cited where documentation in
Old Czech is absent or uncertain. The main differences are:
u
(I) OCz. U = Mod. CZ, OU, but initially; (2) OCz. ju,ju = Mod.
Cz, i,ji; (3) OCz. ie and lowcred I after I = Mod. Cz, I; (4) OCz. 0
and (finally) OD = Mod. Cz. d. The Old Czecb clusters cl, 1I,j/, fl, si,
60 THB VOWELS OF OLD CZECH
1" r:l and II have lost their iotacism and have bei:ome ce, It, etc.
Many Old Czech instance! of vowel-Cronting, palatalization, and
iotacism have been levelled by analogy or have been disregarded.
Analogical levelling within the paradigm is most marked in the
present tense of the modern Czech verb, thus beru, herl!; ptlu, /MId.
The compounding participles of type drlal, mase. plur. drllli; sazal,
mase. plur. sadli have been levelled to the pattern of the masculine
plural, thw drill, sdttl, where the vowel-CraDting is not historical.
The paradignu c!.Uplay the oldest forms recorded in texts.
Parallel variants are given alongside the main theme.
102. I . MASCULINE o-STEYS
NOUNS 6,
nouns. The 'animate nouns' (names of living creatures) normally
form the acc. sing. in -a, but archaic survival! of the uninflected
accusative are ehlap 'servant' and B6h 'God'. ru to the nom. plur.,
the inflection -i is now reserved for nouns of 'animate' type; others
are inflected like the acc. plur. The uninflected gen. plur. is unusual
even in the oldest Czech texts, but Stftny uses a cliche z tjl'from the
rear'. A survival of the uninflected gen. plur. in modern Czech is
to be found in some place-names (do Oslavan, do Uher) and in the
declension of ktJlJwty 'trousers'. Nouns in ~ and -z continued to
form their loco plur. in -i«h (luieeh, hI4riuh, mradeeh), the inflec-
tion -leh being a variant occurring after I. Of this inflection only the
form ks!eh (for lAsiuh) survives in modern Czech.

tur 'bison': Lat. taurtIJ 'bull' hit 'gulp': Lat. glulUS, id.
PLUCTUATION OP DECLENSION
Ulul'angle': Lat. angulus, id. up 'birdlime': Lat.lippw 'bleared'
veler 'evening': Lat. r;nper, id. swn 'groan': Gk. O"TovoS', id. 104. Already in the fourteenth century there were fluctuations in the
Stn 'sleep, dream': er. Lat. somnus d61 'valley, pit': Gk. 60Aos s.en. sing. and loco sing. of o-stem masculine nouru. This has given
'sleep' 'hollow': Eng. dale rue to an extraordinary multiplicity of paradigms in the later speech,
djm 'smoke': Lat.fimus, id. thus Stltnj has a gen. sing. liDOUJ 'of life' beside a loco sing. fivotu.
Here belong the loanwords osel 'donkey' (from Lat. 4fellus), kosul ~e exact causes of fluctuation are not certain. Where both the gen.
'church' (from Lat. e4fullum), koui 'cauldron' (from Lat. eatillus), smg. and the loco sing. end in -It the paradigm has taken on the
etc. characteristics of the masculine u-stems. See § IlI5. The gen. plur. in
Masculine o-stems include a large number of nouns denoting -110 is a u-stem inflection.
isolated creatures and things, acts, results of acts, etc. See § 11 . In the later language the following facton seem to determine the
choice of -a or -u for the gen. sing. -I or -u for the loco sing. The
SINOULAR DUAL PLURAL
'normal' o-stem pattern in modem Czech, according to which
NOM. tur, uhel, rok, roh, tury, uhIy tu';, uhli, rod, rozi, neologisms and new loanwords are declined, is that of the u-declen-
Ceeh Cui sion, Le. with the gen. sing. and the loco sing. in -U. Selection of this
ACC. tur(a), uhel, rok, roh, tury, uhly tury, Uhiy, 1oAy, rohy, norm is determined
Ceeh(a) Ceehy (a) by history, thw nwd 'honey', which historically belongs to the
GRN. tura, Uhiu, roka, rOM tUTU, Uhlu tur(6D), Uhtl (Uhl6p) u-stems.
DAT. turu, Uhlu turoma, UhlomiJ tur6m, Uhl6m (b) by phonology, thus the ending -u of the genitive and locative
INST. turem, Uhlem turoma, UhlomiJ tury, Uh{y singular is preferred after velars.
LOC. tull, Uhll, roel, rod, tuTU, uhLU tufieeh, UhUeh, rodeeh, (c) by semantics, thus collective terms seem to attract the loco sing.
Cui rozieeh, Cweh ending -u (as in paplru, souh/asu, hrachu, ndrodu), while distributive
VOCATIVE SlNOULAR: tufe, roku, rohu, eechu tenns tend to maintain the loco sing. in -I.
103. The archaic inflection of the DeS dual nom. and acc., pre- (d) by the need for syntactical clarity, a condition governing the
served in OOZ. doo 'two' and oba 'both', does not appear in the OOZ. now universal adoption of the 'animate' accusative singular in -4, the
6, MORPHOLOGY
reservation of the nom. plur. in -i for 'animate' nouns, the preference
for the dat. sing. and lac. sing. inflection -oui for nouns denoting
persons, and the almost universal use of the inflection ":in the gen.
plur. Syntactical clarity may have dictated the need for a feminine
inflection in the masculine loco plur. of sen 'dream', thus ve sndch 'in
dreams'.
(e) by the need to differentiate homophones. This requires the lac.
sing. of veler 'evening' to be veleru, since velefe, f. means 'evening
meal'. But the lac. sing. ve stfedu 'in the middle' has persisted despite
the fact that it coincides formally with the acc. sing. fern. ve stfedu
'on Wednesday'.
(f) by the avoidance of root-modification for the sake of only one
inflection. This is the chief reason for the colIoquialloc. sing.jQ{)'ku
beside the still current literary form ja{)'ce. Colloquial practice
eliminates the need for modifying to jfU,YC-. For a smilar reason the
colloquialloc. plur. isja{)'kdch, though the alternative formjll{)'C{ch
persists in writing.
(g) by the force ofanalogy. The paired points of the compass have
similar locative inflections, thus na severu 'in the north', najihu 'in
the south'. Contrast na vjchodl'in the east', na zdpadl 'in the west'.
105. DISTRIBUTION OF O-STEM MASCULINE NOUNS
IN THE LATER LANGUAGE
Gen. sing. -u, loc. sing. -u. These forms derive from the u-declension
(§ 125), and set the pattern for all 'inanimate' neologisms. Here
belong most loanwords and nearly all velar bases (Muk, roh, ruth,
etc.). The last form their lac. plur. in -{ch with prepalatalization,
thus hlucleh, rozich, ruJ{ch, etc. The words rok 'year' andjQ{)'k 'tongue'
retain the historical gen. sing. in -a and the loco sing. in -t from _I,
thus roka-roce, jQ{)'ka-ja{)'ce, at least in literary usage. The gen.
sing. is preserved as a cliche in the phrase do roka 'within a year's
time'. Snlh 'snow' and vUr 'wind' display compensatory lengthening
in the nom. and acc. sing., otherwise the base is snlh-, vl tr_.
Gen. sing. -u, loc. sing. -e/ -I. Here belong labial bases such as
strop, strom, Uslav, hrob, all with the alternative loco sing. in -u. The
following also adhere to this type of declension: ztiklad, vjklad,
pfiklad, sklad, most, nos, hrad, vjchod, zdpad, vchod, ufad, dftm (gen. slng.
NOUNS 63
domu, loc. sing. domI), vik (vo~u, vo~), stl11 (stalu, stole), and tml (dolu,
dole). Nouns in -s hesitate between a loc. sing. in -u and a loc. sing.
in ~ (dopisu or dopist).
Gen. sing. -0, locosing. -e/-I, the historical a-declension, is retained
by a dwind1ing number of 'inanimate' masculine nouns. They
include the following: ohld, thUb (gen. sing. thleba, loco sing. chiebl),
,hU"" Ir.ostel, mljn, skl,P. ostroll, l,if)ot, hfhitov, venkov, svlt, and some
place-names such as Lont/jn, lUm, BerUn, Mniclwv ('Munich'), Egypt,
etc. The word les 'wood' retains an archaic loco plur. ltslch.
Gen. sing. -a, loco sing. -u. A mixed class to which belong the
names of the months [den. unor, bFezen, duben, kvlten, ltTven, srpen, and
Fijtn. Here belong dobytelc. ;:;dkon, pondllek, utm k, {lvrlek,
dne1ek, and {.llfek. T ne last five form their loco plur. in -[ch, thus
pondlkich, etc. Names of living beings all show the gen. sing. in -a.
The dat. sing. and loco sing. are usually in -ooi for nouns denoting
persons, and in -u for names of creatures. The nom. plur. fluctuates
between the following types:
(a) Nom. plur. in -i with prepalatalization, the velars k, h, and ch
becoming respectively c, z, and I (but Old Czech s). The preference
for a nom. plur. in -i is a fluctuating phenomenon but is usual with
velar bases such as kluk, nom. plur. kluci; bf1h, nom. plur. bozi, as well
as with the nouns bratr, nom. plur. braln,pose!, nom. plur.posli, orel,
nom. plur. orli, and many more.
(b) Nom. plur. in -I. This ending properly belongs to the i-
declension (§ 123) and is frequent in polysyllabic nouns denoting
human beings. These include names of nationals in -an, e.g. Slovan,
nom. plur. Slovani.
(c) Nom. plur. in -ovl . This is the historical nom. plur. of the u-
declension (§ 125). Here belong many nouns of foreign origin such
as kritik, nom. plur. kritikovl, monosyllabic and dissyllabic names of
nationals such as Nor, nom. plur. Norovl. llai, nom. plur. ltalovl
Foreign nouns in -iImus have their gen. sing. and dat. sing. in
-u, and the Latin inflection -us is dropped in declension. Cirkus,
however, retains -us- throughout, thus the gen. sing. of ci,kus is
cirkusu.
In a series of names or titles only the last is declined with the
inflection -olJi, thus panu doktoru KarJu Capkovi.
64 MORPHOLOGY
Of the Old Czech dual forms the following masculines survive in
poetry: rtoma 'to, with the lips', vakoma 'to, with the eyes'.
The vocative singular normally ends in -e. Prepalatalization occurs
in worm of native origin (obfe!) but not in loanwords (majore!). If the
base is velar the voc. sing. ends in -u (kluku! Iwthu! soudruhu! fimlogu!)
but four archaic forms survive. They are Bob! llovlle! Jem! and
synu! The last form betrays the fact that .ryn belongs historically to
the u-declension.
No feminine o-stems survive. Snacha 'daughter-in-law' is of the
a-declension, see § I l l . Contrast its Latin and Greek cognates
nurw, vv6s. The reason for the base-vowel of sruuha is obscure.
106. 2. NEUTER o-STEMS
uno 'grain': Lat. granum, id. jlw 'yoke': Lat.jugum, id.
Uslo 'adze': Lat. Ulum 'axe'. jdtra, plur. 'liver': Gk. WTE:pa 'entrails'.
unlo 'oar': Lat. vilum 'sail'. st~ 'hundred': Lat. centum, id.
trdm 'flax-separator' (lE C): Lat. tribulum 'corn-separator' (lE i).
Neuter o-stems are similar in origin to the o-stem masculines, but did
not occur prehistorically in the nom. sing., hence the nom. sing. of
neuter o-stems had the form of the masculine accusative. The nom.
and acc. plur. had collective force.
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
NOUNS
(na)jTvI is vowel-fronted by 'Umlaut', in Uto with dat. dual and inst.
dualletma, inst. plur. letmi, and in dfloo, nom. plur. drva.
MODIFICATIONS IN MODERN CZECH
107. In the modern language the preposition po is employed
exclusively with the locative case except in a few cliches deriving
from the CornS!. dative (see § 142). These are now felt to be
'anomalous' locatives; such are po tllu 'all over the body', and the
adverbial cliches of type po tuku 'in Czech fashion'. The archaic
dative after po may have given rise to some ofthe locative modifica-
tions not explainable by other means, thus jmino, loc. sing. jminu.
Elsewherenonnalizationofthe base seems to be the operative factor,
especially with velar bases, thusjablko,loc. sing.jablku;jlw,loc. sing.
jhu; uc/w, loco sing. uchu. Even so, bficlw, loco sing. Mile and rouclw,
loco sing. roule follow the archaic pattern. The loco sing. mUu survives
alongside mUku. Labial bases and others often form the loco sing. in
-u, thus slovu or slovl, prdvu or p1'twl, hrdlu or hrdle. The following do so
invariably: nouns in -stvo and -duo, j e-tero, jmino, pho, pdsmo, bbro,
rdno, teplo, chladno, and semeno. Stftny uses a form 0 mistu boliem 'about
the divine cl ty'.
Modern practice requires the loco plur. of velar bases to end in
-dch (jablktkh); this is yet another instance of paradigm normalization.
The requirement of an occasional short vowel in the gen. plur.-a

-
NOli. uno,jlw, Uto,javo, sto unl, (dol) sll .tma, (tfj)sta factor difficult to determine in Old Czech because of the ambiguous
ACC. uno <ml UM spelling-is not easy to account for, though the implied slur-tone may
GEN. UM .un, let, (pit) s61 point to the loss of a stressed inflection (cf. Gk.-wv). Short vowels
DAT. unu,jlwvi andjhu unoma,letmll unJm occur in the gen. plur. of the following: ~dda, gen. plur. ~ad; Uto, gen.
INST. Qnnn unoma, letma uny, kty and letmi plur. let; plro, gen. plur. per; jdtra, gen. plur. jater; jmino, gen. plur.
LOC. unJ,jlvl <nul .unUch, such jmen; prduo, gen. plur. prau; dlm (and delo), gen. plur. dll; but m(sto,
The isolated dat. sing. jlwui is due to the influence of masculine gen. plur. mist!
u-stems (§ 125) which, as we have seen, have become largely The forms of the neuter dual survive sporadically as follows: dvl
identified with velar-based o-stems. It does not survive in modern 'two', gen. dual and loco dual duou; dative and inst.
Czech. The following anomalous variants have also disappeared dolma. Cr. further dvl stl (Lat. du-centf) 'two nunarea', with plural
from the later language: uneto 'game-net', nom. plur. unata (cf. the forms in the remaining cases. Obl 'both' behaves like dui. The geni-
.tem of Lat. ar-mentum, -menta), the plural being formed on the tive and locative dual of ramena 'shoulders' and prsa 'breast' are
analogy of type ~viefe, ~viefata (see § 1 19). Further modifications, now respectively ramenhU and prsou; other cases are plural. The dual
ohsolete, are those occurring injauo 'manifestation', whose loc. sing. forms on and uJi are feminine (§ 124) despite the gender of oko and
F
66 MORPHOLOGY NOUNS 67
",ho, and these retain the historical inflections except for the dative Stitnt has ,htie ~12 mul 'they wish to marry' and cnoditi za mu[ 'to
(oBm, ulim) and locative (o&h, ulkh) which are plural in form . An marry'. while the Alexandreid has piU krdl 'before the king' (motion)
archaism kfldloma 'with the wings' survives in poetry. and several examples oran acc. sing. kon 'hone', This survives in the
modern Czech cliche sedl na ktM 'he mounted' ,
108. 3. MASCULINE iO-STEMS The masculine io-declension has attracted nearly all the primary
e-stem nouns, of which, apart from den 'day', only traces survive in
sedldf 'saddler': Lat. sellarius, id.
Old Czech. Modern Czech tuJoottif 'innovator' (cf. Lat. Mvalbr),
Indf 'ftax-dealer': Lat. linarius, id.
piJJtjf 'herdsman' (ef. Lat. pdJror) and Old Czech psdf 'scribe'
vlnaf 'woolmerchant': Lat. lanarius, id.
originally belonged to the e-declension.
lemendf 'seedsman': Lat. slminarius, id.
A mixed type is that of nouns in -kl, such as sparitel 'saviour'. cf,
kopec 'hill', cf. Lat. capitium 'hood, peak' beside It. cappuuio 'headed
Lat. Viteliius,jilius, etc. Their nom. ace. and gen. plur. forms, like
cabbage' and Span. cahe.{.a 'head'.
those of psd', are of e-stcm origin. The isolated form prntel 'friend'
ratal' 'ploughman': Gr. apM'1S', id. Lith. IJrtojas is subject to fluctuation of the radical owing to vowel-frooting. In
olui£ 'fire', er. Lat. ignis, id.
modern Czech the declension has been simplified, regardless of
A declension of mixed origin including historical io-stems, which
'umlaut', to a singular base pHtel-, alternating with a plural base
are of adjectival derivation, cf. Lat. somn.ium ('thing of sleep') pfdtel-. Nephetel 'enemy' behaves as pfietel.
'dream' from somnus 'sleep', a number of former e-stems (§ 115 and Okei£ 'fire' was prehistorically an i-stem, cf. Lat. ignis, gen. plur.
§ 116), and one former i-stem (ohm: Lat. ign.is, see § 123).
ignium, Lith. ugnu, gen. plur. ugniq. A small group of nouns, related
SlNOULAR DUAL PLURAL historically to the active participle, is represented by mlsiee 'moon,
NOM. sedldf, otec, kopec, knl~, krdl sedldfl, penieze sedldfi, psdFe month' and tisjile 'thousand'. Only the last shows traces ofjts former
ACC. ledldf(l) sedldFl, penie{.e sedldFe adherence to the e-dedension, vi-t. nom. plur. tirjuu, cf. ORG
OEN. sedldf I , Old, kopel sed/diU sedldf(6u), psdr dilnml, id., and gen. plur. tisjile, cf. OHG dilsunto . This word appears
DAT. ledldiu, otcu, kopeu, krdlevi sedldfoma sedldf6m in modern Czech as lisfce. gen. plur. tw.
I NST. sedldfem sedldfoma ledldFi The type represented by IcflSlln£n, nom. plur. kfestlni, gen. plur.
LOC. led/dli stdldlu led/dFkh kftsftm 'Christian', and -temlnln, nom. p lur. -temlni, gen. plur. Qmjan
VOCATIVE SINGULAR sedldiu, oUe, kopu, knlb 'farmer' has not survived in modern Czech.
The isolated forms rot/ile 'parents' and konl 'horses' are held by
Here belong masculine nouns whose base or extension ends in -e, -l, some to be dual number extended into the plural, but the adjective
-n,
-tl, -i, -t, -F, -I, -f, -f, and some in -I, -I, -u, and -..c. Extended types inflection in the cliche wani konl dark horses' does not support this
with the fill-vowel, contract in declension, thw ottc and "opec con- view. Rodile is otherwise declined as an iQ-stem masculine, kM as an
tract to otd, kopel, etc. The 'animate' and 'inanimate' forms of the i-stem.
acc. sing. were formerly undifferentiated. The nom. plur. psdf, (cf. In modern Czech the ace. sing. ' animate' noun has the form of
Lat. picl6ris) and the gen. plur. psdr (cf. Lat. pictorum) are survivals the gen. sing., and the gen. plur. in -11 is universal. Such has been the
from the e-declension (§ 115). The genitive plural sedldF, on the practice ever since the fourteenth century.
other hand, implies by its iotacism an inflection cognate with that Czech knl~ 'priest' has remodelled its plural on the collective
of Latin jfuvium 'of rivers', from jfuuius 'river' . iia-stem, § 114. From a fern. sing. "nlBe 'priesthood' has evolved a
Even in the earliest texts the acc. sing. 'animate' form is that of the modern masc. plur. knlf! 'priests'.
genitive, a device for ensuring syntactical clarity (cf. § 103). But
68 MORPHOLOGY NOUNS 6g
Besides JuH there is one common noun of masculine gender belong-
109. 4. NEUTER iO-STEMS ing to this declension, viz. f,bH 'ladder'. Another group of masculines
lob 'bed': Gk. '\&xcov, adj. 'in childbed', and er. Lat. $olillm 'seat', closely resembles type Ju1i. The nouns of this group are sudl 'judge',
mof, 'sea', cf. Lat. Manum (a place-name). krajli 'tailor',lool! 'hunter', kall 'coachman', and bera'taxgatherer'.
Neuter io-stems are of adjectival origin and are related to the These are held by some to have had the feminine inflections of
o-stems. pan! (§ 114), by others to have been identical in declension with
PLURAL
SINGULAR DUAL
JulI.
NOW. t.!.. loli wtl To the neuter type QIlJmenu belong 14du 'ship' (beside 14dt, f., see
ACC . wb loli wO § J 14), a large group of collective nouns: lislie 'foliage', !amenu
GEN. wl/ wtu lot and wll 'stones', etc. (cf. Lat. tri-ruxtium, quinqu-mnium), and all verbal
DAT. wt. wt""" loliml and 1016m noun.s---j,denie 'eating', pitie 'drinking', jlti, 'taking', bylie 'life', etc.
INST. wtnn wbma wti NdsiU 'work' is a phonological variant with lowered -I after I.
LOC. lob lobI Ioli4ch In modem Czech only the neuters preserve this declension, and
Similarly declined are pole 'field', mice, gen. plur. mu, 'heart', only four of the twelve singular and plural inflections differ from the
ovoce 'fruit', rJajce. gen. plur. vaj" 'egg', It&e 'top, face', plUel, plur. nominative. These are the inst. sing., the dat. pluT., the inst. plur.,
'lungs', poler/M 'south, midday', dopokrl1l4 'forenoon', odpoudtu and the loc. plur. Masculine nouns formerly of this declension are
'afternoon'. For nib, 'sky' see es-stems, § 121. now declined as palatal adjectives of type tfetl 'third' (§ 131), thus
In modern Czech fIlhe is declined entirely like wie, with the usual Jift 'George', gen. sing. JiHho, dat. sing. Jiflmu, etc.
phonological adjustments. Vejce 'egg' retains the historic gen. plur. The once-collective, now plural, noun *nlll 'priests' has the
DOj" because of the law of syllabic division (see § 85). inflections of cuzmenl, but the singular is knll; with the (modem)
inflections of sedlaf. The modem Czech plural of .!lIJlet£ 'century' is
110. 5. MASCULINE AND NEUTER iio-STEMS staleti.
JvfI'George', from Lat. Georgius. 111. 6. FEMININE (AND MASCULINE) a-STEHS
.wlie (mod. wtf) 'river-mouth': Lat. 6stium, LLat. tlstium, OLat. vdova 'widow': Lat. vidua, id. DUna 'spring': Lat. lltr7Ul, adj .
plur. aush4. bradtJ 'chin, beard': Lat. barba paslva 'pasture': Lat. pascua, id.
vuzmenu 'sign': Lat. (i)gnamimum, usually f. ignominia. 'beard' mh1tJ 'mist': Gk. dJLlxA'1, id.
ni-14lU 'spouse', cr. Gk . .\oX(WV 'of child bed'. DIM 'wool': Lat. l4na., id. clna 'price': Gk. 1TOW"" 'bride-
bjU (with lowered -i after I) ·plant'. cf. Gk. 4>-J>..w" 'small tribe'.
UiiM 'strait': Lat. angiM price'
A class of abstract nouru, generalizations, group-terms, etc. of lUM 'moon': Lat. lUM, id. tdta 'daddy': Lat. tiita, id.
adjectival origin, probably related to the e-sterns or i-sterns. A type embodying historically oxytonic and historically barytonic
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL feminine nouns of the following categories.
NOM . etamtme, n.; Jufl, m. vumunl ownunu J, Names of females (ltM 'woman', dlua 'girl'); names of things

ACC. cuztneme """"""I VUlmtnle without definite shape (voda 'water', mUka 'flour', skala 'rock', trarla
GEN. CUZtnem, QUJtnenf 'gras.cI',LUka 'meadow', mhla 'fog'); names of parts of the body (hlava
DAT. QUJrntniu, QWmenf (JIlltnIn{1TUl cuzmenlm, -urn 'head', ruka. 'hand', noka 'foot, leg', brada 'chin, beard'); names of
INST. C/amenfm cuzmenlma .cnamenl(mi) birds whicll are hunted, chased, or bred (sluka 'woodcock', lajka
LOC. I;namenl vuzmenkh 'plover' ; kavka 'jackdaw', urana 'crow', straJca 'magpie'; husa 'goose',
70 MORPHOLOGY NOUNS 71

kachna 'duck'): names of fish ('Yba 'fish', ·Jlu/ca 'pike'): names of Owing to the scant documentation and ambiguous spelling of Old
insects (mz1cha 'Ay', vasa 'wasp', blcha 'Aea'): names of certain trees Czech some of the short vowels in the above list can only be inferred
(bfie~a 'birch', Upa 'lime-tree'): names of tools (pila 'file'): names of from modern usage. Nouns with the base-vowel d or £shorten also in
hollow objects and receptacles Udma 'hole'): names of substances the inst. singular in modern Czech (fravou, siwu), but the usage in
(sm61a 'pitch', hUna 'clay'); names of seasons (,oma 'winter'): names Old Czecn is uncertain.
of objects with passive function (luna 'moon') . Masculine nouns in ·a are held to be of collective origin, a type
2. Names of abstract qualities (Diera 'faith', krdsa 'beauty', mina which in modern Czech includes a number of pejoratives derived
'measure', sfla 'strength', bieda 'poverty'), many of which bore from adjectives (neposeda 'fidget'). Here also belong nouns of type
penultimate stress in ComSl. evandllista 'evangelist' (modern Czech evangelista) derived from
3. Collective and abstract nouns with extensions -ina, -ola, -oba, Greek nouns in -WT1JS. Modern practice inAects them in the dat.
etc. (~uHina 'game', vidina 'vision', slepota 'blindness', dludoba sing. and loco sing. and throughout the plural as if they were o-steIn!.
'poverty'). See § 11 . The nom. plur. ends in -I (eoangelisti).
4. A small number of 'vocational' masculine nouns (er. Lat. An important modification to feminine nouns with velar bases
agricola). Such are hrdina 'hero', vlddyka 'ruler', hospoda 'lord, master', occurs in the dat. sing. and the locosing. Here k changes to c: hand g
slaros/a 'elder, headman', sluha 'servant' , and vivoda 'duke'. change to .t:; and ch changes to s (in the later language to J). Thus
ruka 'hand', dat. and loco sing. ruel: noha 'leg, foot', dat. and loco
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
sing. nod: synagoga 'synagogue', dat. and loco sing. synagoQ; pjcha
NOM. vdova, ruka, nolw, pjclw, hfada vdovl, ruel, nohy vdovy 'pride', dat. and loco sing. pjsl (mod. pjJe). Cf. Prazl, loco sing. as
Ace. vdov" vdovl, rue/, nohy rJdovy L. Romae.
OEN. vdovy vdovU vdov The fill-vowel arises in the gen. plur. of monosyllabic bases,
OAT. vdovl, ruel, no(.l, pjsl, hfldl l1dovama l1dovam thUll 1TQ;da 'pay', gen. plur. me(.d; jhra 'game', gen. plur. jlur,
INST. vdovU vdovama vdooami but late loanwords are unaffected, thus banka 'bank', gen. plur.
LOC. vdovl, ruel, fWd, pjsl, hfldi vdovU vdovtkh bank.
VOCATIVE SINGULAR vdorJO Modern Czech dura 'daughter' has been remodelled as an a·stem
feminine, but the historical inAections of the er-stems remain in the
112. Some noum display a short vowel in the gen. plur., dat. plur., dat. sing. and the loco sing. Vowel-franting of nasal bases is now
imt. plur., and loc. plur. which alternates with a long vowel in the ignored, thus hFada, dat. and loco sing. hftull. The dual survives in
remaining cases. The chief of these are ruee 'hands'.
NOM. SING. GEN. OAT. INST . AND LOC. PLUR. Two feminine noum have an occasional nom. and acc. plur. of
huba 'fungus, sponge' hub, hubam, hubami, huMch neuter type in -a. They are luka 'meadows' and doba 'time' in the
luka 'meadow' luk, iukam, etc. phrase v fa doba 'at that time'.
krdva 'cow' krav, Mavam, etc.
skala 'rock' skal, skalam, etc.
sila 'strength' sil, sildm, etc.
diera 'hole' dlr, dlrdm, etc. med 'baulk': Lat. media 'middle' brnl'trapping!': Gath. brunjo, id.
mlr, mlram, etc. r(.I'rust': Lat. rubia 'redMdye obcl'community', cf. Lat. ambitia
miera 'measure'
knieha 'book' knlh, knlMm, etc. plant' v61e 'will': Osc. velliam, acc. id.,
rana, 'blow' ran, randm, etc. MU'storm'; cf. Lat.furia It. voglia
 MORPHOLOGY NOUNS 73
A declension of adjectival origin related to the a-stems. The collectives Matfie, knlIie are nowadays regarded as masculine
plural nouns with the inflections ofznamenE (cf. § 110). In Old Czech
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
they display a declension identical with that of panl except for the
NOM. rmzl, koll
ACC. meziu, MIu
rn"" ",,<I
med
nom. sing. The reason for the duality offonns in the nom. sing. is not

GEN. med """

nuziu mtZ, zem(i), kot and koll
clear, but the distinction had disappeared even in early texts.
Like panl are Ivadl£ 'seamstress', pfldU and pradlt 'washerwoman',
DAT. rn,,, mezlma mtzum roU 'field', lodl 'boat' (beside lodit, n.), Mafl 'Mary', and loanwords
INST. medu, kolu mtdma nudmi of the type of konfen 'confession' ,proce.si 'procession', kgacl'legation',
LOC. mez1 meziu meziech relacl 'relation', etc. Like bratfie are knliie 'priesthood', kduit, f. and
VOCATIVE SINGULAR -I neut. 'entrails', and Biblie 'Bible'.
The Slavonic diphthongja does not occur within the period of Czech Evidence of a feminine-type of declension for the masculine nouns
texts, but Cosmas (before I B~5) records a Czech name 'Lubussa' rudE, krajll, lovll, koll, and berll is inconclusive. See § 110.
(L'ubu1a).
The urunflected fonn of the gen. plur. survives in modern Czech
PRELIMINARY NOTE ON e-STEMs (OR 'CONSONANT-STEMS')
in nouns of the following types: (a) nouns in -ice (uliu, krabiu);
(b) nouns in -ynl (bohynl'goddess', cf. OIcel. ds-ynja 'goddess'); and U5. The source and subsequent history of this lE category is not
(c) Latin loanwords of type ponce, tradice. Note however that Latin easy to trace. That some relationship exists between the e-stem (or
loanwords in -ace maintain the inflection, thus relate 'relation', gen. 'consonant-stem', called 'athematic' by Meillet) and the poly-
plur. relad. syllabic nature of many of its representatives is suggested by the
The truncation of some nouns of this class in the nom. and ace. Latin rule that polysyllabic bases (Lat. capit-, etc.) require the
sing. (from med to mez, ztml'earth' to Ztm) is a tendency present in inflection of the 'consonantal' declension, hence the genitive plural
Old Czech. In the later language this has caused a shifting of capitum, etc. Moreover it may be justifiable to regard Latin nouns
declension, so that modern Czech re" 'rust', po.sul 'bed', mez 'baulk', with a long base (lig-, rig-, vac-) as being equivalent in duration to
obec 'parish', and ztm 'ground' (at least in the phrase no "em 'to the dissyllables, but this does not explain the 'i-declension' of Latin
ground') have taken on the characteristics of the e-dec1ension (see plih.s, nfiblJ, civir, finis, and many more. Benveniste distinguishes
§§ 115 and 116) . ie-stems, whose representatives, having a full-grade vowel (e or 0)
within the base must accordingly have had a reduced vowel in the
114. 8. FEMININE ija-sTEMS stem. This interesting theory is contradicted, however, by the evi-
(a) MaH, from Lat. Maria. (b) bra/fie 'brotherhood': Lat. dence of Latin verrlJ, gen.plur. verrium; me.ssis, gen. plur. nu.ssium, etc.,
panl 'lady'. ftattria, id. while many· 'consonant-stems' display a base-vowel a, i, 1'2, etc.
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL Much confusion has taken place between the e-stems and the
i-stems, and no lE language maintains the distinction on the basis of
NOM. pant, bratfU pant panie
purely mechanistic phonology. Thus Latin generalizes all nouns in
ACC. panu pan! panu
-tir (vectis, mtis, ho.stir, po.stis, u.sti.s) to the i-stem form of dtm, gtM,
GEN. panie paM. panl
jom, mem, pom, and lac. The nom. sing. alone indicates their diverse
DAT. pan! paniema paniem
origin. Greek on the other hand differentiates between t-extended
INST. panu paniema panumi
monosyllabic bases, which are of 'consonant-stem' (VU" gen. pluT.
LOC. pan! panu panitth
VVK7wv) from dissyllabic t-bases, which are of i-stem (O"n:w~S", gen.
VOCATIVE SINGULAR pani'
74 MORPHOLOGY
NOUNS
plur. aTcW£wv). Barytonic nouns with base vowel () (7T6"\~~, 1100'S', 75
/5r/JtS', opX,s) are true i-stems. A mixed type is Greek ots, which has
117. 10. MASCULINE en·STEMS
a partly 'consonant-stem' inflection in the nom. plur. (otcs"). but an
i-stem inflection in the gen. plur. (OlWIf, cf. Lat. gen. pluT. ouium, kdmen 'stone': Gk. rlKf.l.WV 'anvil': Lith. akmuiJ, gen. plur. akmenq 'stone'.
Lith. aviQ, OHG ewio, Skt. dvinam). The lE word for 'night' koren 'root', whatever its origin, agrees in form and declension with
hesitates between e-stem and i-stem, thus OCz. nod 'nights', gen. Lat. caro, gen . plur. camum 'flesh': Umbrian karu, dat. and ab!.
plur, noc£is reflected in Latin noctes, gen. plur. noctium, and in Latvian sing. karm 'part, piece, flesh',
naklis 'nights', gen. pluT. nakCu, whereas OCz. Veliko-nou. plur. A group of nouns denoting 'part, derivative, associate', cc. Lat.
'Easter', gen. plur. Veliko-noc is reflected in OHG naht 'nights', gen. vermen ('derivative of vermis') 'vermin'; OCz. prsten ('associate of
pluT. nahto, in Lith. ndkrys 'nights', gen. plur. naktq, and in Gk. PTSt') 'ring'. Cc. also Lith. kirmens, pI. 'vermin' (derivative of kirmir
VVKT£S',gen. plur. VVK'TWV. 'worm'), singularized in kirmuiJ, efLr 'single worm'.
Traces of monosyllabic e-stems occur in Old Czech, but the
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
majority are dissyllables extended by the consonants n, nt, r, s, and t
respectively. NOM. "amen, kolen kameny kamenje, kameni
Ace. kamen "ameny kameny
116. g. SIMPLE e·STEMS ('CONSONANT -STEMS') GEN. kamene kamen(-l, 01), kolen
DAT. Icameni kamenom
den 'day', cc. Skt. dina~, id., Lat. nun-dinae 'ninth-day market', Olr.
INST. kamenem kameny
tWin-den 'nine-day period', OHG kngi-;:.in, OE kng-ten (,lengthen-
LOC. Icameni kamenech
ing of days') 'Lent, spring'.
fen or lri'i 'harvest', a zero-grade radical Contaminated forms are the nom. sing., derived from the acc. sing.
A limited class with primary inflections maintained chiefly in in contrast to OCS nom. sing. kamy; the nom. and acc. dual; the loco
extended dissyllables. sing.; and both forms of the nom. plur. which are those of the i-stems.
Other nouns of this class are kfernen and .lkfemen 'flint', plamen 'flame',
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
jltmtn 'barley', pr.llen 'finger-ring', hlehen 'comb' and kmen 'tribe'.
NOM. Jm dne, dni, dnie, dni, dnODe Modern Czech inflects these nouns throughout the plural with the
ACC. d" dny endings of the o-stems. Nouns in ·an, such as hltan 'throat': Lat.
GEN, d", <1nl glutiin 'glutton', whatever the origin of the stem, are indistinguishable
OAT. dni dnom from o-stems. 'Animate' nouns of type zeman have an alternative
INST . d_ dny nom, sing. (~mlnln, nom. plur. ;:.emlni). Similar to zemlnln 'farmer'
LOC. dne, dni dnech are mlllan and mlillnln 'citizen', nom. plur. mlIllni; Kle.lfan and
This declension is contaminated with inflections from the i-stems Kle.stlnln, nom. plur. Kfe.ltlni . .lelen 'stag', historically an e-stem, is
declined like an o-stem.
(§ 123) and the u-stems (§ 125) . Velikonoce, plur. 'Easter', gen. plur.
VelikoTlbc maintains an e-stem in the nom. plur. and the gen. plur.,
whereas noc 'night', nom. plur. non, gen. plur. noel is an i-stem. The archaic gen. plur.
Similarly tisiuc 'thousand', nom. plur. tisjUce, gen. plur. tisjuc (cf. survives in the phrase od "olen (SHtny: z kolen) 'utterly', and in the
§ 173). ten or tdi 'harvest', nom. plur. i.nl is of uncertain declension. modem dialectal expression, now standard, do koldn 'wide open',
Sle;:.en (or sle;:.ri'i), rnasc. or fern. 'spleen' (Lat. lien: Gk. O'1TA~v) is of
uncertain declension.
 MORPHOLOGY NOUNS 77
are Tl.paS, gen. sing. Tf.paTOS 'sign', cf. OCZ. ldfU 'sorcery' (Stftny).
118. tt . NEUTER en-STEMS Kf.pOS 'horn', Kpl.as 'flesh', alMS 'brilliance', and 7Tl.pas 'end'.
Latin has normalized the type either as an en-stem (impedimen),
sieml 'seed': Lat. slmen, id. sUml'roof-ridge': Lith. Ie/muo, id. or as an o-stem (jummtum), with coinciding forms in the plural
bfieml'burden': Ok. ~PJJ-Q, id. (impedimenta, hence sing. impedimentum by analogy) . The isolated
A group of nouns of verbal origin. By the addition of the zero-grade word tendo 'hunting-net', with its nom. acc. plur. tmata, is of this
of v-men- ' remain, be' a given verbal radical, iftraruitive, became a type. Its near cognate in Greek Tf.IIWII 'sinew', nom. plur. Tf.voVTES
verbal noun with passive force (thus Gk. r/np- 'bear' > 4Ip-J.W. 'what suggests that there is some relationship between nt-stem neuten
is borne'). If the verbal radical was intransitive, the corresponding and the active participle (see § 173) .
verbal noun was active, thus Gk. pEW 'flow' > pEV-p.a 'what flows' , SINGULAR. DUAL PLURAL
cc. Lat.jfuD 'flow' > jfa-mm 'what Bows'. Nouns ofthi! class have lost
NOM. zuiefl uidltJ zviefata
all trace of their verbal connexions within the framework of Slavonic
ACC. zuiefl zvidltl zuiefata
grammar; such connexions can only be deduced from non-Slavonic
GEN. zviefete zviefatu zviefat
languages.
DAT. zvieflti t:.viefatma t:.viefatdm
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
INST. zviefltem zviefatma zviefary
NOM . sieml semeni sewf1Q LOC. t:.vieflti zviefatu zviefltech
ACC. mm; slmmi si""""
The stem-vowel descends from a nasal (l E -tt) and is therefore
GEN. SlWM slmenll slmen
subject to vowel-fronting before e, I, and i, a feature maintained in
DAT. slmmi sbrunonuJ slmen4m
s/wnomtJ slwny the modem language. The e-stem features are borne by the singular
INST. ,i"""""
,/mnri slmenu and dual, and by the loco plural. The rest are those of the neuter
LOC. slmmi"h
o-stems.
Similarly declined are rdml'shoulder', gen. sing. rawlIl; tieml 'crown Of similar type are vole 'crop, maw', lcufl 'chick', IwtJ 'kitten',
of head', gen. sing. Ilmene; I!ftnl 'udder', gen. sing. vtWM; pUml prasl 'sow', holubl'young dove', diDll 'girl', pupl'bud', koIl! 'broom',
'tribe', gen. sing. p1emeM; jml 'name', gen. sing. jmme. Modem unUll 'grandchild'. Here also belong chldpe 'yokel', kniet.! 'reigning
Czech has recast neuter en-stems on the model of the neuter o-stenu, prince' and hrabl 'baron', but these have become masculine in
thus semeno, ram.eno, etc., but the older forms persist in poetry. The modem Czech. Dl)()jlata 'twins' has plural forms.
dialect of South Bohemia preserves an interesting variant of the DietJ 'child' has the gender as well as the singular and dual forms
neuter en-stem. Here the oblique forms coincide with those of the of zuiefl; the plural gender and forms are those of feminine i-stems,
nt-extensions to form a paradigm which is paralleled in Greek. Thus thus dlti, gen. plur. diU.
nom. acc. sing. bHml = Gk. t/>Epp.a; gen. sing. bflmlte = Gk. TeTUto 'hunting-net', with its nom. and acc. plur. tenata, has dis-
""pp.aTOS; nom. acc. plur. bflmata = Gk. 4I.pp.aTa. appeared from the modern language where it has been levelled as an
o-stem. Its history is similar to that of Latin tegumen > tegu17Ulntum,
12. NEUTER nt-sTEMS plur. tegumenta.
119. Nouns oflhis type are historically collective, and many of them 120. 13. FEMININE er-STEMS
denote young animals. No exact cognates occur outside Slavonic,
but t:.uiefl 'animal' is closely related in form to Ck. 9~paJJ-a 'game', mdti and mdtl, gen. sing. malefe 'mother': Lat. miiter: Gk. JJ-tfr'1P'
gen. sing. 9~pll.TOS', which is a verbal noun. Typical nt-stems in Greek dei, gen. sing. dcefe 'daughter': Oscanfutlr: Gk. (Jvya.T1jp.
 MORPHOLOGY NOUNS 79
nel, gen. sing. ntitft 'niece': Lat. neptis 'granddaughter' beside Skt. SJNGULAR DUAL PLURAL
TUJPtrib, id. NOM. Mbe, kolo - , kolesl nebesa, kolesa
A limited group of nouns denoting family relationship. Ace. Mbe, kola - , Irolesl nebesa, kolesa
GEN. Mbl, koUz ",hu
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL OAT. Mbju, Irolu tubes6m
NOW. mlfti and mdtl, dei matdi, dem mate1e, detft INST. Mbtm, koltm "'huy
ACC. matd, ded maim, dedi mate1e Loe. nebju rubtrlech
GEN. malde "",In' The singular of nebua has been recast in the earliest records on the
OAT. matefi matdem and malerdm pattern of the neuter ia-stems (see § Jog), while that ofkolesa has been
INST. matehi. mattfmi and materami remodelled on the pattern of the neuter o·stems (see § 106) . Derived
LOC. malefi maldeeh and matmuh forms in modern Czech testify to the former existence of other
VOCATIVE SINGULAR mati, dei es-stems. Such are tlleso 'unit, fixture' beside tllo 'body', and sloueso
'verb' beside slouo 'word' (Gk. KAlos 'rumour, fame').
The alternative a-stem forms of the dat. inst. and loco plur. are
actually recorded earlier than the traditional ones, but this may be 15. MASCULINE te·sTEMs
an accidental occurrence. Stltny uses the forms ma/tram, mattrami.
122. This small group lacks cognates outside Slavonic. Of similar
Former masculine nouns of the above declension disappeared
before the period of recorded Old Czech, thus devef 'brother-in-law' type is Lat. salas, gen. sing. saliUis, which is of the 'consonantal'
declension. Most nouns of te-stem have already passed into the
(Lat. levir) forms its genitive deuefe according to the io-stems, while
o-declension by the time O ld Czech records begin, but sporadic
bratr 'brother' (Lat. frdter) forms its genitive brafTa according to the
a -stems. In a similar way hUstr 'gander' (OLat. lumstr) forms its instances of te-stems occur. The following are held to be of this
genitive hUsera. Stltny however maintains a collective form of bratr declension: deml 'tar' (Lith. degutas, id.), gen. sing. deMe; loket 'elbow'
(usually fem .); drobet 'fragment'; krapel 'drop'; and nellet 'fingernail'.
as a plural, thus we find a gen. plur. od bratfl 'from the brethren'.
Modem Czech has replaced the archaic mdti, mdtl, and dei by A solitary instance of this declension survives in the modem Czech
cliche wet lokel PWTUl 'ten ells of canvas-cloth'. Oset 'prickle, sow-
a-stem modifications: matka and dura, but the historical ending of
the dat. sing. and loco sing. !km is maintained. Mati 'mother' in thistle' and Diemt 'wisp' have passed into theu-declension (see § 125) .
modem poetry is a deliberate archaism, while nel'niece' is alleged by
123. 16. MASCULINE AND FEIoIININR i-STEMS
some to be spurious. The current word is netef.
(a) MASCULINE NOUNS
Junt 'stranger, guest': Lat. hostU, gen. pIur. hostium 'stranger, enemy':
121. 14. NEUTER eS-STEMS
OHG gast, gen. plur. gestio 'guest'.
nebesa, plur. 'sky, skies, heaven': Gk. vlt/>Eo.: Skt. nabhasd, cr. Hitt. .;:U'son-in-law': Lat. g'ns, gen. plur. gentium 'tribe'.
nepisa",a 'sky'. pul, rnase. and fern . 'journey, pilgrimage': Lat. pons, gen. plur.
A limited class which has almost disappeared from Old Czech, and pontium 'bridge' (lit. 'passage') .
of durative or permanent aspect. Contrast the notions implied in ;;Dlf 'game-animal': Lith.lulris, gen. plur.lvbill., id.: Gk. 8~p, id.
Gk. ylvos, nom. pIur. ylv£o.: Lat. genus, nom. pIuI'. genera 'race' (udie, plur. 'people': Latv. laudis, plur., gen. plur. Jauzu, id.: ORG
(permanent aspect) and Gk. y6vos 'begotten child' (with base-vowel liuti, plur., gen. plur. liutio, liutiu, id.
0, and ofo-stem, displaying resultant aspect). Hus (proper name): OHG gans, gen. plur. ganso and gensio 'goose'.
 NOUNS 81
80 MORPHOLOGY
DUAL PLURAL
(b) FEMININE NOUNS SINGULAR

tUf, gen. sing. /Uti (but. mod. Iou!, gen. sing. loult ) 'torch, pine1og': NOM. host, m .; kost, f. hosti; oli, uli, f. hostie. tfie. m.;
kosti, dfui, tfi, f.
Lat. lax, gen. pluT. liicium'light' ,er. ORG loug, gen. plur. iougiu, id.
lest 'ruse, cunning': OHG list, rnase. and fern., gen. plur. listio, id. ACC. ,"", hosti; oEi, uli hosti
myJ'mousc': Lat. mUSt gen. plur. milnum, id. (but Gk. ,.,.fk, nom. plur. GEN . hosti hosfu; olU, uJU hosll
hosti hostmtJj ol(i)mtJ, uJ(i)ma hostem
P.V€S', gen. plur. !-'vun', id.) . DAT.
s-mrt, u-mrt 'death': Lat. mors, gen. pIUT. ·mortium: Lith. mirtis, gen. INST. hostemj kostU hostma; ol(i)ma, uJ(i)ma hostmi
hosti hosM; olU, uJU hosuch
pluT. *mirCiii.. id. LOC.
0$ 'axle': Lat. axis, gen. plur. axium: Lith. aJis, gen. plur. aIiq, id. VOCATIVE SINGULAR hosti J. J·mrti
moc 'power': OHG moht, gen. plur. mthtio, id. 124. The dative and instr. dual forms olma, olima. and uJma, ulima are
rwc 'night': Lat. nox, gen. plur. noctium: Latv. nakts, gen. pluT. naklu. of equally early occurrence. DEi shows lengthen~ng of ~~ base-vow~l
For Velikonoce, pluT. 'Easter' and Vdnoce, plur. 'Christmas', see in the locative after v 'in' (cf. Stltny: jako hflb£ci v uoU hke thorns 10
§ 115 and § 116. the eyes'), a practice maintained in the pre~si,tio~al cli;he of
dfui, dvefi, plur. 'door': Lat.foris, gen. plur. forium, id. (but OHG modem Czech tp-8Ci 'in face of'. cf. R. V()-OC1.JI~ eVIdently. The
turi, gen. plur. luro, and Lith. duTYs, gen. plur. dur4., id. are of the modem locative dual is otherwise o&h.
'consonantal'declension). In modern Czech the pattern of masculine nouns of i-stem origin
vu 'village': OLat. viccm, id. has completely changed, and only one noun, a plu~allidl 'p~ople',
Un 'laziness': Lat. linis, gen. plur. linium 'gentle'. maintains i-stem inflections. For the rest the archaIC declensiOn of
sol 'salt', er. Latv. siils, gen. plur. siiJu, id. (but Lat. siil, gen. plur. host is sometimes used as a literary device, thus Zeyer writes miljmi
salurn is 'consonantal'). hostmi 'by the dear guests' (1888), but the normal decl.ensi~n o~t~i8
pa-mU'memory': Lat. mins, gen. plur. 11U!ntium 'mind': Lith. mintis, word is that of an o-stem, its plural hostl alone betraYing Its onglO.
gen. plur. minEiq 'thought'. Pouf 'pilgrimage' and zvlf 'game-animal' are now feminine. The
A large group of nouns representing (a) a primitive common gender process of break-down in masculine i-stems is of early date, and even
which became differentiated by usage and association and (b) a Old Czech leLud 'acorn', medvld 'bear' and Iwlub 'dove' are of
verbal noun of lE type .-t1s related to the lE passive participle in o-declension while ohm 'fire' and uhtl 'coal' are of io-stem pattern.
·-16s. Thus lE ··tis is represented by Lat. dos, gen. sing.dotis(·'giving, In Old Cze~h the following masculines maintained for a time the
gift' hence) 'dowry', while lE ·-tds is represented by Lat. ddlus inflections of the i_declension: zlf 'son-in-Iaw', test. gen. sing. tsti
'given'. Compare further Gk. KA{(nS, gen. sing. KAwEws'slope': 'father-in-law', Juf and fif, nom. plur. Iifje (Stitny: Knieha Iestcrd)
Olce.1. hUb, nom. plur. hlibir, id.: Lith. Jlitis, e-en. sing. JlitilJ 'pile,
rump': Skt. Jrili~ 'approach' as against Skt. fritdIJ. Contrast
, .
'wife's brother' lrv 'worm', strlnl 'pith', ndv 'death', zvlf 'animal',
, ('
two loanwords k11U!t 'peasant' (from Lat. comitem) and tal part Irom
OCz. byt 'being': Gk. tPvat~, f:W~ 'nature' with OCz. -byt, passive Ger. Teil). and the surname Hus. .'
part.: Gk. 1>lJTtk. For feminine nouns the modem Czech pattern 15 essennally that
Here also belong many abstract nouns in -st such as Uf.lst 'horror': of Old Czech, differing only by the absence of all dual forms except
Ger. Angst 'fear'. Many of these are derived from adjectives, thus those of oEi u.Ji and the representation of iu by I. Intolerant of
mladost from mladj. They are similar in origin to English rust, dust, triliteral ciuste~ modern Czech substitutes the inst. plur. tftmi
lust, mist, blast, harVl!st, etc. for OOz. tfmi, likewise zedmi 'by walls' for DOz. zdmi. DVI!f, 'door'
Of common gender are chof'spouse', andpuf'journey, pilgrimage'. has now a mixed declension with forms derived from the e-stems
G
 8, MORPHOLOGY NOUNS

and the ia-stems. Sdi 'salt' loses length in declension, thus gen.
sing. soli.
The list of feminine j·stem nouns in Old Czech is fairly large and
includes nit, 'thread', lUst, gen. plur. list! 'part', lest, gen. sing. lsri
.. .
. vie 'thing'. llwt 'quarter'. plst 'fist', rukojlf ' handle' trest,
'honour'.
gen. Sing. trsll cane, rush', lopot 'sorrow', etc.
, ~e t~'e, m., ,In, f. are ttyf¥. m. 'four', l4Yfi. f. The numeral pit
fiv~ IS smgular m type and has the oblique form plti in all cases but
the Instrumental, which is p1lj';. Thus also lest, sedm, etc.
The dual number of the i-sterns is reflected in OPec. aB 'two
eyes', and in OPer. uJi 'two ears'. Old Czech prri, f. 'breasts' is
declined as a plural (inst. prsm;). Modem Czech has replaced this by
a neuter plural of o-stem. viz. prsa, dat. prAm, inst. prsy. But the gen.
and loco preserve an o-stem dual (prsou) .
Nouns with d in the nom. and acc. sing. shorten to 0 throughout
declension.
Though the u-sterns are no longer regarded as a distinct declension
their influence on other stems has been so powerful that nowadays all
singular forms of 'animate' a-stems with the exception of the gen.
sing. are of u-stem origin. Moreover neologisms of 'inanimate'
o-stem are also given u-stem inflections (see § 105). The Old Czech
vocative of type sedldf (sedldrol) testifies to the influence of the u-stem
whence it is derived. The u-stem inflection -dv of the gen. plur. has
become that of the 0- and jo-stems.
There are no records of a dual gen. and loc. of the u-declension.
The modem Czech family designate in -oui (Naodkovi 'the Novili')
is of adjectival origin.
126. lB. FEMININE U-STEMS

125. 17. MASCULINE U-STEMS svekrev and svekr".. 'mother-in-law': Lat. saCTUS, id., cf. Ger. Schwieger-
mutur.
.ryn 'son': Lith. siinw, id .: Skt. siinub, id.: Goth. SUn/M, id.
ddm 'house': Lat. domus, id. The aspect of feminine u-stems, like that of the masculines, is
functional, cf. krakev 'roof-truss', ostrev 'drying-stick for hay', vrSUD
wd 'honey': Lith. medw, id.: Skt. mddhu, id.: Gk. p./8" 'wine': OE
medu 'mead' . 'layer', rakeD 'coffin', etc.
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
The lE masculine nouns in -us denote function. Neuters in -u
NOY . sDCkreu, svekrvy suekrvi svekrve
some~mes d~note function (cf. Lat. veru 'javelin', cornu 'horn'),
Ace. svekrcu svckrui svekrvc
sometimes flUId substances (cf. Lat. bitu-mtn, bttu-mtn from Gaulish,
further Skt.jdtu 'resin', cognate with OE cwcadu
GEN. suckrve svekrvf
DAT. svekrui svekrvem
'resin'). Cr. also Ok. Sa.KPV 'teardrop': OE titJr, id. U-stem neuter
nouns have become masculine in Slavonic and Lithuanian.
INST. svekru svekrvemi
LOC. svekrvi suekrvcch
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL VOCATIVE SINGULAR svtkrui
NOY. .ryn, d6m (,ba)poly .rynovc, S)'TIDDl The evidence ofOes shows that the nom. sing. inflection offeminine
ACC. .ryn, d6m (,ba)poly ,-,'"y u-sterns was long (lE *-rls), cr. OCS svekry and the parallel Skt. form
GEN. .ryna, domu
'ynb' IvaJrilb, id. The Old Czech nom. sing. forms are contaminated with
DAT. J)'l'IU and synoui, domu and domovi ",,6m
"rn>ma those of the oblique cases. Cinluv 'church' fonns its gen. sing.
INST. .rynnn, domcm {YMma "ay elrckDe. In later Czech many u-stem feminines passed into the
LOC. .rynu, damu .ryniech a-declension, thus poehev 'sheath' > poehva, vrslcv 'layer' > vrslrJtJ.
VOCATIVE SINOULAR .rynu
Indeed this process dates back to Old Czech where we find obrva
To the u-declension belong I:rch 'top' (Lith. vjrIus, id.) led 'ice', dor 'eyebrow' (contrast Gk. &rppVr, r. id.) and lelva 'tortoise' (contrast
'gift', sUd 'judgment', slon 'tent', pol 'half', v6i 'ox' and many more. Gk. XE'.\vS", f. id.).
 MORPHOLOGY ADJECTIVES

128. PR1MARY ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVES
(a) bro2trov 'brother's', cf. Lat. patruus, adj . 'uncle's'; the cognate
127. Czech adjectives are of two kinds, Primary and Extended. form is seen in Lat.frtUru-ilis 'brother's son'.
With one exception the primary adjectives are related to the o-stem (b) sestfin 'sister's: Lat. sobrinus, sobrina 'cousin-german'.
and a-stem nouns, but for reasons of syntactical clarity they have tnatefin 'mother's'; cf. Lat. mtiJemus.
assumed some of the inflections of the extended adjectives. The latter SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
arose out of a fusion of the simple noun-like form with a following
NO~. bro2trov, 0.6002, 0.600; bro2troM, m· bratrooi, m ., 0.69'. C.,
demonstrative pronounj,jl,je, cognate with Latin is, ea, and with
sestfin, a, 0 0.6v1. f. n -OM, n.
Lithuanian jis, ji (see § 138, Demonstrative Pronouns) . Thus the
Ace. bratrov, -oW, -000; bro2trovo2, m. braITo9'. m.f.• o.6M, n.
predicative formula [una jest nova displays an Old Czech primary
sestfin(a), u, 0 -ovl, f.n
adjective with noun-inflection; the attributive formula on the other
GEN. bratrolla, m.n., bratrow. bro2trol!fch
hand would be novd luna (R. nova-ja iuna: Lat. ·nolla ea lana), uit.
bratro9', f.
an adjective extended prehistorically by a demonstrative enclitic
OAT. bratrow, m .n., bro2b'orrym
pronoun and subsequently fused into one word. In Lithuanian the
bratrovl, f.
so-called 'definite' formula as in Naujds-iJ Testameiftas 'the New
INST. bratroojm, m.n., bro2trovjmi
Testament' is nowadays applied to notions in which there is an idea
bratrovU, f.
of permanence, and is compounded, more transparently than in
LOC. bro2trovl, m.f.n. bratroojch
Czech, of the inflected adjective (e.g. naujas 'new') and the pronoun
jis 'he, this'. Apart from the length of 0 in the nom. and acc. sing. rnase., the
Old Czech, unlike the modern language, occasionally displays the inflections of b'atrov and sestFin are identical. The gen. sing. rnasc. is
primary adjective used attributively, thus MlI mime 'the new moon'. the normal form of the accusative when used with 'animate' nouns',
The rarity of such fonnulae, however, makes the construction of a this usage now being universal. There is little trace in Old Czech of
complete paradigm for this type of adjective impossible, and the the vowel-franting, characteristic of other Slavonic languages, which
inflections must be deemed identical with those of nouns. There are, occurs when primary adjectives are fonned from nouns of i-stem. or
however, two types of primary adjective known for convenience as io-stem, thus ote60 is nonnal, while ·otclv is unrecorded, but the
Personal Adjectives. Alexandreid (circa 1300) has both krdloo and kTalev.
The Penonal Adjective is the only adjective in old or modern Modern Czech preserves all the inflections of the Old Czech
Czech to retain the remnants of a primary declension. Primary Personal Adjective acept for those of the dual. The inflections -ov
inflections appear in the nom., ace., gen., dat., and loco sing., and -u are of course modified to -Bv and -ou respectively. The nom.
throughout the dual, and in the nom. and ace. plur. The other plur. rnase. is nowadays differentiated into an 'animate' form for use
inflections are derived from the extended declension. The penonal with the names of living beings, thus bratroui, sesth'ni, and an 'inani-
adjective is of two types, (a) derived from names of males, (b) mate' form bratro9', ustfiny. Families are nowadays designated by
derived from names of females. The prototype nouns are commonly the rnase. plur., thus Novdkooi 'the Novaks'.
names of kinship, thus otIC > OtcOll, bratr > bratrov, sestra > sestFin, Relics of primary adjectives other than the personal adjectives listed
mall> malmn, terms of permanent relationship, thus sUrId > stltlddo, above survive in a number of modern stereotypes sueh as vnovl, awva
and proper names and titles, thus Permenio > Perwnioo, krdl > kraiev 'anew', doceia'quite', {daleka 'from afar', {bl{Q;o2 'from close at hand',
and krdldo. Z listajasna 'out of the blue', tplna hrdla 'at the top of one's voice', etc.
86 MORPHOLOGY ADJECTIVES 87
Adjectives derived from participles all belong to type notj. thus
129. EXTENDED ADJECTIVES: O-STEM AND a-STEM jat} 'taken' (Lat. emptus), lit} 'sewn' (Lat. sutw) , vlntJtj 'woolly' (Lat.
lamitus), zrnatj 'grained' (Lat. griinatus), bradatj 'bearded, chinned'
novj 'new'! Lat. novus, id. snlhovj 'snowy': Lat. niveu.r. (Lat. barbatus), u1i1f (- svldek, mod.) 'eared' (Lat. auritus), as well as
tivj 'alive': Lat. vivus, id. dTlj 'quick, fresh': Gk. 9puAAos n-extended participles of type vedenj 'led', vidlnj 'seen' (cf. Gk.
mrtvj 'dead': Lat. mortuus, id. 'rush'. lo«v6S' 'beautiful' Hes.), and the m-extended participles of type
kvj 'left-hand': Lat. iaevus, id. pIny 'full': Lith. pilTUlS, id.: Eng. uidomj 'visible'. etc.
rudj 'red': Lat. rufus'red-haired'. full. Here too belong adjectives in -ni, an extension denoting possession
blbj 'stupid': Lat. balbus 'stam- tub} 'dear': Ger. lith, id.: Eng. or content. Such are vim} ('possessing loyalty' hence) 'loyal', silnj
mering'. lie]. 'strong', tulnj 'fatty', mulnj 'farinaceous', and many more.
lestj 'sixth': Lat. sextus, id. divnj 'strange, wonderful': Lat. Former adjectives of u-declension have passed into the o-/a-
olurovj 'fiery': Lat. igneus, id. divinus 'divine'. declension by the addition of an extension -k as in Greek 1TAa.TVI(Os-
SINQULAR DUAL PLURAL from ?TAan:s and in Sanskrit laghuka/.l from laghUf/. Cr. also Lith.
saldokas 'sweetish' from saldUs 'sweet'. Examples in Old Czech
NOM. novj m., nova f., nove n. nova m.n., novl m ., novl f., include ItMj 'light', sladkj 'sweet', hFidkj 'sharp, repulsive', and
novitj f. nova n. many more.
ACC. nooj m., novu r., novl n. nova m.n., novl m.f., nova n.
novie} f. VOWEL-FRONTING AND PREPALATALlZATION
GEN. novlho m.n., novl f. novu novjth OF ADJECTIVES
DAT. novlmu m.n., now} r. novjma novjm
INST. novjm m.n., novU f. novjma novjmi 130. The Old Czech paradigm is complicated by internal vowel-
LOC. novitm m.n., novie} r. novu novjch fronting, a phenomenon which is sporadic and inconsistent, occur-
ring for the most part in feminine forms. The adjectives affected are
An alternative to the loco sing. masc. novum is the form novem, those which once contained a nasal vowel, e.g. svatj 'holy': Lith.
which is also the modern form. The dat. and loco sing. fern. has lventas, id. Examples ofvowe1-fronting are 0 svltie} L'udmile 'about 5t
several alternative spellings to nOllu}, of which the commonest is Ludmila' and 0 sv/tiem Vaclav/'about St Wenccslas'. The nom. plur.
nove}. The modern form is TU)1l1. masc. form is sv/tt. From nellastnj 'unhappy' derives the nom. plur.
Like novj are declined the possessive adjectives mo}, ma, mi'my', form neIllstn!. Though vowel-franting in adjectives of this type
tvo}, Iva, tvi 'thy', gen. sing. miho, tvlho, and svo}, .wli, svl 'own', gen. has disappeared from modern Czech, prepalatalization persists in
sing. svlho. The adjectives dvo}, oM} 'twofold' and trd} 'threefold' are the nom. plur. masc. 'animate' form. The principal modifica-
oftenuncontracted and have the oblique foons of}.}l,}e (see § 138, tions are is follows (with modern Czech -Itl, -ltl for Old Czech
Demonstrative Pronouns). But the gen. sing. masc. and neut. is .m, -£8),
dvlho, etc., the dat. sing. rnasC. and neut. dvlmu, etc., and the loc.
sing. mase. and neut. dvlm, etc. The inst. sing. is dvjm, etc., the inst. dobTj 'good'; nom. plur. masc. dobf!
dual dvjma, etc., and the inst. plur. dvjmi, etc. [eskj 'Czech'; nom. plur. rnasc. ltlll
The adjective kj 'what, what kind of' (Gk. ?TOWS: 5kt. kayaM was ubohj 'poor'; nom. plur. rnasc. uboz.l
an a rchaism even in Old Czech, but the word survives in the modern vtlikj 'big'; nom. plur. masc. velicl
cliches kj div! 'what a wonder', Irjho lerta! (for .kiho ltrta) (a mild angliekj 'English'; nom. plur. rnasc. anglilll
oath), and klt! 'would that .. .'. Muchj 'cleaf'; nom. plur. masc. hlusi (mod. hlull)
B8 MORPHOLOGY ADJECTIVES 89
Old Czech carries prepalatalization further, and the dat. sing. and
loco sing. offeminine adjectives in -kj are affected in the same way, 132. EXTENDED ADJECTIVE: i-STEM (?)
thus kjeho velimj proshl 'to his great demand', ves, ueI 'aU': Lith. visas, id.
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL

131. EXTENDED ADJECTIVES: io-/ia-STEM AND iio-jiia-sTEM NOM. ves, velm.; vIlf.; vIe n. vii m.; vIif.; vII n.
Ace. ves, ve! m.; vlu f.; vIe n. ,11
(a) tfetl 'third': Lat. tertius, id. GEN. vlelw m.n.; vIlf. vUch
mauH 'mother's': Gk. IJ:r)'Tfp'Of;, id. OAT. vlemum.n.;vIif. vllm
divi 'wonderful': Gk. oWS' 'great, godlike': Skt. diuyd~ 'godlike'. INST. oIiemm.n.; vlUf. vllmi
(b) -/ul£ 'bison's': Gk. 'T!lVP€oS' and 'J"avpoos 'hull's', LOC. vlem m.n.; vII vllch
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL The only example of its kind, the adjective ues/veS affords no clue as
NOM. Ilea rn.; 1ft /it f.; tfetie n. tfelie m.; tfetl f.n. Hell m.; Ifttit f. n. to its true grammatical category, especially as it lacks a primary fonn.
Ace. tfeti; tfeti6; tfetit Ifttit m.; IfetE r.n. Ifetit A possible Old Czech ves beside vel is implied in the words vez-drJIi
GEN. tfetieho m.n.; tfetie f. t1ttiu tft Uch 'daily' and (modem) ves-mlr 'universe'. SUtny uses an isolated nom.
DAT. tfetiemu m.n.; tfetl f. tfetlma tfet£m sing. mase. oeIhn 'each, every'.
INST. tfetlm m.n.; tfeliu tfetlma tfetlmi
LOC. lfetiem m.n,; tfeti tleM tlet/ch NOTE ON U-STEM ADJECTIVES

The only known primary adjectives with io-/ ia-stems are plJ (f.
plJl, n.plIe) 'pedestrian', nU 'quick' ,pdii 'Iord.ly', nic '~,"??e, incl.ined',
sic 'such a', Uii 'lazy' (in the phrase: Jest mt lbl co bmft, and In the
adverb of neuter origin linl) , and place-names of adjectival type
such as Boleslav. They are declined like the corresponding nouns
(type sedldf, mezi, lob, §§ 108, 109, liS)· A survival in modern Czech
occurs in the formula Uta pdnl 'anrn domini, years and years', and
there is an echo of a primary io-stem neuter in the adverb sice 'it is
true'.
I t is held that a primary adjective of iio-/ iia-type formerly
existed, but the evidence is limited to an isolated gen. sing. masc.
bolie for the usual boiielw.
To the extended io-jia-stems belong adjectives denoting relation
or derivation; such are vodn£ (,relating to or deriving from water'
hence) 'aqueous', mieslnl 'local', and many more. Here belong also
adjectives derived from active participles (type veduC£ 'leading', see
§ '73)'
133. Indo-European u-stems in Slavonic have acquired an extension
-k- (cf. Gk. 7TAa.TVs- > 7TAa.TUI(Os", § 129: lehkj, etc.), and have thus
passed into the o-/ a-declension. DeS OXVY 'gay' (Hitt. assus 'good')
and neplod;y ste rile' are the sole survivors from the u-stems.
The first word occurs in Luneburg Wendish as wachwy 'robust', and
an extended form of the word occurs in SUtn)"s Besednl feCi (page 57)
as ochevnj 'wanton, gay'.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
134. Comparison is shown in one of two ways. The Long Form of
comparison applies to the greater number of adjectives, the Short
Form to about fifty. The Long Form of comparison consists of adding
the suffixes -ljt m., -IJli f., and -ljle n. to the adjective base. which is
then prepalatalized. The Short Form of comparison consists of
adding the suffixes -I m., -Ii f., and -I n. to the adjective base. which is
then prepalatalized. The Superlative degree is formed by prefixing
naJ- to the Comparative.
(a) LONG FORM OF COMPARISON

plnj 'full' (Skt. piirT}alJ.); pimjl 'fuller' (Skt. piimiydn); najpinljt 'fullest'.
 MORPHOLOGY PRONOUNS
91
(b) SHORT FORM OF COMPARISON
PRONOUNS
chucfj 'poor'; thud 'poorer'; najchutl 'poorest'.
137. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
135. The comparative and superlative forms of the adjective have a
distinctive, though imperfectly recorded declension which, like ia I ('I, we')
Sanskrit counterpart, displays sigmatism (~1-) in all cases but the SINOULAR DUAL PLURAL
nom. and acc. sing. of the masculine and neuter. In the later NOM. jdz,jd ,I my
language sigmatism spread to all cases, and in this way the compara~ Ace. ml. mM ny, nds
tive and superlative adjective became indistinguishable from the GEN. mM naju aar
extended io~stems of type tf~tI (see § I3I). Stftny already has menll DAT. mi, mn! ndma adm
skuuk 'a smaller deed' where the older language has menJ ... The INST. mnu ndma ndmi
Alexandreid displays a nom. sing. rnasc. l~hlli!l 'lighter' beside an LOC . mnl naju n4r
asigmatic kpl 'better'. The generalized sigmatism of modern Czech
~ ('thou, you') 3 (,,,,If')
resembles that of Gothic, thus menl!, m.f.n. 'smaller': Goth.
minnivz, minnhei, minni,o. Even in the oldest records comparison SINOULAR DUAL PLURAL
without sigmatism is sporadic, and a complete register of asigmatic NOM. ty 'Y
fonns is impossible. Modern adverbial comparatives without Ace. II l!,Y, vd! ,/
sigmatism are not a reliable guide for deducing the historical foI'IIl5 OEN. ,,6, vaju oar ub,
of the comparative adjective. OAT. ti, tab! vdma ,dm si, sobl
INST. tobu, teM vdma vdmi sobU, s~bu
136. Prepalatalization modifies the adjective base in the following LOC. tob! vaju 'ar sob!
ways: There is no certain record of a dual equivalent for 'ye two'. The
k to c: krdtkj 'short'; kratel h to i: drahj'dear'; draB
oblique inflections of the third person pronoun on, ona, ono are
ch to 1: suchj 'dry'; su1l t to c: boha!y'rich'; bohacl
indistinguishable from those of the demonstratives (see § 13 8).
d to ,: tvrdj 'hard'; tvrd
Modifications in modern Czech are the adjustment of u to ou and
Some adjectives with extensions -kj or -okj omit the extension in the the disappearance of jd~, tabu, sobU and all the dual fonns . The
comparative form. The same rules ofprepalatalization apply. Thus instrumental forms ndma and vama survive in dialect as plurals.
vysokj 'high': l!)IIi; Madkj 'smooth': Mad; brzkj 'soon': brii, etc.
The following forms are anomalous; those marked with an asterisk 138. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: MASCULINE AND NEUTER

are presumed to have existed: (Distinct neuter forms bracketed)

dobrj 'good'; upi vel{ and velikj 'big'; v!llI (Alex.) SINGULAR DUAL
dlUhj 'long'; deli. ~ry 'bad'; $lwfi NOM. j,jen Ue) s, sen (se) I, ten (to) j' ta (/I)
mary little; men! biery 'white'; *bluji Ace. j,jen,jej (j~) s, sen (se) t, ten (to) jl la (/I)
svaty 'holy'; $svl tlj! las!y 'frequent'; lIstlil j~ho,jho sehQ, slho I,,",
GEN. ju
It is uncertain whether a comparative of spUnj 'quick' ever existed
in the form $ splH, a reconstruction suggested by the adverb spie1~
OAT.
INST.
)emu,jmu
jim
semu
,lm
tomu
til m
J,ma
jima
sima
s£ma
"
tlma
tlma
'quickly' (mod. spl!~ 'rather'). LOC. um I,m
J"" ju
"
9' MORPHOLOGY PRONOUNS 93
PLURAL Lith. ji. The pronoun t survives with a fill-vowel in Slovak te-ra{.
NOM. j; (j/) n (-) ,; (ta) 'now' and fonns part of the Old Czech adverb De-t..fas 'at this time' .
Ace. jl -(-) 11 (ta) It is cognate with Gk. "TOl'.
GEN. jick ri<h tl<h
DAT. jim .nm tlm 139. ATTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
INST. pml nm, tlmi
For mdj, tvdj, svdj, see § 129. NM, naIl, naIe 'our' and vM, rmII,
LOC. jick ri<h tI,h
vale 'your' are inflected likej (jrn), § 138.
The pronoun and numeral jeden, jedna, jedno is inflected like
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: FEMININE ten, ta, to. The pronoun sdm, sama, samo 'self' show!! traces of a primary
declension, but the extended declension of type no'!J is far more usual
SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
thus gen. sing. masc. samJho, dat. sing. masc. samimu, etc. '
NOM. jl ta jl tl j. 11 The pronouns oha, ohl 'both', like the numerals dva, dDl'two',
Ace. )U,jl .qu, .n tu jl tI j' 11 resemble the dual forms of ten, ta, to.
GEN. J" n, U ja tu jick tI,h An archaic compound pronoun occurs sporadically in the Alexan-
jitj tq' rima tlma J,m tlm
DAT.
INST.
juj
"
ju,it siu tu, toJu
le}
J'ma
J,ma
ja
tlma
tu
)Iml -
juh -
tlmi
tI,h
dreid. It is sicf 'this, any', fern. sicl {gen. sing. fern. sine}, neut.
sue.
LOC.
"
After prepositions the pronouns i, jtn, jl, je acquire a palatalized
The pronoun mnoho 'much, many' is followed in the first three
cases by the genitive. It was fonnerly declined as a neuter o-stem but
in the later language from Stftny onward the oblique fonn' was
nasal (11'). thus ot nl/w 'from him', le nlmu 'to him', s nlm 'with him',
o nlm 'about him',.{ ni, 'from her', le nit} 'to her', le nim 'to them', mnoha in all cases. Traces of an o-stem declension survive in the
s nimi 'with them', 0 nich 'about them', In the ace. sing. rnase. only the adverbial cliches mnohem ' greatly', namno{., 'often'. It is an interesting
palatalized nasal remains; this combines with the foregoing fact that Stitny does not always decline mnoho, cf. his construction
preposition, thus plld,,r 'before him' (motion), naden 'over him' o mnoho jinem 'about much else'. The word mnohj 'many a . . .' is an
(motion). The nominative forms of this pronoun have now been extended adjective of type nord. Old Czech mdlo 'little', like mnoho,
replaced by the more explicit on, ona, ono, which, when attributive, was a neuter o-stem, but was not declined in the later language.
are declined like Un, ta, to, thus gen. sing. masc. onoho, dat. That malo was nevertheless once declined is clear from the modem
sing. mase. onomu, etc. The oblique forms persist in modern adverbs btvndla 'nearly', pomalu 'slowly', and namd[, 'all but (gone)'.
speech. For vtS, vtI, see Adjectives, § 132.
The nom. and acc. sing. mase. fonn , first degenerated into an Koliko 'how much, how many' and toliko 'so much, 50 many' were
enclitic, then disappeared, giving place to the fonn ttn. The whole fonnerly neuter o-stems, but were later inflected like mTllJho with a
declension of s, sen, se has disappeared. It lingers on as an archaism single oblique fonn kolika, tolika. The forms of the nom. and acc.
in Stftny (slho i onoho 'of this and that') and there are fragmentary have been replaced in modem speech by koliJc, tolik, which are still
survivals in the modem Czech adverbs of time dne-s 'today' (OCz. neuter in gender.
also den-s, id.) and ltlo-s 'this year'. Old Czech has also velero-s 'this
evening' and s ndei 'tonight' (Lith. Io-nakt: OHG hi-naht: A1b. so-nte,
etc.).
The pronounj is cognate with Lat. is, Lith.jis;jl with Lat. ea,
 MORPHOLOGY PREPOSITIONS 95
94

1~. INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE PRONOUNS PREPOSITIONS

'who?' 'what?' 'nobody' 'nothing' 142. The prepositions of Old Czech govern the following cases:
NOM.
ACe.
'"/W
W lsD, CO
&0, co
"",,,
nikolw
nil.u, nitt, nU:
nits" nite. nit
THE ACCUSATIVE: na 'on to, for' (purpose, use, time); pfls, pfl;:, 'over,
across, despite'; pro 'for' (penons, part! of body, ideas);.ca 'for'
GEN. lsD, [eho nikoho nih,. nite (in exchange); 'in' (time); 'behind, beyond' (motion); minw 'past,
"/W besides'; skr;:"skr{./'through';pod, pod, 'under' (motion, direction);
DAT. .lam" (""" nikomu nilnnu
ruul, mule 'over, above' (motion); pfld, pflde 'before' (motion) j T714.o
INST. kjm (lm nikjm nilfm
LOC. nikom nilem 'between, into the midst of' (motion); 0 'in the matter of, to the
"m (""
tune of'; po 'during' (long periods); v, vt 'into, to; at' (time);
Kw, fonnerly ·kk on the evidence of niku, derives from an lE type vz 'against'; ob 'beyond'.
·wos.to..r, the e of nikte having the force of a fiII·vowel. Modem kdo is THE GENITIVE: od, ode 'from, away from'; do 'to, till'; z, ze 'from, out
believed to have been influenced by the adverbs kde 'where' and kdy of, (made) of'; s, se 'off'; u 'at, near, (living) with'; bez, beo'with.
'when', since the d of kdo has no historical foundation. Cso < lE out'; ko[em, oko10 'round, about'; podil 'along, alongside'; podli,
·f[¥lSOS is historically a genitive which has been extended to the podle 'alongside, according to'; die (postposition) 'according to';
nominative and accusative and subsequently (after (400) discarded vedle 'alongside, next to'; uvtfutl, ulmitl 'inside'; miesto 'instead of';
in favour of co, which is the modern fonn of the word. As a genitive krom/, krom 'besides, except';.to 'during' (period, reign, regime);
it survived until about 1300. In composition with certain prepositions uprostlld 'amid'; bUzko 'near'; mdaleko 'near'; QJod 'from under';
the accusative fonn is an enclitic ·l (Lat. quid), thus na-l'on to what', tubjti 'but for'.
pro-l'for what, why', po.! 'during what', o-l'concerning what'. The THE DAnvE: k, ke, ku 'towards, to; for' (meaa);proti,protivu 'against';
fi.ll·vowel arises in nall·l'whereupon'. nIlproti 'opposite'; vdlu, v4li 'in face of, in view of, towards' (feel.
The final vowel of ni/sI may be due to vowel·fronting by the i ings); k ooli 'for the sake of; vzdor'despite' .
of the preceding syllable. THE INSTRUME.NTAL: nod, node ' above' (rest); pod,pode 'below, under';
Like modem Russian, Old Czech sometimes separates the corn· pFld, pflde 'before, in front of'; za 'behind, beyond'; wo 'between,
ponents of the negative pronoun to insert a preposition, thw among'; s, SI ·with'.
rU-.J·lcjm 'with nobody', ni.a.lITTl-Z 'in nothing'. THE LoCATIVE: 0 'about, concerning'; v, w'in, inside'; 1UJ 'on, on top
The Interrogative Adjective 8, fern. and neut. lie 'whose?' is of of'; po 'after' (time and place); 'all over, round, along, by the
pronominal origin and is declined like tfetl (§ 131). For Icj 'what kind hand of'; pfi 'at, in the presence of'.
of?' sec § 1:1:9. Modern Czech usage is essentially similar to that of Old Czech. The
variants with fill·vowel (SI, 0, VI, etc.) occur when the following
RELATIVE PRONOUNS noun begins with a similar consonant or cluster of consonants, but the
141. Jel and jenl, fern. jll, neut. jet 'who, which' is declined like usage, both in old and modern Czech, is inconsistent. The fonn kl
ien,i',il,Kt"j, klerd, kterl 'who, which' is declined like nol!i. An in· occurs before k but not before h and ch. Ku occurs sometimes before
variable relative pronouniel orieJto (composed ofi + l with the fill~ p and b, thus Stftny writes ku pjIl. The forms pfldl, pode, and nade
vowel) is a frequent feature of Old Czech. After prepositions a glide occur before labials followed by another consonant, thus pode mnU,
consonant" arises, thus do nhol (mod. do mhol) 'into whom', nIldenl nod, vJ,.
'above whom', etc. After the verb ' to be' the relative pronoun is ktol. In the sense of'according to' Old Czech po governs the dative. The
 96 MORPHOLOGY
same preposition with the accusative sometimes has the sense of pro.
V;::: 'against' (Lith. ut 'for') is obsolete except as an intensive prefix.
S with the accusative means 'to the amount of, according to', The
prefixes pFl- 'over', ~- 'out, up' and roz· 'apart' have no independent
existence.
Postpositions are dk 'according to' and Iibo 'on account of'
(Sdtny: Bmdnl feCi). The former survives in a modem cliche medle
('as for me') 'then'.
ADVERBS
143. PRIMARY ADVERBS are relatively few in number. The most
archaic are those which derive from lE sentence-links or rudimen_
tary conjunctions showing temporal relationship between sentences
or parts of a sentence. These are commonly found combined with
pronouns, but in Hittite, Sanskrit, and Greek they have an indepen-
dent existence. Primary adverbs in Old Czech include kde 'where',
kda, kdy 'when', kady 'whither', tdy 'then', uMa, teMy ' then', zde 'here'
(Go. hita: Swed. hit), kak 'how', lJf'fut, vnil (a disguised compound)
-like', etc.
DERIVED ADVERBS. These are adverbs which are related to nouns
or adjectives. They are distinguished by (a) the ending -I as in
velml'very', rUll 'quickly' (cC. -a~ in Gk. xal1-al, 1Td'\a~, and 1Tapat),
(b) the ending -0, the neuter form of the adjective as in {asto 'often'
(cC. -um, -ov in Lat. virum, Horn. J"ov), (c) the ending-mo as in kradmo
'by stealth', poJepmo 'in a whisper', an archaic inflection similar to
that of Lat. illim, islim, interim, Ok. 1Tp{V, mL\w, and occasionally (d)
by a form of the genitive, instrumental, or other case-inflection. Ad-
verbs are frequently formed by merging a preposition and a pro-
noun, or a preposition and an adjective, as in po-malu 'slowly',
z-krdtka 'in short'. Such adverbs sometimes afford clues to otherwise
lost inflections.
144. The COMPARATIVE FORM of the adverb is that of the neuter
singular of the corresponding comparative adjective (e.g. menl) but
-with added vowel-length (mini). In modern Czech adverbs of this
type are reduced to eight in number, and are frequently contracted
by the loss of the final vowel (mill", drM, etc.). In Old Czech adverbs
of this type are plentiful, thus MIle 'more densely'. Besides these
VERBS 97
there are eight comparative adverbs of anomalous formation. They
are as follows:
daleko 'far'; ddle. zle 'badly'; hOfe.
dluM, na-dllkl 'long'; diu. lJeUm, lJelml, lJelmi 'much'; vie".
br;:o 'soon'; hr.te, bri, dflue, dfieoe. mdlo 'little'; mini.
doMI 'well'; lipe.
and the isolated comparative spieIe more readily',
The SUPERLATIVE is formed from the Comparative by prefixing naj-.
Unfortunately the Long and the Short Fonns of the comparative
adjective afford little clue as to the shape of the corresponding
adverb. Thus thudlji 'more poorly' does not reflect the short form of
thud 'poorer'.
VERBS
145. Verbs are subject to an extraordinary degree of mutation;
indeed the multiplicity of fonns assumed by anyone verb makes
identification difficult, if not impossible, without the aid of Historical
Phonology (see §§ 1-100) . In the sections that follow an attempt has
been made to reduce the essential parts of recorded verbs to a system
of classification by criteria, but some verbs have been more fully
recorded than others, and the picture is incomplete.
By contrast, the system of conjugation is simple, and consists of a
present tense, an imperfect, and two aorists. The future tense is
differentiated from the present by a modification of the base; the
inflections are those of the present tense. Anomalous verbs display
archaic inflections, and there are traces of an optative.
The ambiguity of meaning caused by the breakdown of sounds has
led to the early abandonment of the historic tenses in favour of a
single compound past tense which is differentiated only by aspect.
Differentiation was achieved by changes in the base of the verb or by
the addition of prefixes. This has led to the setting up of the well-
known verb-pairs which are as much a feature of Czech as of other
Slavonic languages. See § 183.
Records of Czech as a connected language date back to A.D. 1250
at the earliest. This has meant that the historic tenses were recap-
tured only about one hundred and fifty years before their disappear-
ance. Even so Chelcicky, writing about the years 1440-3. retains the
H
98 MORPHOLOGY
imperfect, and Stftny, whose writings fall mainly between the years
1375-1400, uses the aorist to translate the Latin perfect in narrative,
and the imperfect to represent the Latin imperfect. Elsewhere
Sdtny uses compound tenses, but the pluperfect is still fonned as a
compound with the imperfect of the verb ' to be', thus 'lkl biech 'I
had said',
A complete paradigm cannot be constructed for anyone verb;
that ofvl.sti 'to lead, bring' affords at once the fullest and least modi-
fied pattern. This verb serves therefore as a model for the majority of
those that follow. Adjustments consist of modifications to the base
or stem.
146. THE SEVEN CLASSl!.S OF VERBS: GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES la TO Ij. MONOSYLLABIC BASES
la. Primary Presents with Athematic Infinitive and constant base-
vowel. Base ends in any consonant other than m, n, and r.
Aorist with or without ch. Va;u, vlsti (vl{,ti).
lb. Primary Presents with Athematic Infinitive in _ali. Base-vowel e
in present,as. aorist, imperative and active participle. 'Base-
vowel a in s. aorist, pass. pt., past pt. abs., inL and camp. pt.
Btru, brati.
IC. Primary Presents with Metathesis. Stflhu, stneci.
Id. Primary Presents with Historical Nasal Vowd . Vowel-fronting
of a to ! or ie. Sahu, suci.
le. Primary Presents without Base-vowel. Base ends in any con-
sonant other than m, n, and r. Infinitive with long vowel and
assimilated consonants. Aorist usually without ch. Rku, fieci.
If. Primary Presents without Base-vowel. One verb with base-
vowel D. Athematic infinitive in -ati. tdu, ldatij {,ovu, {'vali.
Ig. Primary Presents without Base-vowel. Base ends in rn or 11.
Aorist with ch. Jmu,jietij pnu, pieti.
lh. Primary Presents without Base-vowel. Base ends in r. Aorist with
ch. T ru, tneti.
li. Primary Labial Presents. Infinitive in -an. T epu, upati.
Ij. Primary V-presents, with loss of v elsewhere. Aorist with ch.
2ivu, 8ti.
VERBS 99
TYPES Ik AND 11. IOTACIZED PRESENTS
Ik. J-presents with Open Radical. Aorist with ch. Siju,ll1i.
11. J-presents with Closed Radical. Infinitive in -ali, -dti. Two verbs
in -ieti/ -lti. Labial bases, i.e. bases in p, b, and m, lose iotacism
before e. Tew, tesatij tnu, lieli, and melu, mUtij hjbju, hjbati.
TYPES 2a TO 2d. N-EXTENDED PRESENTS
2a. N-stems with n throughout. Base ends in any consonant but a
velar (k, h, and ch). Minu, minuti.
2b. N-stems in Present and Infinitive. Base ends in a velar: k, h, or ch.
Stihnu, stihnUti.
'c. N-stems with lost Labial. Labial appears sporadically in aorist.
Hynu, hynuti.
2d. N-stems with Historical Nasal Vowel. Vadnu, vadnuti.
TYPES 3 TO 6. VOWEL-STEMS
3a . E-stems. Present in !, Infinitive in -It or -ieti representing Com-
mon Slavonic ·.!ti, and ··ljati. Hovlju, hov/ti; rdlJu s!. rdieti s/j
mipJu, rnlJ/li.
3b • I-E.stems. Present in i, Infinitive in ·Iti or ·ieti. Vhu, vidltij botu•
hdieti.
4· I.stems. Present in i, Infinitive in ·iti. Voiu, vo{.ili.
5· A-stems. Present in aJ, Infinitive in ·ali. If derived from Corn·
mon Slavonic ·-jaj·, ·.jan present tense in IJ, infinitive in ·Iti.
DIlaju, dllati; sadJu, stkl ti.
6a. U.V·stems. Present in uJ, Infinitive in -ovati. Kupuju, kupovati.
6b. U.V.stems. Present in iJ, Infinitive in ·evati. KraliJu, kralevati.
7. ANOMALOUS VERBS
147. THE lE ASPECTUAL CHARACTER OF
OLD CZECH VERBS (Cf. § J6)
Ve{.u, vl{,tij btru, brati. Verbs with base-vowel e are durative·pro.
gressive, occasionally also descriptive.
wo MORPHOLOGY VERBS 101
mu, Fieri; jmu, jilti; tro, tfitti. The loss of base·vowel is due to the Jsem, bjti; ddm, ddti;jiem,jiesti; vitm and vldl, vldlti; diem, ditti;jmdm,
forward displacement of stress from root to stem, a feature of lE jmieti. These are the only verbs with the inflection -m consistently
mi-verl» and of the lE future exemplified in Greek -'wo Whatever maintained in the first sing. of the present tense. Historically
the origin of the Czech fann! they arc of instantaneow aspect. verbs with base-vowel e and with the athematic inftectiOIl5 (lE
Such verbs formerly displayed a long vowel in the aomt; ODe such ·-mi, -si, .ti) underwent stress displacement in the dual and plural,
vowel is retained in Old Czech flch 'I said' . a practice limited to one Old Czech verb, viz. jl.lt 'is', contrast
2nu, litti; ttfu, wati. Iotacism indicates intennittent aspect. With jskl 'they both are', and jm 'they are'. Verbs without a base·
base-vowel t the verb is both intermittent and durative-progres- vowel e and with the m·inflection of the first person singular are of
sive. various origins. Ddm 'will give' has cognate forms in Lithuanian,
tiDU.liti; kryju, krjti; Iiju, Uti. The base-vowel is in long-zero grade, a Greek, Sanskrit, and Armenian; jm4m 'I have' is an intensive
feature indicating either permanent aspect or lack of time-aspect. fonn of the verb jmu, jieti 'take'; jiem 'I eat' and ditm 'I say' are
This is also true of some Germanic strong verbs of class 11 with from lE ·1dmi (OLith. ldmi) and ·dhl-mi (Hitt. tlmi) respectively;
base-vowel Q. viem '1 know' is from a perfect tense of lE type ·llOid1p(Gk. olBa,
Minu, minuti; stihnu, stihnuti; ronu, ronuti. lE nu-verbs denote acts Skt. veda, Eng. wot); the parallel form vUI is cognate with Lat.
of sudden change, and may be called 'instant-mutative' . vidi 'I saw'.
Schnu, schnutij moknu, moknUti. Derived from adjectives, of which a vICe. An isolated aorist ('quoth he') is related to Gk. El7TE, but the
limited number in lE displayed rin the nom. sing., n in the oblique vocalism is obscure.
cases. The verb took its stem from the oblique cases, thus Gk.
~,a.pos beside ,""all/w, Aurapas- beside AI.1Tall/w, OIce!. vakr beside 148. Vedu, vlsti ' lead, bring'
vakna, OCz. mokrj beside moktw, kyprj beside kynu, with Iou of p. ASIGHATIC StOMATIC
Rdlju si, rdieti si. Verbs of this type are called by A. Meillet 'verbs of PRESEN"T lMPElU'ECT AOIUST AORIST
state'. The base is in zero-grade, and the verb lacks time-aspect.
SING. ~du wduch "d vede,k
Dllo,ju, dllati. A-stems fall into two categories (see § 16). That of
0 ~d.J uedie1e ",u ~,u
dllati is denominative, or derived from a noun.
3 ",u veduIe ",d, ",u
Volaju, uolali; repcu, reptati. A large group of 'ejaculative' or onoma-
DUAL I ",,uol rMdiuhovl "dool rMdahoDl
topoeic verbs, many of which display iotacism (intennittent
aspect) in the present tense. 0 ",uta rMdie1ta ",uta tJldeJta
Vku, uidlti, bzu, Midi. A small group with 'static' or 'sensory' aspect. 3 ",uta vedie1ta ",,uta ~d<sta
PLUR. I vedem (-e, :1) vediedUJm wdom (-<.:1) wdalwm
Volu, voditi; hoscu, hostiti; stllu, stUiti; -wlu, -lolili; (mod.) lvitoFiti.
Though identical in fonn, verbs of this type embody four 0 ",,uk uedieIte ",uk ",d<sk
3 otdu veduchu vedu vtdechu
categories: (I) iterative; (2) denominative; (3) factitive, and (4),
mainly in the modem language, onomatopoeic.
IMPERATIVE
Sklju, sklti; -vdllju, -vdllli. Here belong long-grade factitives of
progressive aspect with analogues in Sanskrit. The final consonant SING. 0 otdi, vet!
of the Old Czech base is iotacized. DUAL I vet/vi, vetlua (idlvl,jdlva)
Kupuju, kupovati; kraliju, kralevatij (mod.) meduju, medovati. A type of 0 ",ata (id/ta)
verb with threefold aspect: (I) habitual, (2) functional, and (3) PLUR. I vedlm, vetlnu, ut/my (idlm, At, :y)
denominative. 0 "ak (id/k)
10. MORPHOLOGY
VERBS 103
ACTIVE PARTICIPLE: rnase. and neut. ueda; fern. vtduci; plur. vedtkl,
ANALYSIS
PASSIVE PARTICIPLE: mase. veden, fern. tJtdena, neut. vtdt1l1J; rnase. plur.
vtdtni, fern. plur. vedeT!)l. neut. plur. vedtna. bledu 'twaddle'; inf. bUsti. peku 'care'; 2nd sing. peW; iof.
PAST PARTICIPLE A8S0LUTE: mase. and neut. ved; fern. ved1i; plur.
bodu 'stab'; as. aor. hod (Alex. plci.
vedI,. 3rd dual bodela); inf. b6sti. slku 'cut'; 2nd sing. sllel; inf.
INFINITIVE: vhti. FUTURE INFINITIVE: DeSI.
hlebu 'bury'; inf. hllsti. sied.
COMPOUNDING PARTlCIPLF.: vedl, oedla, vedlOj plur. vedli, uedry, rledla.
hudu 'play on instrument'; inf. skubu 'pluck'; inf. skUrti.
hUsh. stFihu 'shear'; ~nd sing. stfileJ; as.
Verbs whose base e nds in a velar arc subject to the first palatalization kladu 'put'; inf. kids/i. aor. stfih; inf. stfld.
(see § gS), hence Ptku. 'I bake'. second pen. sing. puel, third pers. molw 'can'; 2nd sing. mlSle!; 3rd vtdu 'lead'; as. aor. ved; s. aor.
sing. pile, etc. Under similar conditioru r is dentalized. thus bnu 'I sing. "wt, mAle; imper. (po_) vtduh; inf. vbti.
take'. second sing. blfe1, etc. mod 'hdp'; inf. mcci. ve~u 'convey'; as. aor. ve~; inf.
The sigmatism of the past tenses (ch, ! and $) is held to derive
from lE .s.though the details of evolution are not clear. The sig-
matic aorist of Old Czech is historically equivalent to that of Greek
nesu 'carry'; as. aor. ntf; s. aor.
nesech; inf. nisti.
vlsti, vI~ti.
vladu 'rule'; jnf. vLdsti.
padu 'fall'; as. aor. pad; in£. ptisti. vleku 'drag'; 2nd sing. vieW; as.
(thus piuch 'I sailed' = Gk. €7TAEvua), and is reflected in the Latin pietu 'weave'; inf. pUsti. aor. vieA:; jnf. vUd. Similarly
sigmatic perfects of type vixi, rlxi, vixi,jfiixr, and in Sanskrit d-viik/am. peku 'bake'; 2nd sing. peleI; inf. obieku 'don'.
But the Indo-European durative aspect of the sigmatic aorist (OCz. plci.
vtdech) and the instant aspect of the asigmatic aorist (OCz. Dtd) is a
distinction without validity in Old Czech, and the two forms of the :150. lb. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE bem, brdJi
aorist, if they survive, are interchangeable.
beru 'take'; Lat.fero 'bear': Eng. deru 'flay': Gk. S'pw, id.: Eng.
The Asigmatic Aorist, or aorist without s-like extensions, once
bear. kM.
denoted instant aspect (cf. Gk. €fJaAolI). The base vowel was for-
lenl'devour': Lat. ooro, id. ltnu 'drive', cf. Gk. 8EWW 'kiU':
merly long in all forms except the second and third pers. sing.; this
Eng. win.
is clear from the evidence ofOCS and other lE languages. Hence the
fevu 'rage': Lat. ruo 'roar'.
short vowd (e) of the Old Czech aorist must be accounted non-
historical and due to analogy. ANALYSIS
It is convenient to classify Old Czech verbs under seven maio beru 'take'; 2nd sing. bUd; impf. deru 'flay, pluck, plunder'; in£:
headings according to the forms assumed by the Present Tense and hefiech, hrdch; s. aor. brach; drdti.
the Infinitive. imper. befi, ba; act. part. bera; peru 'beat, wash'; inf. prdti.
pass. part. brdn; ab!. brav; inf. few 'roar, rage'; inf. fvdti.
149. la. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE ve~u, ulsti brdti; cpd. part. hral. ienu 'drive'; inf. Imdti.
,(eru 'devour; io£ ,(rdti.
ve~u 'convey'; Lat. vehO, id. hodu 'stab', cf. Lat.fodio 'dig'.
pasu 'tend': Lat. pa.sco, id. plttu 'weave': Lat. piecM, id.
peku 'bake': Lat. coquo, id.: Gk. padu 'fall', cf. Gk. Tr'IJ8&.w'leap' :15:1. IC . PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE stflhu, stfilCl'
7T'7T"rW (with iotacism), id. (an a-stem like mod. Cz. stflhu 'watch, protect': Gk. crdpyw 'cherish'.
slku 'cut, mow', cf. Lat. seco, id. paddm). ANALY SIS
mohu 'can': Eog. may.
stflhu 'watch, protect'; 2nd sing. stflleI; inf. slfied.
 MORPHOLOGY VERBS 105
lhu 'burn'; 2nd sing.tbl; as. aor. ·leh, srd plur. (se-)lhU; act. part.
152. Id. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE sahu, sUd lM; pass part. (se-)aen; inf.llei.
matu 'stir, fester': Skt. mdntluimi 'stir, beat up': Lith. menliu 'beat up'.
-zabu 'freeze, chill': Skt. jambluimi 'snap at, rend', cf. DE dmb-ing 154. If. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPES [du, lddti; "ovu, .tvtUi
'clamping' .
"ouu 'call': Skt. Mve 'hail'. sleu 'twist': Lith. suK.U, id.
ANALYSU
ANALYSIS
-lahu 'lie down'; 2nd sing. hld; as. aor. 3rd dual hleta; imper. le.t;
abs. hh; inf. lid. sku 'twist'; 2nd sing. Jee!, llef; inf. skdti.
matu 'stir, fester'; 2nd sing. mite!; inf. mUsti. SSll 'suck'; inf. ssdti.
pladu 'spin'; 2nd sing. pIUe!; inf. pliesti. tku (2) 'weave'; 2nd sing. tld ; inf. tkdti.
sadu 'sit down'; 2nd sing. side!; as. aor. grd sing. v-sede; act. part. -l;OVU 'call'; 2nd sing. .tdvel; impf. "oviech and zvdth; imper. .tvi; act.
SaM; inf. siuti. part. .tovl and .tdva (mod. -l;va); pass. part . .tvdl'l; inf. .tvdtij cpd. part.
sahu 'grab'; 2nd sing. slle!; inf. sied. "val.
s-pfahu 'harness'; 2nd sing. s-pllle!; pass. part. s-plllen; inf. s-plled. idu 'wait'; impf.ldiech and lddch; imper.[di; act. part.lda; abs.ldav;
tahu 'pull'; 2nd sing. tile!; as. aor. 3rd sing. tile, grd plur. taM (inf. inf. lddti.
IdhnUti, tieWti). Modem Czech lhu 'tell lies'. inf. lMti is a dialectical usage not
tfasu 'shake'; 2nd sing. tFlse!j inf. tliuti. reflected in the older language (see Iotacized Presents, type I).
I74tU 'tie'; 2nd sing. vhe!; inf. viesti, vin;ti.
-.tabu 'freeze, chill'; 2nd sing. dbd; inf. .tUbsti.
155. Ig. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPES jmu, juti; pnu, pieti

153. le. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE fleu, IUci jmu 'take': Lith. imu, id.: Lat. emo 'take, buy'.
[mu 'squeeze', cf. Gk. Y€fl-W 'am full', Horn. yb7"o 'he grasped'.
brdu 'wade'. cf. Lith. bridimas 'fording', bristi 'to wade'. tnu 'cut'; Gk. fut. T€fl-W (inf. 'J"afl-€tll) beside 'T€P-IIW, id.
-tku 'touch', er. Gk. 'TVl(ttw 'chip (stone)'. mnu 'squeeze': Gk'IJ.IIMp..a, 'press, sue for': Lith. minu 'trample'.
ANALYSIS
pnu 'wind': Lith. pinu 'twist'.
dmu 'swell', cf. Lith. dumiu, dumti 'blow'.
brdu 'wade'; as. aor. bnd; inf. bRsti; cpd. part. rnasc. bfedl, fern. brdkJ.
etu 'read'; as. aor. lit; imper. etlj act. part. eta; in£ &ti; cpd. part. ANALYSIS

cell, masc. plur. etU.
"vu, ktve 'blossoms' (Srd sing.); impf. srd plur. kwuchu; as. aor. /evit;
inf. kufsli; cpd. part. kuetl, /evlll.
lieu 'say'; 2nd sing. Ilef, as. aor. grd sing. fele, grd plur. leleu; s. aor.
Ilch and fdechj imper. rei; act. part. flea; pass. part. leen; abs. Fek;
inf. flei, fieei; cpd. part. fekl, fern. fkla.
Jleytu 'offer'; inf. skysti.
-tleu (Gebauer tlu!) 'touch'; 2nd sing. tee!; inf. tlieti.
vrhu 'throw'; 2nd sing. vrlef; as. aor. srd plur. vrhu; inf. vrei .
•
dmu 'swell'; impf. tJmiech; s. aor. duch; act. part. dma; pass. part. dut;
abs. dem; inf. duti; cpd. part. dui.
jmu 'take'; impf.jiech; s. aor.jich; imper. ·jmi; act. part.jma; pass.
part. jat, masc. plur. j lti; ab!. jem; inf. jieti; cpd. part. jaI, masc.
plur.jlli.
kInu 'curse'; s. aor. khch; pass. part. klat; inf. kUti.
mnu 'squeeze'; inf. mieti.
ot-mu (cpd. ofjmu) 'take off'; inf. ot·ien.
pnu 'wind'; impf. pniech; s. aor. plch; imper. pnij act. part. pnaj pass.
106 MORPHOLOGY VERBS [07

part. piat, rnase. plur. plti; abs. pen; inf. Pidi; epd. part. pial, pal, 151. li. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE tepu, tepah
rnase. plur. pili.
po-bw 'begin'; irnpf. po-lniech; s. aor. po-llch; irnper. po-lni; act. part . tepu, tepah 'beat': Gk. fut. zohu, <;ohati 'eat': Skt.jahhe 'snap
• po-ll; pass. part. po-lat, rnase. plur. pollti; abs. po-len, po-lem, (St.) 'rV'1T'T1}O'w, id. at': Jr. gohaim 'peck'.
po-leu; inf. po-aeti; cpd. part. po-cal, mase. plur. po-llli. djmu, djmah 'smoke': Lat. flmo, "jlJU, kjvati 'nod': Latv. kDvlju
plijmu (cpd. ofjmu) 'receive'; inf. pnjieti. lire, id.; Skt. dhilmdyami, id., cf. 'caper'.
srjmu, senmu (epd. of jmu) 'take down'; impf. sniech; s. aor. sn/ch; Gk. Oup.w.w.
imper. .sqmi, .senmi; act. part. ·sejma, ·senma; pass. part. sr£at, These are believed to be the only primary labial presents in Old
rnasc. plur. mlti; abs. snem; inf. midi; cpd. part. snal. masc. plur. Czech. In the modem language the primary form of the present
snlli. tense is normal for a large number of bases ending in a labial (p, h,
Inu 'cut'; irnpf. tniech; s. aor. tlch; pass. part. (at; abs. ten; inf. tien; D, m). Chief of these are drhu, cMpu, chovu, klapu, kopu, kovu, kjvu,
cpd. part. (ai, rnasc. plur. Illi. klamu, Mmu, plavu, sdpu, sypu, skFfpu, Hapu, !"rahu, tapu, and zohu, all
ve<;mu (cpd. ofjmu) 'take'; impf. v.{;iuh; s. aor. vdch; imper. ·vevni; with infinitive in -ati.
act. part. l7e<;ma; pass. part. v<;at; abs. v<;em; inf. v.{;idi; cpd. part.
vUlI, masc. plur. vdU. 158. Ij. PRIMARY V-PRESENTS, TYPE lilJU, llti
lmu 'squeeze'; inf. lieti. livu 'live': Lat. viviJ, id. s[ovu 'am called': Lat. clueo, id.:
For tnu, [ieti 'harvest' see Iotacized Presents 11. plovu 'sail' ; Lat. pluiJ 'rain': Gk. Gk. l('Al.w 'glorify'.
'TrAI.w 'sail, float'.
156. lh. PRIMARY PRESENTS, TYPE tru, tfieti ANALYSIS
plevu 'weed'; s. aor. plech; act. part. pleva (St.); pass. part. plen, plet;
dru 'rend, torment': Gk. fut. S~pw SiTU'scatter', cf. Lat. stralli beside ab!. plev; inf. pllti; cpd. part. pIel.
'tear'. sterna, id. plovu 'sail'; 2nd sing. plOve!, plove!; s. aor. pluth; inf. plun; cpd. part.
tru 'rub', cf. Lat. trivi beside uriJ mru 'die': Lat. morior. pM.
id.: Gk. npl.w 'bore'. slovu 'am called'; 2nd sing. slQve!, slove!; impf. slovieth; inf. stun; cpd.
ANALYSIS part. slul.
lru 'draw (water),; 2nd sing. UtI; inf. CFieti. CIJU 'live'; s. aor. 3rd sing. live; act. part. liva; pass. part. (in com-
dru 'rend, torment'; 2nd sing. dfd; impf. dfiech; S. aor. dflch; imper. pounds) -lit; inf. ltti; cpd. part. lil.
dfi; act. part. dra; pass. part. dUn; abs. dflv; inf. dneti; cpd. part. dfll. Here belongs the isolated spu 'scatter, pour'; impf. spiech; S. aor.
mru 'die'; 2nd sing. mfe! (as dru, dYe!, q.v.); inf. mfieti; cpd. part. such; act. part. spa; pass. part. sut; abs. suv; inf. sUti, which, though
u-mYIl, u-mrl. not a v-present, has all the features of [ivu, ltn. The fonn feIJU 'roar',
pru si 'fight'; 2nd sing. pfe! si (as dru, dfe!, q.v.); inf. pfieti si. inf. fvdti has an alternative infinitive !Uti.
o-pru 'prop'; 2nd sing. o-pfeJ (as dru, dfe!, q.v.)j inf. o-plieti.
stru 'scatter'; 2nd sing. slfe! (as dru, dfe!, q. v.); pass. part. (pro-)strt; 159. Ik. j-PRESENTS WITH OPEN RADICAL, TYPE Iiju, Jln
inf. stneti.
tru 'rub'; 2nd sing. Ife! (as dru, dfe!, q.v.); inf. tfieti. Adjective: trtj. haju 'tell': Lat. inf. fori 'speak, pi}u, piu 'drink': Gk. fut. 7Tlop.a.t.,
vru 'boil'; 2nd sing. life! (as dm, die!, q.v.); inf. ufieti. tell'. id.
-!ltU (in compounds) 'open, close'; 2nd sing. -life! (as dru, dfe!, q.v.) : riju 'sow': Eng. sow. -t-uju 'take off' (shoes): Lat. ex-uo
inf. -meti. ziju 'yawn': Lat. hia, id. 'doff'.
.08 MORPHOLOGY .. . VERBS 109

ANALYSIS
lIJW~ 11~, tu 'p?ur'; 2nd sing: lijel, lid. teI; s. aOT. liell; pass. part. (mod.)
Id; 1nf. Uht cpd. part. Id (alternative to le}u, q.v.).
Second Person Singular -ajel piju. piu 'drink~; 2nd sing. pijeJ, pi4/; pass. part. (mod.) pit; in£. petit
baju 'tell'; ~nd sing. baje!; inf. bdti; cpd. part. bdl. cpd. part. pol.
jhraju 'play'; 2nd sing.jhrajd; inf.jhrdti; cpd. part.jhrdl. Ii}u, 1;ju 'sew'; 2nd sing. Jijel, Jj4I; pass. part. (mod.) lit; inf.llti; cpd.
laju 'scold'; ~nd sing. laje!; impf. lajiech; s. aor. l(Uh; imper. laj; act. part. fil.
part. lajl; inf. ldti; cpd. part. ldl. viju, r:iu ·weave. pl~it'; 2nd sing. m]e!, ujtJ; pass. part. (mod.) vi'; inf.
vlh; cpd. part. VII.
Second Penon Singular -Ijd
dlje si, Srd sing. 'happens'; impf. die!e si; inf. diet; si; cpd. ddlo si (cf.
Second Penon Singular -f"jd
modern Czech z-ddti se komu 'to seem'). kluju 'peck'; 2nd sing. k{ujd; pass. part. kludn; inf. kludli; cpd. part.
hllju 'warm'; ~nd sing. hfljel; s. aor. hllch; pass. part. hlln (mod. Idual.
hldt); abs. hflf!; inf. hlieti (mod. hfdl, hldti); cpd. part. MII (mod. btu}u 'vomit'; 2nd sing. hlujeJ; in£. blvtfti.
h140· Second Person Singular -ujd
dulju (si) 'tremble'; 2nd sing. chrJIjd (si); inf. chuieti (si) (mod. cholt se) .
Zuju 'sense'; 2nd sing. lujd; impf. lujiech; s. aor. [ucA; int. hiti.
kju 'pour'; ~nd sing.lrJe!; impf. lejiech; pass. part. (mod.) lit; inf. Uti.
ob-wju 'put on (shoes)'; 2nd sing. ob-uje1; in£. ob-uti.
o-kflju 'recuperate'; 2nd sing. o-kfljd; inf. o-kfieti (mod. o-kf41).
fuju 'roar' (variant offtvu, tb).
plju 'sing'; 2nd sing. plje!; inf. pieti (mod. poetic Plti).
.t-u)u 'take off' (shoes)'; 2nd sing. ~-ujel; inf. -tout;.
pflju 'wish'; 2nd sing.pfljd; imper. pflj; act. part. pfljl; inf. pReti luju 'chew'; inf. lodti.
(mod. pfdt); cpd. part. *1'11, and (Alex.) 1'41.
slju 'sow'; ~nd sing. sljd; s. aor. slch; imper. slj; pass. part. (mod.) Second Penon Singular -yjel
set; inf. sieti (mod. sit, sfti); cpd. part. sll, sie!. kryju 'cover'; ~nd sing. kryjd; s. aor. kryd; imper. tryj; pass. part.
smlju si 'laugh'; ~nd sing. smJjel si; inf. !mitti si (mod. smdt se); cpd. kryt; abs. kry!!; inf. !Tjt;.
part. smdl si, mase. plur. smlli si. myju 'wash'; ~nd sing. myjd; pass. part. myt; inf. mjti.
splju 'prosper'; ~nd sing. spljel; impf. spljiech; s. aor. splch; imper. nyju 'languish'; ~nd sing. nyjd; inf. njti.
sp/j; inf. spUn (mod. spit) . ryju 'dig'; ~nd sing. ryjd; inf. rjti.
vlje, srd sing. 'blows'; pass. part. (mod.) .ca-vtH; inf. men. tyju 'get fat'; 2nd sing. tyjd; inf. ryti.
dju 'yawn'; 2nd sing. ·djd; inf. zuti. vyju 'howl'; ~nd sing. vyje1; inf. vjti.
There is considerable fluctuation in the forms of the compounding
participle, a factor which is reflected in the modem dialects (!mU St 160. xl. j-PRESENTS WITH CLOSED RADICAL
TYPE ttlu, Usati
•
for !mal se, etc.-see Appendix C). Note however the apparent
correspondence between !mal si and R. oxytonic smljdlsa on the one lelu (si) 'comb (hair)': Hitt. ofu 'plough': Lat. ar6, id.
hand, and between sll, siel and R. barytonic slJal on the other. Iwaimi, id. fehcu 'neigh': Lat. ncto'howl' .
jlkcu 'howl', cf. Lat. jacto 'boast'. stefu 'prepare, spread': Gk.
Second Person Singular -ijd, -jU krdkofu 'croak': Gk. KapKatpw u-rl),),w 'prepare, equip'.
-biju, -biu 'beat'; ~nd sing. -bijd, -bie!; s. aor. bich; pass. part. (mod.) 'resound'. lem 'shape, carve' : Lat. ud
bit; inf. -btti; cpd. part. -bil. Iflu 'lick': Lith. lieb'iJ, id. 'build, weave'.
hniju, Mu 'rot'; ~nd sing. hniJe!, hik!; inf. hniti; cpd. part. hnil. Ifu 'tell lies' : Eng. lie.
no MORPHOLOGY VERBS In

ANALYSIS 161. 2a. n~STEM S WITH n THROUQHOUT,

lUll 'comb (hair), ; inf.lesati.
tfjlu 'breathe'; inf. djelwti.
hrylu 'gnaw'; inf. luyzati.
jlk&u 'howl'; inf.jlktati.
kalllI 'cough'; 2nd sing. kaIldj
inf. "aI/an.
kaIu 'subdue'; inf. kasati.
kdiu 'show, order, punish'; inr.
kkati,
-"lutu 'slip'; inf. klrltati.
kofu 'stab'; 2nd sing. kdld; in[
kUti.
krdJcofu 'croak'; inf. kTlfkorati.
kfeIu 'strike fire'; inf. "f,sali.
litu 'lick'; s. aOf. hachj act. part.
liO; inf. ll.cati; cpd. part. kal.
pUu 'write'; inr. psati. TYPE minu, min,ui
pldlu 'weep'; inf. plakati.
mlllu 'pass': Skt. mioomi 'stray' ronu 'tumble, crash': Gk. OPVUfU
pldpo!u 'flame'; inr. pldpolati.
(short base-vowel). 'stir, dash'_
po!u 'burn'; act. part. plajl (St.) ;
inf. pl4ti, pouti. ANALYSIS
pylu 'atone'; inf. pykati. minu 'pass'; impf. minuch; s. aor. minuch; inf. minuti.
fehcu 'neigh'; inf. fehtati. otpotinu 'rest': s. aor. otpoCinuch; act. part. olpotina; inf. otpoCinuli.
rlu 'neigh'; inf. r.tati.
fUu 'cut'; inf. fl{.ati.
sktilu 'jump'; inf. sWati. 162. 2b. n-STI!.M S IN PRESENT AND INFINITIVE . MAINLY
stelu 'prepare, spread'; 2nd sing. VELAR BASES, TYPE stihnu, stihnuti
steleJ; inf. stUti.
stihnu 'catch, reach': Skt. stighnomi 'step up, mount' (short base-
stOnu 'groan'; act. part. sMnl; inf.
vowel) .
stonali.
fieVlu 'cut': Gk. PWIJup., 'break'.
po-stTUlu 'slice'; inf. po-str&ti.
!elu, !lu 'send'; 2nd sing. !le!; ANALYSIS

Uu (late Ihu, Che1~.) 'lie'; ioC. inf. slati. stihnu 'catch, reach'; as. aor. 3rd sing. stile; inf. stihnuti.
lhdti. te1u. 'shape, carve'; inf. tuati. moknu 'get wet'; inf. mokruiti.
matu 'sme:u '; inr. mazati. titiu (si) 'ask'; s. aor. tt!tilCh (si); tisknu 'press'; impf. tiskniech; as. aor. tisk; s. aor. tilledl, tisknuch; pass.
mtCU 'throw'; inf. 17Iltati. imper. o-tlt (si); inf. ttkati (si). part. tilltn; ab!. tisk; inf. tisknuti; cpd. part. tiskl.
milu 'waste away'; inf. milan. treskcu 'punish'; inf. tresktati. kknu si 'start, jump; break (of dawn)'; as. aor. lek si (3rd plur. kku
ofu 'plough'; inr. orati. vietu 'tie'; imper. vU; inf. ua{.ati. si, Alex.); s. aor.lelechsl; inf.leknuti si; cpd. kkl si. A fonner nasal-
pafu 'root up'; inf. parati, based verb with vowel-fronting generalized by analogy. The
expected forms would be ·l4knu si, kkmI si in the present tense.
ISOLATED FORM S
mknu 'lock'; s. aor. mlech; inf. mkruiti; cpd. part. wki, fern. mkla.
lftu 'harvest'; pass. part. lat; abs.len; inf. luti. schnu 'wither'; as. or s. aor. sech, 3rd plur. seM; inf. sehnuti.
melu 'grind'; 2nd sing. mekI; inf. mUti. uvlvihnu si 'rise'; abs. v.tdvih si (St.); inf. u.tduihnuti.
vdu 'command'; 3rd sing. vele, and veil; s. aor. IItleehj inf. veleti. tknu 'touch'; s. aor. tfeeh; inf. tknuti (and tluti; see le); cpd. part.
polu 'bum'; inf. poleh (3b) besidepUti. ukl, fern. tkla.
",biu 'move'; 2nd sing. hjbt1; inf. hjbati. trhnu 'tear'; s. aor. utech; inf. Irknuli,
Sporadic iotacism in labial bases is limited to the first person singular. vniknu 'enter'; as. aor. vnik; s. aor. lJnilech; io£ lJnikruiti.
For the rest verbs of this type are indistinguishable from the primary kfiknu 'shout'; as. aor. kfik; inf. kflknuti.
labial presents (d.). J-tuknu 'am sad'; as. aor. s-tuk; inf. s-tuknuti.
vyknu 'get accustomed'; as. aor. vyk, 2nd and 3rd sing. vyle; pass.
part. v)'len; inf. !!>,knuti.
Non-velar bases (mVlUti) display no unusual features.
 MORPHOLOGY VERBS

163. 2C. n-STEMS WITH LOST LABIAL, TYPE ~nu, hynuti 165. sa. e-STEMs, TYPE (I) MvljU, Mvlti:
rdliu si, rduti si. (2) mijliu, mijlti
hnu si 'move'; as. aor. heb si, 3rd sing. hbe si; s. aor. /much si: inf.
hnuti si; cpd. part. hnul si. (1) hovliu (komu) 'favour': Lat. lIkiu'regret': Gk. 8'Tj'l\iop.a,
hynu 'perish'; as. aor. hyb; s. aor. hynuch; inf. hynuti. javeo, id. 'harm'.
kynu 'swell, rise'; s. aor. kynuchj inf. kynuti. Loss of p implied by a rdliu si 'blush' : Lat. rubeo, id. (2) mijlju 'pass': Lat. meD, meare
parallel verb kyplti 'effervesce'. 'go'.
tonu 'drown'; as. aor. top: s. aor. «much; inf. tonuti. The distinguishing feature of e-stems as opposed to j-presents with
u-snu 'fall asleep'; as. aor. u-sep: s. aor. u-snluhj inf. u-muti. open radical (Ik) is in the remaining persons of the present tense,
.t-trnu 'stiffen: suffer; am taken aback'; inf. .t-tmu.ti. Loss of p implied which are:
by a parallel verbal-noun trplnie 'rigor'. Sing. hovid, hovie: Dual hovievl, hovieta, hovieta; Plur. hoviem, Mviete,
hovliu.
164. 2d. n-STEMS WITH HISTORICAL NASAL VOWEL, Contrast the open radical present in:
TYPE vadnu, vadnUij Sing. pfliel, pflje; Dual pfljevl, pfljeta, pfljeta; Plur. pfljem, pfljeu,
pfliu.
chfadnu 'wither'; 2nd sing. chfldneI (3rd sing. cMldM in St. ttNS): This contrast is maintained in the modem language where we find
inf. cMadnuti. hoviJ in contrast to pfeieI. The only other distinguishing feature is that
lahnu 'lie down': 2nd sing. lehneI; as. aor. 3rd plur, laM; inf, lahnuti in j-presents with ComSI. infinitive in "-Jati the compounding
(beside lici, see Id). participle ends in -cll, thus pfcll in contrast to hovll.
sadnu 'sit down'; 2nd sing. sldnel: inf. sadnuti.
tcllmu 'pull': 2nd sing. tiehne!; impf. tielmiech; as. aor. tah, 2nd and 3rd ANALYSIS
sing. tUe; s. aor. tl1.echj imper. tiehni: act. part, tdhna; pass. part. blltju 'get white'; 2nd sing. mijlju 'pass'; 2nd sing. mliul; inf.
tUen; abs. tdh, fern. tieh.fi: inf. tclhnuti; cpd. part. Mhl, masc. plur. blliel; inf. blkti. mijlti.
tiehli. clltju 'get whole': 2nd sing. rdlju si 'blush'; 2nd sing. rdie! si;
vadnu 'wither': 2nd sing. vldne!; inf. vadnuli. clliel; inf. clkti. inf, rdieti si.
vknu 'get stuck'; 2nd sing. viezne1: as. aor.va,z, 2nd and srd sing. vhe; hovlju 'favour': 2nd sing. hoviel: smliu 'dare'; 2nd sing. smies; inf.
inf. vcl.tnuti. inf. Mvlti, smieti, smlti.
rJ.tpoT1UJnu 'remember'; 2nd sing, v<./Jamlnel; inf, v<./Jomanuti, h,dlju 'get brave'; 2nd sing, umliu 'am able': 2nd sing. umie!:
.tapoT1UJnu 'forget'; 2nd sing. ;:apomlneIj s. aor. .tapvmanuchj inf. h,dul; in[ hrdlti. inf, umlti.
;:apoT1UJnuti and .tapomnieti: cpd. part . .taporlUlnul and .tapomnll. Imliu 'get lazy'; 2nd sing. [mu!; lIleiu 'mourn, regret'; 2nd sing.
.tamane, 3rd sing. 'strikes; occurs'; inf. ;:amanuti. inf. knlti, lllid; inf, tllieti.
la.mu si 'am amazed'; 2nd sing.llsntl si; s. aor, las si, 2nd and 3rd mdltju 'get faint': 2nd sing,
sing. llse si; inf. lasnuti si. mdlieI: inf. mdliti.
NOTE ON sluIlti 'TO SUIT'
Strict historical phonology requires Common Slavonic I to appear as
a after 1 (see Phonology: lE i). This factor has given rise to sporadic
variants in the conjugation of sluIlti and similar words, which are
 114 MORPHOLOGY VERBS
otherwise like Iwulti. Thus the past part. abs. is sluJau, fern . sluJluli; absolute, infinitive, and compounding participle have acquired the
the cpd. part. is sluJal, masc. plur. sluJlli. Similarly slyllti 'to hear'. vowel a by historical contraction. They are stoju, stdti 'stand'. hoju si,
NOTE ON dun 'TO SAY' bati le 'fear', and spju, spat; 'sleep'.
By the rule which requires Slavonic 1 to a ppear as a after l, I, and l
Dieti has an archaic present tense 1St person sing. diem; otherwise it is
certain modifications take place in i-e-stems whose base ends in these
like Multi.
phonemes. Thus past part. abs. Icfilau, sIylao, hlbw, compounding
NOTE ON sdzlti 'TO PLANT'
participle kfilal, sly/aI, hUal. Contrast the forms of trplli, viz. trplv,
Historically this verb, with other long-grade factitives of similar type "pll.
(wadt; 'to return', etc. ), belongs among the a-stems (5a) where it is
usually placed by grammarians. Its sole distinguishing features are: ANALYSIS
pass. part. slkdn (contrast umln); mase. plur. sadni. bElu 'run'; 2nd sing. bEllI; impf. bUied; s. aor. hit/ch; abs. b/tau, fern.
abs. slkau (contrast urnlv); fern. sddvIi. bllJvIi; inf. bUlti; cpd. part. bUal, rnasc. plur. blllli.
cpd. part. sdzal (contrast umll); rnasc. plur. slklli. bzu 'watch, lie awake'; 2nd sing. bdlI; inr. Mieti.
Otherwise this type follows the conjugation of the e-stems. drlu 'hold'; 2nd sing. drlLJ; abs. drlav, fern. drOvE; inf. dr1.1ti; cpd.
part. drlal, masc. plur. dr1.1li.
166. 3b. j-e-ST£MS. PRESENT TENSE IN -i-; Iwfu 'bum'; 2nd sing. 1w1lJ; act. part. hoFl, fern. he'i" i (contrast the
INFINITIVE IN M~ti, ~ieti, TYPE vizu, mdlti; bzu, Milti mod. adj. Iwroud); inf. hoflt;.
kfitu 'shout'; 2nd sing. kfilU; abs. kfilau, fern. kfillvli; inf. kfillti; cpd.
vieu 'see': Lat. IlideD, id. trpiu 'endure; oblige': Skt. trPyiimi part. Wal, rnasc. plur. /cfillli.
se~u 'sit': Lat. sedeD, id. 'experience, enjoy'. lecu 'fly'; 2nd sing. htlI; inf.letlli.
lelu 'lie': Eng. lie. bzu 'watch, am awake': Skt. lelu 'lie'; 2nd sing. le1.U; abs.leiao, fern. lellvIi; inf. leU/i; cpd. part.
bUdhyami, id. lelal, rnasc. plur. leUli.
The i-e-stems are intermediate between the e-stems and the i-stems mllu 'am silent'; 2nd sing. mlllJ; abs. mllau, fern . mlllvJi; inf. mlllti;
(type 4). The forms which resemble those of the i-stems are as cpd. part. mlla!, rnase. plur. mill/i.
follows: mnu 'hold the view, think'; 2nd sing. mnU; inf. mnieti.
The Present Tense: nlu 'wane'; 2nd sing. nzi1; inf. nzieti.
SlNOULAR DUAL PLURAL sezu 'sit'; 2nd sing. sediJ; inf. sedlli.
trPiu trplol, trpilHl trplm (-e.-y) sipju 'hiss'; 2nd sing. SlpLJ; inf. sip/li.
trplI trplto trplle sfy1u 'hear'; 2nd sing. sfyJU; abs. slylav, fern . sfyIloli; inf. sfyllh; cpd.
trpl "pita trpie part. sfylal, rnase. plur. sfyIlli.
s!>'zu si 'am ashamed'; 2nd sing. stydl1 si; inf. stydlti.
The Imperative: trpi, trp; the active participle: trpl, fern. trpieei; the tltu 'work, exploit'; 2nd sing. tltl1; inf. tll,lti; cpd. part. tltal, mase.
past part. absolute: trpio. The remaining forms are those of houlti, plur. tltl/i.
type 3a. trPiu 'endure; oblige'; 2nd sing. trpU; inr. trplti.
Vidlti 'to see' has the following unusual forms: imper. viz; act. part. lliJu 'hang', intr.; 2nd sing. visIJ; inf. uislti.
vida, fern. vidUci. Contrast the corresponding analysis of sedlti: imper. vizu 'see'; 2nd sing. vidiJ; impf. vidi"h; imper. viZ (late via); act. part.
stdi; act. part. sedl, fern. sedieei. Three isolated verbs in -dei have the vida (compounds -vidl); pass. part. vidln; abs. oidlv; inf. llidlh; cpd.
present tense of type 3b though their sigmatic aorist, past participle part. vidli.
,,6 MORPHOLOGY VERBS "7
or," 'surround'; 2nd sing. ort!!; inf. twllt;.
tv..ru 'resound, ring'; 2nd sing. .eMU; inf. .tflfllti. 168. 5. PRESENT IN -a}, INfiNITIVE IN -ati, TYPE

tfu 'espy'; 2nd sing. dI1; inf. dUti. dlllJju, dlllJtj, VARIANT skl}u, siLtlli
vltaju 'welcome': Lat. in-viM po-spUchDju 'hasten': Lat. sperD 'hope',
ANOMALOUS PORMS IN -ati 'entertain, invite', s/daju 'fight': Lat. sldO 'quell, allay'.
ba)u sl'fear'j ~:znd sing. bojU si; impf. "oju",. si; s. ao •• blkh si; impel".
boj si; act. part. bo}1 si; ab5. bdo si; inf. bdti si; cpd. btfl si. ANALYstS
spju, IPiu 'sleep'; 2nd sing. spU; impf. splkh, srd sing. spd!, (Alex.); Present tense:
s. aor. Sptu"; imper. spit act. part. spl; inf. spdti; cpd. part. spal. SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
staju 'stand'; :md sing. swjlJ; impf. stojiuh and sttkh; s. aor. slikh; dllaju dlMd dlldm (-', ,,)
imper. std}; act. part. swjl; pass. part. impersonal stdnoj inf. stdti; dll41 diU.. dlldu
cpd. part. stdl. dlld diU.. dllaju
Imperfect dllajiech and dlldchj sigmatk aomt dllach, 2nd and srd
167. 4. i-STEMS. PRESENT TENSE IN -i-, INJlINITIVE IN sing. dllaj imper. dllajj act. part. dllaj/j pass. part. dlldn; abs. dllavj
-iti, TYPE /Jolu, oodti inf. dllatij cpd. part. dllal. Thus QUlju, .tndti 'know' and many
more.
slllu 'bring, lead': Gk. G'TO'X'W o-lenu si 'get lazy': Lat. llni6
The variant of type sWju, sd.tlti is usually included within the
'proceed in fonnation', 0'r0'- 'soften'.
a-stem! because of its derivation from the Common Slavonic type
X',w 'plant in rows'. po-hku 'gulp down': Lat. gluriD,
in ·-jati. Nevertheless the only a-stem fonns of type stklti are the
ua.tU 'egg on'; Gk. w8l.w, clJ8i,w, id.
passive participle stkdn, mase. plur. stk'imi, the past participle
id. po-hoscu 'entertain': Lat. MsnD
absolute sik;ao, fern. stLd/JJi, and the compounding participle .rdzal,
po-lolu 'set,lay': Eng.lay. 'treat as a stranger'.
rnase. plur. stklli. All other fonns are identical with those of the
M. 'm..' (St. Bit 66), QI,d. skoFu 'hasten': Gk. CTKatpw,
e-stems (type sa). Here belong bljlti 'to thrash', luklti 'to throw',
btrja 'strike'.
ot-ndllri 'to carry off', oy-cluklti 'to walk', fl,J-fJrdvlti 'to relate', o-tdllti
DOlu 'cart, convey': Gk. &X1w, id.
'to turn', and other verbs of similar vocalism and aspect.
The present tel1!e is identical with that of the i-e-stems. The group
includes historical factitives, frequentatives, denominatives, and a
169. 6a. U-V-STEMS. PRESENT IN -uj-, INFINITIVE IN
few onomatopoeic formations, and the base-vowel ftequendy reflects
-ovati, TYPE kupuju, kupooaJi, V ARJANT kuju, kovati
IEoor6.
ANALYSIS ·suhuju 'stitch': Gk. ·CT'T'YEVW ·u-bytuju, 'lodge': Gk. tPlJff.VW
'tattoo' (G'TtyEVs- 'tattooer'). 'cultivate'.
urdcu 'return'; 2nd sing. urdtl1j impf. urdtiechj s. aor. urdtieh, 2nd and
Srd sing. urdti; imper. uratij act. part. urdtlj pass. part. urddn; abs. ANALYSIS
urdtiv; inf. urdtitij cpd. part. urdtil. Prrsent Tense:
mylfu 'think'; 2nd sing. mysll1; impf. mysllch; s. aor. myslith; imper. SINGULAR DUAL PLURAL
tlrysli; act. part. mysle; inf. mysliti. kupuju kupujeol kupujem (-e,:y)
b'lu si 'grin' ; 2nd sing. {yd.! si; act. part. {yd si; inf. lyeti si. kupuje! kupujela kupujete
kupuje kupujeta kupuju
 ,,8 MORPHOLOGY VERBS "9
Imperfect kupovdch, s. aorist kupovach; impeL kupu}; act. part. hpuj/; DUAL sfJl,jsvi, biuhove MeMoI, bwkol bdel
pass. part. kupovdnj inf. kupovatij cpd. part. kupocal.
The types kuju, kovati 'forge', srwju, SMaati 'twist', and suju, sovari
". bye/Will
sta,jsla biella hlsta, byskJ
(-M)
budeta but/la
'move' (with the historical vocalism of Gk. KCUW 'move') differ from sta,jsta bulla hlsta, bysta bwkta
type kupovali in the imperfect only. Thus kujiech stands in contrast to PLUR. sme.jS1lU bi,chom blchom, budem bud/m,
kupovdch, but the parallel form kovdch is frequent . This has the effect bychom (-<, -y) bw/=
of making type kovati identical with type kupavati. slt,j!te bie!tt bhte, byste Iwk~ bulte
sri,jm bitchu blchU, bychU budu budieehu
170. 6b. U~V-STEMS. PRESENT IN -ij-, INFINITIVE IN
Active participlejsaj future active participle buda; passive part. (in
-~vati, -evati, TYPE kraliju, kraievati
compounds) ~byt; past participle absolute byvj inf. bjti; cpd. part. byl.
*nociju, noclvati 'spend the night" cf. Gk. lIVKTEpnJw, id. Relative 2nd sing. les 'that thou art'.
stanu 'stand'j impf. stanUch, stach; s. aor. stach; imper. stani; active
ANALYSIS
part. SlaM; abs. stav; inf. stdu; cpd. part. stal. Compounds similarly.
kraliju'rule' (cf. Gk.{1aoLA€VW, id.); 2nd sing. kralijdj impf. krakf!dch; ddm, ddti (perfective) 'give'; 2nd sing. dM, 3rd. sing. dd; dual ddvl,
sig. aor. krakvach; imper. kralij; act. part. kralijl; pass. part. ddta; 3rd. plur. dadu ; impf. daduch; s. aor. dach; imper. daj; act. part.
(praclvdn); inf. kralevati; cpd. part. kraleval. daM; pass. part. ddn; abs. dav; cpd. part. daJ. Compounds similarly.
jiem,jiesti 'eat'; 2nd sing. j ul; 2nd plur .jieste and jute; 3rd. plur.jUie;
171. 7. ANOMALOUS VERBS impf.jUiech; s. aor. j lch; imper. jlz; 2nd plur.jlZle; act. part.jldo
and jUl; pass. part. jlden; abs. jld; cpd. part. jldl. Compounds
sem,jsem, inf. bjti 'am; be'; Lat. sum, perf.foE: OLith. esmi, inf. Mti. similarly.
stanu, stdti 'stand', er (with short vowel) Gk. iO'Tavw 'place', and mem, vUl'1 know'; 2nd sing. viel; 2nd plur. vieste and viete; 3rd plur.
Latin compounds de-stino, prae-stino, etc. vUie; impf. vldiech;s. aor.lJldlch; imper. vlz; 2nd p lur. vl;:;te; act. part.
ddm, ddti 'give': Lat. do, dare: OLith. duomi, id. vUa; pass. part. vldln; abs. vldl v; inf. vidlti; cpd. vldll. Compounds
jiem,justi 'eat': Lat. edo, id.: OLith. tfmi, id. similarly.
vUm, vldl'! know', er Gk. otoa 'I know' beside Lat. vidi 'I have seen', chcu and c!wcu, chtiel; 'wish'; 2nd sing. ehed; 3rd. sing. chee, chOu; ISt
veee 'quoth': Gk. Et'm:, id. dual ehevl , cheevl , chelJ(J, cheevaj 1St plur. chcmy, cheemy, etc.; 2nd
jdu,jtti 'go': Lith. judu, juditi 'move', cf. Skt.yUdhylimi 'go, fight'. plur. chete, cheete; 3rd plur. chtie; impf. ehtiech; s. aor. chUeh, dwtJch;
ANALYSIS imper. chtlj; act. part. chU; pass. part. chtJn; abs. chtJv; cpd. part.
chill.
The verb bjti
jdu, jiti 'go'; 2nd sing. jdeJ; impf. jdiech, diech; as. aor. jid; s. aor.
FU- HYPo~ IM- jidech; imper.jd;j act. part.jda; abs. led; cpd. part.lel, masc. plur.
PRESENT IMPF. S. AORIST TURE THETICAL PERATlVlt Ili. Compounds similarly.
SING. sem,jsem biech bech, hycft budu budiech jmdm, jmieti 'have'; 2nd sing. jmd1; impf. jmljiech, mljuch, jmiuh,
si,jsi bid(,) bl , by budel budi, but! miech; s. aor.jmlch; imper.jm{;; act. part.jmajl; pass. part. jmien;
jest,je,j, bul(e) bl,by lude budiele budi~l abs.jmlv; cpd. part.jmll. Alternative forms are milm, muti, etc.
neg. ueu 'quoth' is, like its English counterpart, of indistinct tense and
neme isolated.
120 MORPHOLOGY VERBS 121

pro-bu.du., pro.bjti 'shall thrive, to thrive'; act. part. pro-bwla, the rest Traces of a declension are isolated, Dalimil has an ace. sing, rnasc,
as bjti. Other compounds similarly. jlduc 'going', and a dat. sing. rnasc. in .ricu.,
diem, dieti 'say' has the fornu of the e-stems, type haulti, except for the
archaic first person singular in -rn. 114, The Present Passive Participle is nothing more than an
archaism, Such are vidom 'being seen', vldom 'being aware', a pre·
sumed *pitom 'being reared' implied from the derived adjective
PARTICIPLES AND COMPOUND TENSES pitomj 'tame', and a presumed *drtim 'being held' implied from the
172. The participles of Old Czech derive from prototypes reflected adjective drlimj 'held'. Modem Czech treats these survivals as
in the cognate lE languages. They are (I) the present active, (2) the predicative adjectives, thus vUom 'aware', la/com 'greedy'. If B.
present passive, (3) the past passive, (4) the past participle absolute, Havranek is right in supposing the present pa,ssiveparticiple to be
(5) the gerund or future infinitive, and (6) the compounding par- adjectival in origin we may further compare Latin patrimus 'having
ticiple. Of these the present passive is sporadic and is no longer the father still alive',
current even in the oldest Czech. With the decay of the aorist and the 115, The Past Passive Participle is historically related to the transi·
imperfect tenses about the middle of the fifteenth century the com- tive verbs. The older lE languages maintained a distinction between
pounding participle becomes frequent. t-participles, which are purely passive with an implied agent, and
n-participles, which are middle voice and without an implied agent,
173. The Present Active Participle. Old Czech jUa 'eating', fem.
This distinction is still echoed in the English pairs shaved and shaven,
jUUd, neut.jUa, plur.jldztce, a typical present active participle, dis·
rolted and rotUn,
plays in its stem the reflex of a historical nasal of lE type *.fm/·on
The t~participle, or true passive participle, ended in *-tOs as is
(or *-on/-,n). The cognate forms are:
seen from Skt, riktd", 'left, empty, poor': Lith. lUctas 'left': Lat, re-
MASCULINE PEMINlNE NEUTER lulus 'abandoned': Arm. lik' 'left'; lE *liWtds. In Greek the true
OLD CZECH jUa jldUci jUa passive participle became either adjectival, as in A€KTOS' 'spoken',
GREEK -"" -ovO'a. -o, fJVTOS' 'fluid', or nominal, as in UTpo.TOs 'camp, anny', In Germanic
SANSKRIT add. adanti oddi the prehistoric distinction of usage between t-participles (as in the
LITHUANIAN Id", Idanti Idq (adverb: idant) 'weak' verbs) and n·participles (as in the 'strong' verbs) has dis·
GOTHIC i""",, itanrki itando appeared. In Lithuanian all passive participles end in unstressed -!as,
and the n.participle has disappeared. In Old Czech the t-participle
Latin edens, gen. sing. elientis, are forms which has been appropriated exclusively to the n-presents (2a, 2C, and 2d),
have been generalized to all genders. The present active participle the open radicals (rk), the primary v-presents (Ij), and the vowelless
fonn has given rise to a limited number of nouns represented in primary nasal bases (Ig) . An isolated t·participle occurs among the
OCz. by mhiu 'month', tisjuc 'thousand', in Gothic by jijands 'enemy' verbs of type th. This is the form prQ-strl 'strewn': Lat. pro-stratum,
(Eng. .'fiend') , jrijonds 'friend' (cf. OCz, pm-le!), in Greek by rlpwv The verb tfieti 'rub' has an occasional t-participle tilt 'rubbed', and
'old man', in Skt, by brluit 'height', etc, It is the basis of adjectives of mliti 'grind' has a late t-participle mkt 'ground'.
type vedUci 'leading', vle·mohztc! 'all-powerful' (see § '3': tfetl),
Iotacism produces a present active participle with the reflex of the 116, The Past Participle Absolute (,having done') is 'absolute' only
Common Slavonic front nasal as in sedl 'sitting', fem. sedieci. Two in the sense that it never stands in the cia us"e embodying the
verbs, vidlti and uldl ti, display a present active participle unaffected related noun or pronoun, but is isolated from it. Old Czech displays
by iotacism, thus vida, fem. viduci and vlda, fem. vldUci respectively. two types of past participle absolute, the first without v, the second
122 MORPHOLOGY VERBS 12 3
with v. The base or stem is that of the aorist. The feminine form has 180. Compound Tenses.
an analogue in Lithuanian, Sanskrit, and Greek. Pluperfect: IJldl byck, beside wdl blck, and byljsem vedl'I had led', etc.
MASCUUN8 FEMININE NEUTER PLURAL Future: budu Dlsti, beside du:u visti andjm4m Dlsti 'I shall lead', etc.
Future Perfect: budu Dl!dl 'I shall have led'.
OLD CZECH (I) ved 'having led' ",d]i "d "dJ, Progressive Present: vtdajstm 'I am leading'. Conditional: Vldl bych 'I
(2) byv 'having been' byvIi by, byvJe
should lead'.
LITHUANIAN bu~,gen.sg.bu~o buvusi (adv. biwus)
Perfect: vedl Jsem 'I have led'. Hypothetical: budiuh Dedi 'I should
SANSIUUT Didvdn, acc. sg. uid,qam Didu.,£ uidvdt
have led',
OREEX l&.k lSu'o. [SOS
Future Progressive: budu vtda 'I shall be leading'.
Of type (t) are nes,pek, tek, moh, tisk, tdh,jem (tojieti), and Jed (tojlti) .
Of type (2) are brali, vidlv, minuv, dllali, etc. 181. A late development is the formation of iterative verbs of type
The past participle absolute can be formed only from a radical cfwdlvati, dlldfllltitoproduce iterative tenses ('I used to go',etc.). Verbs
verb, not from an extended or iterative verb, thus prosio 'having of this type are rare in the oldest documents. The Alexandreid has
begged', which though imperfective in aspect is radical. Hypo- jmierJati' to have', bjooti'to be wont',and ddvati'to give', which,though
thetical forms such as ·ddvav and ·kupof)(JV are impossible. iterative in form, are strictly imperfective in meaning. The dicho-
tomy of Old Czech verbal notions into the aspectual categories
177. The Gerund, or Future Infinitive, has the fonn of the infinitive specific (or perfective) and general (or imperfective) was a formal
except for the absenceoffinal-i, thus infinitive dllati 'to do', future in- necessity a t the disappearance of the inflected past tenses-the
finitive dllo,t. Afurther distinction is the absence of vowd-fronting, and imperfect and the aorist. The distinction was made in one of three
the base vowel is short, thusspdti 'to sleep', future infinitive spat, a fonn ways: (I) the specific aspect was formed from the general aspect by
still in use. An illustration of its usage occurs in SHtny: ;:.ove dllo,t, the addition of a prefix, t hus na-psali from psdti, pfl-flsti from flsti;
prat:olial 'he summons to do, to work'. A modem survival is chcj spat 'I (2) the specific and general aspects were shown by the association of
wish to sleep',jdu spat 'I am going to bed'. The future infinitive dat 'in two distinct verbs such as Ii.{ieti: brdti, and pokJlih': kldsti; (3) the
order to give' is still sometimes used in this way. This word is cognate general aspect was derived, at least in the later language, from the
with Lith. duolu: Latv. dotu (an invariable conditional 'would give'), specific by lengthening, thus dODOloliati from dovoliti, naplnovati from
cf. Skt. datum 'to give'. naplniti, pfeddliati from pfedati. The last method seems to have grown
out of the practice which existed in the older language of associating
178. The Compounding Participle derives from an adjective of
a simple verb of specific aspect, such as ddti, kupiti, with an iterative
l-extension similar to Latin bib-ulus, quer-ulus. With the verb 'to be'
type of verb such as ddvati, lcupovati of general aspect. This rational-
the compounding participle forms the past tense and the conditional
ized process is now applied to a very large number of verbs. The
mood of all verbs since about the middle of the fifteenth century.
following pairs existed in the older language:
179. The Infinitive is held on the evidence of Sanskrit and early j£ti: clwditi vtsti (vC;:.ti): tJO{.iti utili: Utatt
Latin, as well as on semantic grounds, to derive from the dative bUlli: blluzti IJ/sti: DOditi hOOti: Iwniti
singular of the ti-stem feminine noun. This is a type of action-noun nisti: nositi jlti: jluJiti
familiar in Sanskrit (bhutlb), Greek (q,Vats), Lithuanian (batis), and
Old Czech itself (byl, fern. 'being'). This mearu that an infinitive 182. Definition by means of prefixes gave rise to a number of general
such as {,1!dti 'to know' is the exact equivalent of Gk. yvwu€t, dat. (or imperfective) forms which have no currency as simple verbs.
sing. 'to knowing'. Chief of these are -ndIlti, -vdllti, -IiMlti, ..dui.{lti, -jie;:.diti, -hllllti,
 HI4 MORPHOLOGY
VER.BS 12 5
-klltJti, -klddati, -tUrati, -vierati, -mierati, -bierati, -huMti, -st/Jati,
-.tierati, -lierati, -liuati, -:jumati, and -sherati. Thus the Alexandreid 9· By prefixing u-
has the pair .ca-stUrati: VJ-sllUti. u-pid. 'b~e'; ,u-le.sa~ .'c.omb'; u-dJlali, u-finiti 'do'; u-sfyIlti 'hear';
u-md/tl see; U-dUtl descry'; u-pUsti 'knit, weave'; u-Moiti 'kill,
18.'5. The aspectual pairing of verbs was achieved in a variety of wayI
destroy'; u-stUti 'spread, prepare'; u-tiliti 'console'; u-Hti 'sew',
and at different periods of evolution, a fact which has added enor- etc.
mously to the complexity of Czech grammar. It was never an
entirely mechanical process. The following scheme displays the 10. By prefixing vy_
manner in which a large number of verbs acquired an aspectual I!1-piti 'drink'; f!)I-mlniti 'exchange'; '!]-btJsti 'spur on'; f!)I-kfuditi
double. 'clear'; lIY"'stflliti 'fire', etc.
I. By alternating a-stems with n-stems
11.By prefixing V'Z-
swt; 'grab': sdhnuti (Alex.).
vz-buditi 'awaken'; Dz-ploditi 'increase'; vz-slraIi/i 'scare'; DZ-Ddzati
tahati 'pull': tdhnuti (Alex.: pIi-). 'tie', etc.
vtkiJti 'tie': vdznuti.
I~. By prefixing z-
~. By alternating a-stems with i-stems
Z-AS1;itli
'J't~ y-lIro,th,h" 'sp-ad',"
'accept',' "'I' ""-a',"'," 'ose;
...... t · I' z-truulh
' 1 ' • 'tire',
chvdkJli 'seize': chvdtiti (si). etc.
3. By prefixing na- 13. By prefixing za-
M-rodili si 'be born'; na-plnili 'fill'; M-utili 'teach'; M-ma.tIlli 'smear' za-volati 'eaU', za-stfieti 'cover up'; ZiJ-bLUditi 'go astray'; za-platiti
M-psati 'write', etc. 'pay', etc.
4. By prefixing 0-
o-hldriti 'announce'; o-klamati 'cheat'; o-chuditi 'make poor'; o-mrtzliti
'darken', etc.
5. By prefixing po-
po-raditi 'advise'; po-blUditi 'go wrong'; po-listi 'count'; po-mluoiti
'speak'; po-pluti 'flow'; po-kaziti 'spoil'; po-Icrmiti 'feed'; po.SkJoiti
'set up', etc.
6. By prefixing pM-, pri-, pro-
pll-&ti 'read, count'; pIi-blUiti si 'approach'; pro-raditi 'betray';
pro-splti 'succeed', etc.
7. By prefixing roz-
ro~-dlliti 'divide'; roz-lu«ti si 'part'; roz-tdti 'thaw', etc.

8. By prefixing s- (sn- before vowels, after loss of j-)

sn-jesti Uiesti) 'eat'; s-konlili 'finish'; s-krjli 'cover up, hide'; s-ludil.
'seduce'; s-rubie; si komu 'please'; s-pfitci 'harness', etc.

VI
LITERARY EXTRACTS
I. THE ALEXANDREID
From BudlJovukj z/umtk, lines 2\1<>--44.
The Greek!! honour their leader-and the moral
As prawem sye ymu to dalo
coi: sye ymu yest czsti kde staID,
ie sye wYbraw s malem Ijuda
i poymyew mnoho nekliuda
swu wyecyu tak snainye pilil,
ai sye ymu wes swyet pochyliL
By Boh uslysyeti raczii,
swe Krzestyenstwo i to zraczil,
by takyi: byl czeskym kralem.
Upfal bych w to, tby za malem
(lecz bud Litwa, lecz Taterzi,
kaki: su menowani kterzi,
Besermene nebo Prusi
lecz nepotwr'zeni Rusi)
przisli by k takey prziprzietie
••
I siimu le daw • has happened to him'.
11'what (of) honour had anywhere accrued to him',
3 si '!lbrav 'having set out'.
5 s7Udn.l'diligently'; pllili si (with the inst.) 'carry out'.
6 pothjlili si 'submit' .
7 Bdh, accusative.
8 ualiti 'display, make evident'.
9 takj 'such a one'.
10 upfati 'expect, hope'; lby = l e by.
I1 le!, le! bud, 'whether ... or ... '
13 Bnermen, cf. Pol. bisurman 'infidel, Moslem'.
14 nepotlJr<.tTlj 'unconfirmed (by the Church), heathen'.
15 pfipflta 'fear, reverence'.
THE ALEXANDREID 12 7
yill by, sye krzsta przichopiece,
byli sw-ych modi odstupiece.
I to by sye stati mohlo---
acz by to co yuz pomohlo?-
:ie Nyemci, yiz su zde hostie.
chtie dozdati, by na mostye
Prazye-yehoz Boh snad necha!-
nebylo widyeti Czecha.
I mohlo by sye br:i stati,
by yich bylo newidati! '5
2. THE ALEXANDREID
Budljorm:kj munjn{ <.femek, lint'S I-52; the treachery of
BessIU and Narbaso. This extract contains a large
number of dual forms
, W tu dobu ta dwa proradcye,
newyerneho skutka skladcye,
radidta sye neyednako,
newyeduce ydcze kako
bylo yima sweho krale ,
yieti, u mnozye czi u male;
" neb ke w~yem tu neupfa~ta,
pronydto sye welmi baSta,
16 pfichopiti si (with gen.), 'embrace'; kfnt 'baptism'.
21 ,htie 'they wish'; doldati 'live to see'.
'5 22 'which God forbid'.
24 brl 'sooner'.
Ipr(midd'traitor'.
skutek 'deed'; sklddd, 'plotter'.
::I
3 rrejrdnako 'in various ways'.
4 kako 'how'.
5 byiojima 'they were to' (dual).
6 jieti 'take, capture'; u mnc{l!i u mdk 'in a big way or a small one' (Le. 'by
a mass attack or with a small party'). For usage of u (= 11), cr. mod.
upHlelirosti ... , u pfipojen{ . .. In prosodic usage u for 11 is used to supply
an extra syllable.
7 lipfali (with k ... ), 'trust'.
a prQll/lro 'wherefore'; bdli .fl 'be afraid' (here impf. third dual to rhyme
with nnipftilta).
12a LITERARY EXTRACTS THE ALEXANDREID 12g

acz by yho kak myetnye yala,

by sama w tom neostala.
Till 0 tom mluwiw!e mnoho.
. Tdy ID 0 ezsti ni 0 Bozye
tbayuce ta mufye zradna,
sen i on przyed wozem padna,
postawu smutneho licye
Bessw wece: "Co do toho,
acz bychwye myslila i dele? lei:eta przyed wozem nieye, "
Rano, kdyzt wstane z postele, mluwiece k nyemu hlawu wzhoru,
rzkuce: "Kraiiu! nayu wina
poydwye przyederi, w$a.1d ne sbomye.
postawiece syc pokornye,
rcyeme~t: ,K.raliu! co swye sdyela,
w tom sye swye lepse domnyela,
·s yest welika, wtakZ yu mina,
wez-zrzi z twe milosti na to
ze, doriadz swye ziwa, za to
.
mniece, z'by { sye to sliubilo, tiem te winy pokupiwye,
a kdyz { to protiwno bylo yakZ tebe wiee podstupiwye
'0
toho srdecznye zye1ewye.' s postatiu na1eho redu,
A meri tiem nikte newie s tobu na zisk i na !kodu
co syc stati moci bude s milostiu ostati ehtieee,
yaId: nayu obacz nezbude." tebe wiee neod.stupieee."
Yut bye liud dnem sye uyistil, Tdy wida vie w tey pokorzye,
's stdcze sobye, slz unorzye.
a swyct ohacz syt nezczistil
ote wAit mraky tmy nocnie. Tui: yima inhed uwyerzi, ,0
Tehdy obacz nepomocnye tuzye sye s nima i smierzi.
rano uzrzyew zorniu hwyezdu, g2 tdy 'then, now'.
kral Darius, nahlu yiezdu ,0 34 ltn i on 'thu and the other', 'both of them' (the active part. is sing.).
chtye precz, sedieAe na wozye. S5 posuwU 'with the-aspect'; ltu 'face, expression'.
S6 nUl 'face downward' (prob. an adv. but beld by some to be an adj. /lid.)
9 "b.1'.mce they might'; ka! mltnl'so ineptly (b] .• " as to ... )' (OCt. S9 vIaktju mina 'yet overlooking it'.
mltJ _ mod. miJln/). 41 donadl'as long as'.
10 ostdJi'succeed'. 42 pokUpiti'redeem'.
HI ut" 'quath'; CD rh toho 'how would it be', 43 podslUpiJi 'support'.
15 pfldd (fusion of prep. and pron.) 'before him' (ace.); nllhomI'not in a 44 postal 'main body, mass'.
body' (i.e. 'individually). 45 'with thee for better or worse'.
17 sduti'do', 49 ltukmiti lobi 'feel compassion'; wwfiti (with gen.) 'shed'.
18 tkmt!ilti si 'bethink oneself'; uPk, adv. for lipt. 50 tu-! 'there and then'; inlIld 'at once'.
'9 'it would be pleasing to thee'. 5' tud'firmly' (or tu-Lt 'there and then').
protiUM 'dutasteful'.
!:la
IU UUli 'regret'.
!:I4 An obscure line, perh. 'since, at any rate (oMl), he will not elude us'.
!:IS 19istiti si (&rn) 'be aware of'.
!:I6 ohd/'yet'; disliti si ot . .. 'be rid of'.
!:I7 'of all the murk of nocturnal darkness'.
118 ntJxmwcnl'involuntarily'.
!:I9 (om" hulvJa 'the morning star'.
go ndhlu ..., irutr.
gl prtf'away, forth'.
K
 LITERARY EXTRACTS
3. DALlMIL (chapters 2, 3 and 4)
o jJo&{.atcye naje/w:J4(jka w CQCluuh
W srbskem yazyku Vest zemye,
ydto Charwary yest ymye.
W tey zemi bide lech,
yemuz to ymye bide Czech.
Ten muzohoystwa sye doczini
pronyei swu zenU prowini.
Ten Czech myeyicie moc i czest
a ot nich mnoho czeledi,
yut yedne noei Czech osledi
i wrbra sye se wSim z zemye
yeyt diechu Charwaty ymye
i bra sye lesem do lesa,
dielky swe na pleei nesa;
a kdyz dluho lesem vide
k welikemu hwozdu przide.
Tu sye steste czeledi yeho.
Wece Czech: "Ach, byeda yest skutka meho,
ze pro mye yste w teyto nuzi
a ysu pro mye waSi domowe
hwti luzi." 1 wece Czech k swemu shoru:
"Podeydyem pod tuto horu.
Dyetem skotu odpoczinem
a snad sye tu stuhu minem."
I jO(Jk (here) 'state'.
kd! 'chieftain'.
~ mulobojstuo 'murder'; dalini si (aor. with gen.) 'committed'.
6 prouini, aor. 'discredited'.
8 «lttl 'household'; plur. 'children'.
9 osltdi, aor. fr. 'assembled'.
13 piKe 'shoulder'.
14 jidt, aor. Srd sing. 'went'.
15 huocd 'wood'.
16 stdll si, aor. Srd sing. of stesknutis". dat. 'pity'.
17 skultk 'action, plight'.
!:IO lull, plur. lu.d 'wilderness'; sbor 'band'.
!:I:.z odpotinuli, with cl:!:t. Ir. 'rest'. , ., . "
!:I3 mimUi si ((Ill 'survive, overcome; sll/ho hardship (lOst, tu stuhu).
DALIMIL
Zayitra u prawe zorzye
by Czech sam sedmy na tey horzye, 0,
s ni-et wticku zenU ohleda
a dale yim yiti neda,
rzka: "Ymamy zemi po swey woli
a budu nam z te plni stoli-
zwyeni, ptakuow, ryb, wad dosti. ,0
Ot neprzatel twrda dosti,
5 yako by na pu!czi stalo,
kdei by nie neprzyekazalo,
S te hol)' na zemi zrz iechu-
proto tey horzye "Rzip" przyewzdi echu,
10
Prwe chleba nemyeyiechu;
maso a ryhy yediechu,
"
Prwe leto laz wzkopachu,
15
a druhe Ieto radlem zorachu.
Ale ze yich starostye Czech diechu,
pron zemi Czechy wzdiechu.
.
Ti lidye welmi wyemi biechu;
wie sbozie obecno ymyeyiechu.
Komu sye co nedostanie$e
w druha yako swe ymyeyide.
Yeden obyczey zly ymyeyiechu:
~o ie manzelstwa nedrticchu.
Tehdy i yedna zena muzem vista nebide,
yeden mut ten mooho ymicie.
Prawye skotsky bYdliechu.
przyebywachu na wtak weczer
noweho manielstwa hledachu.
'"
Sudcye i yednoho nemyeyiechu,
neho sabye nekradiechu.
:t4 .r.ajitTa 'tomorrow'; VJfI, fern. 'dawn'.
25 sedmj 'sealed' (cf, mod. skJjtrW, ltlmo).
31 turdj 'strong',
35 Hp (sole instance ofthi.a; word) ' tor'.
38 la;:, 'clearing'.
40 slfJrQstl, dat, sing, of starosta 'leader',
45 v drvho, a metrical adjw trnent for 11 druJro,
. . 50 skotsky, adv. 'like beasts',
51 pllbjuali 'cohabit'.
 LITERARY EXTRACTS DALIMIL '33
Pakli sye kdy stala ktera swada, yehoz ya ne<::hci mluwiti. a,
u starzyeysieho byla rada, " Lihusye to uslysyewsi,
aby prawo uczinili nemudremu przyehowyewsi,
prawemu skody polepsili. nie yemu neodpowyedye;
Minu let tomu we1mi mnoho, walny tu snem zapowyedye.
ze sye driye ten lid obyezeYie 60 Kdyz sye na snem wSickni snyedu go
toho ot Libusina oteye. a przyed Libusi prziyiedu
Kdyz tomu mudreho mnohy minu rok. (tehdy te w~ie zemye mati),
wsta w zemi muz, yemuz dieehu Krok. ye swe banby zalowati.
Ten zemi wsicku sudieSe. Zemane to uslysyewse
a mudro si ye uezieSe. 65 swey hospodye sye nasmyewse
Potom Krok yide do naw}'.
Trzi mudre dcer}' ostawi:
yako z patra sye wzpodyem.!ie,
rady i yedne newzem.!ie,
"
Kazu. Tetku a Libusl. krziku wsickni yednim hlasem:
o trzetiey mluwiti musi.
Kazye sediese na Kazynye
A Tetka na Tetynye.
,. "Newyplatimy toho yedniem wlasem.
Prawdu-l mluwi czlowyek taky,
nebel ye wila mui: wsaky
'00

Libusye prorokyni biei;ej YeStof sye przyed zenu sudi,

ta wsieku zemi sudiese. yehoz k tomu nuzye neprzipudi.
Stase, ze omezi dwa sye swadista
a sobye dobrzye przibista.
Libwye ye sye yu suditi
75
Yuz dele necheem meskati;
cheem muiye za hospodu ymieti.
Yednoho-f na tobye prosimy:
..,
a winneho drbi smutiti. Powyez nam wyestbami Sw}'mi
Winny ye sye Libusye hanyeti, z kterei nam zemye radiS knyezye wzieti,
rzka: "Neehci tebe za sudci ymieti, neb w swey zemi nemozem podobneho mieti.
neh zena umie lepe yehlu siti 80
nei: w sudye muzye suditi.
o Lihuiinu proroctwi
Aeh, kako to mye we1mi rudi,
ze nas muzye zena sudi."
1 yeehu sye wsickni pani haniti,
Vim Libusye odpowyedye, rzkuc:
"To wam beze lsti powyedye,
...
59 minu, aor. grd sing.'passed'i drY sI, aor. 3rd sing. with gen. 'main-
tained'. 87 pllhovlti (with dat.) 'ignore, disregard'.
65 'he disciplined them wisely'. 88 ~POvldlti 'summon'.
66 jitk tM n~ 'died'. 90 snLdu si (for midu s1), aor. grd plur. 'they came together'.
6g muIi, mwu 'I must'. 91 pfijldu, aor. gm plur. (for pfijidu) 'they came'.
75 plib{ji, with dat. 'fight, punch'. 96 patro 'floor'.
76 jlsl, aor. grd sing. ofjietisl'began'i sUiitiju (dual) 'to judge them'. 99 l!Yplatiti (with gen.) 'surrender, redeem'.
77 drhi, aor. grd sing. 'had to' (d,biti "'" musili); smutiti 'rebuff'. 100 takj 'such a'.
80 jthlu, inst. sing. 101 lIila 'foot'; vIaJ;} 'any'.
82 ruditi 'annoy, enrage'. 84 hanili, intr. 'be abusive'. 110 /KIvldl ( = PO/JimI) 'I will tell'. See § 171.
'34 LITERARY EXTRACTS DALIMIL
'35
kakkoli ste mye uhanili na was lid bude hledati winy
kdyz ste mye tak potupili. a swym rozdyeli waSe dyediny.
Zly czlowyek tu drbi byti.
kteryz pro swe dobre da
obci zlym toho uziti.
., Cze!te swe! Acz i krastawo
neday we swe, czeska hlawo,
cizozemci!
'4'

Obec yest kaZdeho ohrada.

Ktot yu tupi minula-f yey rada. o Lihuiinu koni, yeito Pr:r:;emyslowj
Ztratye abci, neufay do hrada. Opyet Libusye powyedye:
Bez obcye pohyne wselika snada. "Nebof yaz to dobrzye wyedye
Ale yaz warn swe skody nedam zlym uzitij
chci warn beze lsti raditi.
yemuz byti waiyu hospodu.
Y dyetei czstnyeySi po meho konye wodu.
..,
Radyey~i byste mohli moy sud trpyeti Kamoz-f yedno on potecze
nei: sye drbite za knyez silneho mUiye ymieti. a komuz ti on przitecze,
Lehczyeye-f tepe diewczie ruka; n, toho na tento kuon wsadiece,
ot mufske rant b:Ywa welika muka. wedtei yim syem sye neswarziece. .,0
Tu moye tehdy uwyerzite, Budete-li sye swarziti
kdyz sweho knyezye za zeleznym po tisic let bude-f zemi skoditi."
stolcem yjeduc uzrzite. Libu~ye sye na swe wyestby wzpusti;
Bude-li nad wami cizozemec wlasti ,,0 kuon osedlany bez uzdy pusti.
nemoci bude dluho waS yazyk trwati.
Ot Pr~emjsloweho nalezenie knyeqe
Tuha-l yest kazdeho mezi smutnymi cizimi,
a smutny utydJi sye mezi znam}'mi. Pani po konyu poyjedu '55
Kaidy kraliye przyeteli swymi! a.:i Byeliny rzyeky doyjedu.
Ni yeden mudry nerad'sye s cizimi. 135 Podle te rzyeky kuon potecze;
Poymyey sobye lid yazyka sweho! na yednu ulehl przitecze,
Bude-l widy hledati wa!eho zleho- na nyeyz oraSe muz weliky,
112 kaJcJroli 'since, as'. obinuw swe nohy lyky. .60
116 t,;/jm ul{ti (with gen.) 'endure, suffer for'.
117 ohrada 'bastion, bulwark'. 138 hkdati viny 'find fault with'.
118 minulafjej rada 'his senses have left him', 139 dldina 'heritage'.
119 An obscure line, perhaps 'When destroying the community do not put 140 (eIM sui (·vlary) 'comb your own (hair),; kraslavo 'scurvy'.
your trust in defence'. 141 tie sui (·vlary) 'into your own (hair)'.
120 mada (amended from suada) 'harmony' (cf. mod. 114 snadI and OCZ. 145 vaJu hlJSjmlu, inst. '(as) your master',
nemadili si 'bicker'), 146 tsin(j!i, as adv. 'assiduously, dutifully'; vod'track'.
125 tepati 'strike'. 147, 148 loUd 'go'; pfitki 'come',
128--g t,;a le!eQljm swlam ... jldw; 'following the plough' U'drlc for jdw;, cf. 149 114 lento k61i (archaic accusative animate).
lines go and 91). 150 slm 'hither'.
130 uLbti, mtr. 'rule'. 153 vzpusli si na 'committed herself to'.
131 trvdli (with gen.) 'endure'. 155,156 pojldu., dojldu, aor. 3rd plur.
132 tu.hafjest kaldlho 'sorrow is the lot of everyone'. 157 pou«, aor. 3rd sing. 'ran'.
135 nmu/ sI 'let him not deal'. 158 u!ehl, f. 'field'.
137 cit,;oqmec 'outsider, stranger' is here understood. 160 vbinuv 'having wrapped'; ljk() 'bast, strip of bark'.
 LITERARY EXTRACTS DALIMIL
'37
K tomu muzyu kuon prziskocziw, przyernysI yim tak odpowyedye :
i sta u nyeho sye wztocziw, "Yak warn Libusye powyedyela
stoyi~e yako yat w uzdici. te! [i yaz] wam powyedye:
Proto tey wsi wzdiechu Stadici. Kdyz ste 0 dyewczye nerodiJi tbati .go
Pani na chIapye wzwyediechu bude was moy rod :ieleznu metlu kazati.
yeho ymye, :ie ymu przyemysl diechu. '" 01 w~tle otkj PrqemyJlowj
poczyet::hu sye druh k druhu smieti,
i chtyechu yey inhed wzieti; Kdyt tu przyernysl snieda.se,
a yakot sye yeho dotku yeden pan na otku hledaSe,
przyemysl wdruti w zemi otku, .'0 ze otka w'fpustila z sebe pyet pram enow,
rzka: "Zyel mi yest, xe ste tak rano
przisli; byste byll teprw od Libu!ye wysli
a z nich prokwete pyet orzyechow.
Czty"rzye uschu po rnaley chwili;
..,
bych-f mohl tuto ulehl wzuorati; patj by :tiw, ten sye w~yem smili.
wiec bylo by nelzye oraczyu chleba kupowati.
o Pn,ynnyJloll!Y' 4wol,ni
Ale zle ste uchwatili
a mnye w roll przyekazill.
." Kdyt sobye ten diw ukazachu,
Muot to katdy slysyeti rad; na Przyemyslu potazachu
bude w zemi tizen a czasto hlad." ktere by bylo znamenie '00
Posah Przyemysl k llczyeniey kabeli, te suche oOry w zektwyeni.
wynye syr a rzeSetni peczen well. 180 Vim tak przyemysl odpowyedye,
Poczye, na radlici poloziw, yiesti. aka: "To yaz warn me powyedye.
Panow poczye prositi podle sebe siesti. Otka sucha yest znamenie
Pani poczyechu sye shIedati meho chlapieho urozenie, >0,
a na Libu!inu rzyecz wzporninati. ale ze-f yest br'zo wzkwetla,
Yiechu sye yeho tazati 185 yak warn Libusye byla rzekla,
procz by yemu bylo milo na ielezye sniedati. moy rod z chlapieho poroda
doyde kraloweho rzada.
163
165
ILtditl 'bridle'.
,hldpl, n. 'villager, rustic'; v~V£dlti 'get to know'. Pyetyu prarnenow budu kwisti- ,,,
167 ~tl,hU, aor. Srd plur. 'began'. to budu na knizye czisti-
169 dollk, aor. 3rd sing., dotku, aor. srd plur.-.I"/'met'. ze rnne bude knYeZstwo patero,
'70 vdnditi, aor. vdndi 'thrust'; ot/ctJ 'goad' (cf. tknuti, t&ti). ale br'zo zhyne cztwero.
'73 v(,6rtJti 'finish ploughing'.
174 'the ploughmao would not have to buy more bread' (a prophetic Pate wzkwetne welmi krasnye
utterance).
17.5 ~ Ul/w(Jtiti ( _ understood) 'catch at an awkward moment, forestall'. 190 room 'wish', cf. rdd.
179 /fond ktJ/Jel 'bark .atcbel'. 191 ItleQld melld 'with a rod of iron'; ktktJti. tr. 'discipline'.
180 f!Y1I/, aor. Srd sing. 'took out' (inf. ll)'rIuti); ftlem{ jKtnf 'loaf ofbohed '96 mull, aor. 3rd sing., U.l"CIW, Srd plur. 'dried up' (in£. mthmUi).
flour'. 197 smf/i .1"1, aor. srd sing. (with dat.) 'favoured'.
182 sitsti 'sit down'. 19B ukdzati .l"obl'point out to each other'.
186 lrU.(.O (here) 'the plough', cf. lines 128-q. The reference i5 prophetic, 2 10 budu, 1St sing.
see line '9" 211 budu, 3rd plur.
 LITERARY EXTRACTS
a wYPusti swoy plod yasnye.
Acz t sye yim kdy podeyde,
.., o KWYETNEY NEDYELI
kdyby rzekl yedine slowo .
Czili nemohl ymieti konye,
139

w~koz czasa toho doyde, yenz by poSe! uzduu zwonye 20

ze wnuk pomsti sweho dyeda ana zlatymi cetkami
i yeho wrahom na pokon bude byeda." zprolozena i gemmami?
Rzka to, wsta z chlapieho sboru; Czili nemohl ymieti sedla,
Yi,ede do Libusina dworu.
'" na nyernZ by sye ta drahost swedla,
z nyeZ: bywa lidem znamenie :15
4. 0 KWYETNEY NEDYELl sbozie z draheho kamenie,
From Stitny: Aea ~dlln{ a svdtdni kdez s pochwami prsosiny
I muSi w kratochwili dne tohoto yednoho stareho skladacze rymem podle swe drahe przicziny
knih czeskych rzyecz 0 dni tomto powyedyeti. Ten takto die:- dawayij yako posoku
Iijbosti lidskemu oku? 30
Wiz, czlowyecze bohoboyny, Czili nemohl tee moei ymieti,
bozie milosti dostoyny by byl chtyel zastupnye yieti,
welikeho milosrdie, mayie mnoho lida s sebu
kakt yest syn boiij nehrdye se w~ij kralowsku ozdobu,
bral sye dnes k Yeruzalemi 5 pod nachem, w zlatey koronye, 35
wladna nebem, morzem, zemij; driye sceptrum sedl na tronye,
kakt sye yest welmi pokorzil, podle mocnych kralow nrawa,
yenz, co kde yest, wsecko stworzill yaH sye pro swyetsku czest stawa,
Ymayie we wsem wsi moc staluu ez ni strziebro ani zlato
nie netbal na swyetsku chwalu, •• bywa draho wloZiti na to?
ysa kra! nade \\/Semi krali, Ale ry, nas tworcze mily,
yehoz wse stworzenie chwalij, mayje wsemohueie sily
yehoz sye w~e moc neskryla, netbals na drahe ostrohy
by w czem yemu potrzyebna byla,
lidmi, koiuni, drahym ruchem, ., na twe, Raze, swate nohy.
yimiz by konye pobadal! 45
coz by yedno chtyel, posluchem
wse by bylo ymu hotowo, 19 !ili (wltranslatable) introduces a question.
21 ana 'and indeed, or indeed'.
:116 at'if" , = kn (i.e. 'the fruit'); podifti s[ 'fail'. 22 J;jJfolotenj'studded'.
21 7 v1akDi 'then, indeed'; (osa roIw 'at that time'; diJjrk 'it will come to pw', 26 sbolil 'wealth'.
219 najxJkon'inthe end'. 27 jxJdwy, fern. plur. 'horse-trappings'; !JTJosiny, fern. plW'. 'breast-straps'.
220 shoT '.environment ~ 28 podU 'by reason of'; pHlina 'quality'.
29 posoka Ubosli 'a feast of charm'.
.4 nehrd[ 'meekly'. 32 ~dstupnl'in procession, in formation'.
13 'whose whole power was not obscured' . 36 sedl ( - sedlj) 'seated',
14 jxJtflhnj 'useful'. 37 nrav'custom'.
16 posluchnn 'in acquiescence'. 39 el = l e.
17 Iwrovo '3Iv.ailable ' 40 dTahj 'extravagant'.
 LITERARY EXTRACTS
Sboiny, kto sye i tomu nadal,
zes, wSe moha, nechtyel moei.
Chtye nam sprostenstw)rm pomoci
yiezdils na osleti licheem
W obyczyeyi prostye ticheem.
0, Bozie milosti twrdnaa,
a twrdnostij milosrdnaa
rozprostrzyelas SWll moc diwnye!
I musijrn to rzieci pilnye:
Sam-lis milost czis milostiw,
ezs sye milosti nezhostiw,
i rzku bri, eis milost sama,
poSlaa z naywysieho chrama
k nam, z sieni swate troyicye
porodem cziste dyewicye.
A ysa tak ctny • tak weliky,
chtyel ysi mal byti wseliky;
prziyal ysi twarz tweho stwora.
Kaka i, Boie twa pokora!
Ktert-li to bye s nami zwyczyey.
ezs wzal sluhy sweho obliczyey,
hledayie swych owec zbylych,
z dawnych czasow zabludilych?
46 'wealthy indeed who gave himself up to the fact'.
¥J sproskrulvU ·simplicity'.
49 lichj 'lowly'.
51 turdnj'strong',
53 diunl'marvdlously'. . ..'
54 pilnl 'fervently' (but piln! and pin! are mdlStlngUlshable ID tftny).
56 ,dzostiei si (with gen.) 'reject'.
57 brl'rather'.
58 poll} 'come, arrived'.
60 dluicl'virgin'.
62 mnl 'almost'; vItlikj 'ordinary'.
63 tvdf'image'.
64 kak'! 'what, what kind of'.
" manner 0 f custom was It
65 'what . Wlu~
',,,, l.lS • • ••?'
67 .{byl} 'lost'.
THE PARALYTIC OF ROME
5. THE PARALYTIC OF ROME
From Stitny's ,translation of Pope Gregory's 'Homily
addressed to the Congregation in the Basilica of St Paul
the Apostle on Sexagesima Sunday'. St. :RNs, page 215
Stalo i sye w tey uliei w Rzimye, skr'ze nit chodije do kostela
swateho Klimenta, byI yeden, yehot mnozij znali ysu se mnu; chudy
byl na sbotij , ale bohaty w slechctnosti. Toho i byla dluha nemoe
zhubila, neb od prwnieho wyeku at do konce iiwota yeho ustawnye
lezal, ysa dnuu zlaman. Nikdy wstati nemoh! ani sedyeti; nikdy swe
" mky nemohl k ustom przinesti, ani sye mohl na druhy bok sam swu
siluu obratiti. Materz a bratra ymyeyicie k swey sluzbye, a cot yemu
almuznuu przislo, to yich rukama yinym chudym rozdawaSe. Nie
czisti na knihach neumyel, awSak sam sobye knihy Swateha Pijsma
60 bicie kupil a do sweho domku w hospodu prziyimaye nyetere
duchownye pocestnee, wtdy yim przed sebu we1cie ezisti. A kdyz
padle sweho pochopu dobrze sye Pijsmu nauczi rozumyeti, a yakoz
sem rzekl, na knihach i abeeedy neurnyeye znati, snaznost wsecka
yeho bi cie Bohu w bolesti wzdawati dieku a we dne i w noei w
" imnach, w talmiech chwalu Bohu wzdawati ustawnye. A kdyt ezas
prziyide, aby yeho pokora tak welika ymyela yiz odplatu wzieti,
bolest z swrchnich udow we wnitrznie udy, w nicht tyelesna tiwost
zalezij, sye obrati. A kdyz uzrze, ze yit tahne k smrti, tY mute, YeS10
ye biese w sway dom prziyal po hastinu [napamenul] ,aby wstali a
s nim zalmy k yeho prowodu na onen swyet zpiewali. A kdyz tak s
nimi i sam chtye umrzieti ialmy zpiewase, br'zo krzik[e]m na nye,
ydto s nim zpiewaehu, kaza yim mlczyeti welikym hlasem a rzka:
. S
..Mlczte, mlczte, i zdali neslysite kakal chwala w nebesiech zwuezij?"
A kdyz k tey chwale, YeSto ysa na zemi ycitye w nebesiech slyside,
powzdwihl bieSe mrsl srdce sweho, ta swata duse by wyprostyena z
tyela.
NOTE
nauli, pfijide, obrdti si, uVt, (hll, kka, aorist forms trarulating the Latin
perfect.
'4' LITERARY EXTRACTS
6. STfTNY ON DIALECTS
From Rifi ntdllnie a slItiU!nie
Vest przislowie latinye obecne, ez yazyk, nemayie kosti. lama kosti.
A Czechowe rziekayij: Yazyk hlawye neprzey,ie. A owsem yest to
przediwne, cl mnozi tak radi serednye miuwie. Ale snad to yest
znamenie ancikrzistowo. aneb at rzku dyablowo, YeSto i dal swYro
to heslo, yeno slweyij k kralowstwij yeho, ab)' potom znali sye spolu,
ano po rzeczi yest znati, kto i z Rakus, kto z Czech, kto z Marawy.
VII
TEXTUAL SOURCES OF OLD CZECH
THE oldest Czech literary documents date from the fourteenth cen-
tury. All records of earlier date consist of fragments. phrases, in-
scriptions, glosses, words embedded in Latin texts, and lists of words,
proper names, and plant-names. These fragmentary records are of
scant value because they are written in a variety of un phonetic and
ambiguous spellings; they are in many cases late fourteenth-century
or even fifteenth-century copies of originals now lost; their meaning
is sometimes doubtful; their dating is uncertain and only approxi-
mate; they display forms which are no more archaic than those
known from fourteenth-century texts; lastly, they are devoid of
literary interest since the longer fragments are translations, the
shorter ones are uninspired scraps. For these reasons Old Czech
grammar is based on the oldest forms found in the connected
writings offourteenth-century authors, whose work is partly original
but mainly translated.
FRAGMENTS RECORDED BEFORE 1300
Moravianisms in the two Cyrillian fragments-the Fragm4nt of Prague
and the Fragment of Kiev--are the first hint of a separate Western
Slavonic language of Czech-Moravian type. Thus the word pice
('food') corresponds to the usual OCS word pilee. Evidence of a
separate Czech language are the proper names found in the OCS
Legend of St Methodius, in the Legend of St Ludmila, and in the
Prologues to the Legend ofSt Wenccslas. By far the greater number
of Czech names in foreign contexts occur in Latin settings. Par-
ticularly rich are those lo be found in the AnTUlles Fuldenses, the
Annals ofThietmar, Vidukind, Adelbold, Einhard, and others. Czech
names are to be found in the writings of Christianus, Gumpold,
144 TEXTUAL SOURCES OF OLD CZECH
Canapariw, Laurentius, and Bruno, in sundry Imperial Writs and
Papal Bulls, and on coins from Boleslav onward.
Most interesting are the colloquial glosses that adorn the racy, if
inaccurate, Latin chronicle of the Czech Cosmas (1045- 1125), a
Dean of Prague. The third part of his Chronicle is an eyewitness
account of current events between 1092 and 1125. Czech proper names
in Latin context are expressed by him in the appropriate case with
their Czech phonological modifications, thus Coiatha (nom. sing.),
Coietlw (dat. sing.). In this way Cosmas has recorded a total of some
four hundred place-names and personal names (see CCM, 18g2,
267--81, and 1B94, 114- 17). The Czech common nouns thus in-
cidentally put on record betray no exceptionally archaic features,
thus ktTkssu (= krkJu, acc. sing. fern. 'Kyrie eleison'), llUa (= iuka
'meadow'), o«el (= ouI 'donkey'), hurtlSltn (chVTtlStm 'shrubby'), etc.
More important is the skeleton grammar of eleventh-century Czech
that can be reconstructed out of the glosses where they are inflected.
The work of Cosmas's successors is of small linguistic value.
The Monastic Obituary Lists provide evidence of personal names,
but few of them are earlier in form than those known from literary
sources of a later period. Most important of these lists is the Register
of Podlo..lice, bound in a large volume housed at the Royal Museum,
Stockholm, The Register was copied by Dobrovskj in 1792 and was
published by him in The History of tM Czech lAnguage and Older
Literature ( IBIB). The original Register was first closed at about the
year 1227. but was reopened to include further names. These end at
the year 1249. There are some 750 names altogether. As many of
these coincide with Old Czech common nouru they constitute an
early vocabulary, but in the process of latinization they have lost
phonetic precision, and are of less linguistic value than the con-
secutive texts ofa century later. It is not certain, for instance, how to
interpret a transeription which represents historical Czech h by g
(thus Podgrad, Glupa, Gostik, etc.), since this representation may be no
more than a device for avoiding confusion with the transcription h,
which is used to represent Czech ch_ Vowel length is not represented.
Iotacism and palatalization are seldom indicated, but names like
Dum (= duI/) show that Slavonic ja had already changed, The
phonemic pairs {and l. sand 1, c and t, u and v are not distinguished.
The semivowels are variously represented, sometimes as Vlct!':
FRAGMENTS RECORDED BEFORE 1300 145
( = vUek), Drstk. etc., sometimes as Vliuk, Drist!':, etc .. T~e names
Br{on and Grdon further illustrate the semivowel. Nasal~ty. 19 absent
(cf. Vac{iau = Vdclav ), and Western Slavonic metatheslS IS. already
an accomplished fact (as in Podgrad, MraltW7' ), Vo--:-el-fronun g ~er
iotacism occurs in Mileysi ( = miujIi) , and an archruc present p~lve
participle survives in J{ectom (= ne-ltom 'not being read~, cf.. lI1~m
and Dldom). The ju~phoneme is represented variously as m Ltudmt14.
and Lubomir. A record compiled between the years 1217 and 12 36
and called the Munich Rtgisln' contains fourteen names, They are of
no linguistic interest. .
Foundation Records of monasteries were compiled too late to be of
linguistic value; those of Bfevnov, Boleslav, Opatovice, and VyJe-
hrad are the oldest and these can hardly be dated before 1200.
Secular Records inc'tude the Formulae of the Przemyslid~ and the
Vaclavs, legal formulae in town and court registers.' and ~sts of ~he
names of noblemen. The Records oJ Liloml1ice contam an mterestJ.ng
gloss held to represent the first complete sentence of contemp?rary
Czech. Done by the hand of an early thirteenth-century scnbe l~
runs: Pa~l dal gest Ploscouicih {emu. Wlah dol gist DoltlS amu B~gu I
suiatemu Scepanu se duima dusnicoma Bogucia a Sedlatu (:aul has gIve~
the land of the Plmek family. Vlach, with two clencs [?] BohuMJ
and Sedlata, has given .. , land to the Lord and to St Stephen). The
apparent archaisms in this passage (-ja~ in suiat-; -g- in Bog-) do not
necessarily represent current speech, for generally speaking the
latinized glosses are written in a more archaic style than are the
independent glosses and fragments. Thus the apparent archaisms
ialouica (= jaIovicl 'barren cow') and toM (= tOM 'water-hole')
occur only in Latin setting!.
Later in the thirteenth century names and glosses become more
plentiful, but the more these approach in date the beginning! of
literary activity, the smaller their linguistic value.
Extratextual Glosses and Glossaries are found as early as the
beginning of the twelfth century, Most abundant a~e the five
glossaries known respectively as the Prague Chapltr Glossarus I, I!, and
Ill, the Glossary oJ Vienna, and the Glossary oJ Olomouc. So archaiC are
the Chapter Glosses of Prague-they run into several hundreds, and
are to be found in a MS. of the Latin d ialogues of St Gregory dated
before 115o--that their genuineness has been doubted, indeed
L
 TEXTUAL SOURCES OF OLD CZECH
Gebauer said they somewhat resembled the forged fragment of St
John's Gospel, and that caution was needed in assessing them. Their
mixed language suggests deliberate contamination with Old Church
Slavonic.
The Czech Museum copy of a medieval Latin encyclopedia is eked
out by a glossary of 193 sheets known as the Mater Verborum. A fur-
ther glossary of fifty sheets was added at a later date.
The Olomouc Glosses consist of seven words in Moravian. They are
credica (= tfieditl 'alley'), pokal 'he confessed', z;itele (= lltell'in-
habitants'), padena 'ruins', pokazachom 'we corrected', mimo-pustichom
'we have passed by', and zawistiwych 'of the envious'. Their date is
about 1270.
Two undated comments on friars, the CkmentiT14 Fragments,
scrawled on the back pages of a hymnbook, and a few private notes
by one Albert Czech, an ardent Papist (the so-called Munich Glosses)
are without special interest.
The Museum Psalter Fragment and the Munich Fragment (a transla-
tion from St Bonaventure's 'Wanderer') are of little interest. The
Nibelungen Fragment, held to be a marginal rendering from the
Medieval German saga, is in Moravian dialect, and may be an
independent piece of scurrility. It runs as follows:
Pasluc!w.yte iwakj narod; chcu wam diwno zpewati; du:u swam . .. a . .•
nmuv witali; ten bude dworstWQ znati; un swu chwilu se mnu ... wece
pytati. Kto chee znali ktere radasti Tl4bo ktere wmk bdi [tu?) !de su .•.
The age of the text is unknown, and its chief interest lies in the
characteristic Moravian lowered -e- of zpeuati (= zpievati), vice
(= vieet), and the unusual speUings Ivakj (= vIakj)
and un (= on?).
The Herbarium is a list of plant-names of about 1260. Its chief
interest is etymological.
The Hymns known by their opening words: HospodiT14 pomiluj ny;
Svatj Vdclavej SloVQ do su/ta stV<lfeniej Vltaj kralju; Vltaj, milj Je;:.u
Kriste; BtJh vIemohud; and J ezu Krute IlIdrj knlle are certainly archaic
from their style. All are recorded in late copies and lack especial
linguistic value.
GENERAL CHARACTER OF CRADLE PERIOD '47
THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE CRADLE
PERIOD ( 1253-1306)
The second half of the thirteenth century nearly coincides with the
reigns of Otakar 11 (1253-78) and Vaclav 11 (1278-1305)' The
murder of the latter's successor Vaclav III in 1306 brought the line
of the Pnemyslides to an end and marked the beginning of an era
in Czech literary activity.
Words shaped to the Christian religion had long enriched Czech
diction, and accessions from the Greek and Latin liturgies had
already blended with the Germanized vocabulary of the western
ritual and the time-honoured Slavonic of Cyrillian orthodoxy. But
under the last of the przemyslides the tradition of the Church had
receded somewhat in favour of secular minstreisy in the German
tongue. The Church's ban on translation from the Scriptures found
but one exception in the Psalms, and the chanting of these, and the
old remembered hymns, maintained the spiritual tradition stronger
than the secular. Cultural life centred in Prague favoured the
emergence of this city's dialect as the literary medium. The un-
learned Czech clergy in the newly-founded monasteries were little
versed in Latin and required translation aids for much of their
ritual.
The Breviaries of Strahov and Petrohrad with their collections of
psalms, canticles, and prayers are certainly of early date, but
fourteenth-century copyists have spoilt their linguistic value as
archaic writings. The two Psalters-the Glossed and the Wiltenberg-
are both copies of older translations, but the second was checked for
error against the Latin version, though the Glossed version is the
better rendering. Even so, the Glossed Psalter is a copy, and a frag-
mentary one, of a once complete version. ~ny passages in it are
nothing more than unconnected word-glosses by a careless and
ignorant scribe. The confusion of i and ie testify to the lateness of the
copy and the near-identity of these phonemes. About twenty
examples occur, and some are repeated in the Wittenberg version.
But the Glossed Psalter, despite its shortcomings, is the first copy of
a lost Czech translation made between about 1250 and 1300. A third
Psalter-the Museum Psalter-is conjecturally dated about '300, but
it is difficult to read, fragmentary and not consecutive. It agrees in
 TEXTUAL SOURCES OF OLD CZECH
the main with the Glossed Psalter, a fact which puts the fonner
existence of a complete Psalter, or even Breviary, beyond reasonable
doubt.
But it is otherwise with the rest ofthe Scriptures. The oldest frag.
ments of these are of the late fourteenth century and are mostly
translations of the Books of the Prophets. There may have once been
a complete version of the Old Testament, but this is speculation, and
nothing in the fragments points to a date earlier than 1250. The
versified Decalogue may date from about 1300, since theju·phoneme
is represented inyeiiut ('vanity'), cuzelw (= cidlw), and the dat. sing.
of kazanie is kllzaniu. On the other hand the dat. sing. mlluye ('to the
mother') is a late feature. Of the New Testament, parts ofSt Matthew
and St John belong to the second half of the fourteenth century.
Their existence implies a New Testament translation done from
Latin in the time of Charles IV or earlier, but which is, of course, lost.
The Munich Calendar is typical of a medieval device for remem·
being dates by allotting a hexametric couplet to each month. It
was written probably during the bishopric of John IV (1258-78),
since all the bishops up to his time are recorded in it. The Prague
Calerular is of similar or slightly later date since a Bishop Tobias of
Bechyn~ (1279-96) is mentioned. The linguistic value of both IS
lessened by the contractions imposed by scansion.
THE DAWN: LEGENDS AND EpICS
The year 1300 is accepted by grammarians as a landmark in the
evolution of the Czech language. But it is only an approximate date,
and nothing written within fifty years of it can be dated with
certainty.
Of the Legends there is no certainty as to whether they are of the
thirteenth or fourteenth century. The Apostolic Legend is represen·
ted by three fragments, known after the names of their discoverers
SafaNk, Durich, and Patera. They are disconnected passages from a
once complete work of over 1,200 lines which closely followed its
model, the Golden Legend of James of Voragine (I 23o--gB) , a
Dominican Archbishop of Genoa. The original work is dated circa
1270; the Czech version is therefore later, and is put by some at
about 1306. The Life of Mary is believed to have been composed by
the same author in or about the same year, and indeed the two
THE DAWN: LEGENDS AND EPICS 149
works may have formed a single volume. Both exist in copies. The
Passion is known from a version copied by DobrovskY, and from an
extract in SUtny's Discourses for Surulays and Holy Days (see Appendix:
Texts). The two versions do not agree, and both may derive from a
lost thirteenth-century version. The apocryphal Legends of Judas 4nd
Pilate, the Descent of the Holy Spirit, and the Legend of the Passion can·
not be dated with certainty. But an approximate date is possible for
the famous series of fragments known as the Alex4rulreid.
The Auxandreid is remarkable for the following reasons. It repre·
sents a sharp break with Church tradition, indeed, it is the first
known secular composition in the Czech language. It is at least in
part an original composition. Though considered to be a work of the
fourteenth century, it embodies all the linguistic archaisms of a
century earlier. Made up ofeight fragments it is of sufficient total
length to rank as an independent, if incomplete, work of literature.
The unknown author of the Czech Alexandreid was at one time
believed to have found his model in a Gennan version by Ulrich von
Eschenbach some time after 1287. The Eschenbach version in its
turn embodies the material of a version made by one Bruno von
Schonbeck which is dated 1276. This derives from the epic of
Gualterius de Castillione, a Latin poet of Lille, who wove together
the many stories of Alexander's campaign and the moral teaching! of
the Middle Ages into a poem dated 1172. It is now known that the
Czech poet worked from this, or a later Latin version, and not from
a German translation of it, and that by interpolating fragments of
contemporary Czech history and adding an original introduction, he
made the work his own. The Czech version can hardly be dated
much earlier than 1300. Flaj~hans put it at about 1310; A. Pra!ak
more recently dated it some time after 1290.
The versified history known as 'Dalimil's Chronicle' (better the
Chronicle of Bouslav) is of disputed date. Based in part on the Chronicle
of Cosmas it is an apologia for the excellence of Czech customs above
foreign modes and influences. In the words of its anonymous author
it is 'a chronicle of the ancient Monastery of Boleslav', a statement
which· has led to its erroneous attribution to Dalimil because of a
reference to him in the Chronicle of Vaclav Hajek (who died in
1553). Guesses by later scholars about its authorship are no more
probable than those of earlier ones. True, the Chronicle of Boleslav
150 TEXTUAL SOURCES OF OLD CZECH THE DAWN: LEGENDS AND EPICS 151
treats the period between the reigns of Otakar 11 and John of vlctch kluillnskjch.). His 'Conversational Talks' (Buldnie fiE), dated
Bohemia (1314) in great detail, and four additional chapters cover about 1390, are a catechism written for the instruction of his child-
the years 1315-18. But a casual reference to gipsies in Bohemia ren. 'Discourses for Sundays and Holy Days' (Alli rudllnie a svdulnie).
would make at least part of the work later than the period it records, dated 1392, are an exegesis of the Gospel based on the writings of the
perhaps mid-fourteenth century. Theju-phoneme is already i, and Fathers of the Church. Sundry treatises supplement StitnY's writings,
the style is rather less archaic than that of the AIexandreid. The and there is an unfinished work entitled 'Books on the Christian
venified Nou on Vilem Zajitc is certainly an appendage by a later Doctrine' (Knihy naulenie kfuillns"'ho ), said to have been destined for
hand. the instruction of his daughter Andka.
Fragments of mystery plays, chief of which is that of a comedy
Mastilkdf ('The Quackdoctor'), testify to dramatic activity, though
the religious motive is uppermost. Smil FlaJka (1349-1403) of
Pardubice is the author of a didactic and allegorical poem 'The New
Counsel' (Novd &da) , resembling Chaucer's 'Parlement ofFoules' in
substance rather than in motive. The 'Advice ofa Father to his Son'
(Ott(; mudrj SvlmU .rynu radl) is a sermon in verse by the same author.
A collection of proverbs is also attributed to him.
Toma! ofStitny (df(;a 1333-1405) was a contemporary ofWilliam
Langland, author of Pitrs Plowman, who lived approximately
between the years 1332 and 1400. Both writers were concerned with
the accepted doctrines of the Church; both expatiated on the seven
deadly sins. But here their resemblance ends. Stitny reproduced in
prose the writings of the Fathers of the Church, and there is little
original matter. Langland wrote in allegorical verse, and his work is
original. Slitny was a moralist; Langland a yeoman and a reformer
closer in spirit to Chelocky (circa Iggo-I460), who Wa! also a farmer
and reformer, anti-clerical and opposed to aristocratic materialism.
StitnY's works are distinguished more by their titles than by their
content, and later scholars have sought in vain for a common thread
or 'philosophy' by which his work might be characterized. Enjoying
the rank of a country squire with a castle in Southern Bohemia he
was one of the first students to attend the newly founded University
of Prague (1348), but made little use of his studies. On returning to
his estate he bent himself to the task of making the Church's doctrines
accessible to a new middle class of folk who, unlearned in Latin,
could nevertheless read Czech. The sheer volume of his work makes
it a valuable record of the language as it was in the last quarter of the
fourteenth century. 1376 is the date given by St. Sou~ek for his 'Six
Books on General Christian Matters' (Knielky Itstny 0 obtcnjch

APPENDIX
A. THE EVOLUTION OF CZECH ORTHOGRAPHY
(a) MONOGRAPHIC STYLE (to about 1250). Czech words and names
in Latin contexts are roughly represented by the twenty-five letters
of the Latin alphabet. Vowels are written without diacritics, and
consonants are unmodified, thus dele (= dietl ).
(b) DIGRAPHIC STYLE (1250-1400). This is the typical spelling of
the fourteenth century. Until the appearance of Jan Hus's writings
vowel and consonant modifications are shown-ambiguously and
inconsistently-by means of two characters or by doubling. An
arbitrary practice, it differs somewhat from writer to writer. No con-
sistent distinction is made between the phonemes i,y, andjj c and lj
! and 1; ~ and t, but the last pairs are sometimes distinguished by
doubling, thus ss = 1; u = t. The phoneme j is commonly
represented by g before e and i (gest, giny = j est,jinj), but by y else·
where (y~, yako, teynye = jtiz, jako, /ejnl ). Late fourteenth.century
spelling is distinguishable from that of the earlier period by (1)
representation oftheju-phoneme asji and i; (2) sporadic indication
of vowel length by doubling (aa, uu, ij); (3) the rejection of the
symbol -t to represent s; (4) the increasing use of diphthongal 110
(Buoh, ·moozz); and (5) the frequent representation of ie as i.
(c) DIACRITIC or HUSSITE STYLE (1400-1550). Dots as consonant
modifiers J formerly sporadic, are adopted systematically by Hus and
his followers. Two qualities of I are indicated for the first time. Glide-
palatalization (t, a, 11") is not consistently represented. Vowel-length
is shown by an acute accent, but long i is representedj. Some writers
use hooks, whether with digraphs (c"z) or single characters ~c' or l).
Digraphs continue throughout the fifteenth century, rz beside f, c-t
beside l.
APPENDIX 153
(d) KRAr.1CE BmLE STYLE (1550-1620) . Hooked modifiers replace
Hussite dots; vowel-length is consistently represented. The hook is
now used for I, and for n unless it appears before 1 or i. The u·
phoneme now appears as a diphthong, represented unphonetically
au (= ou). The doubling of s is retained before t. The spelling 11
replaces 00.
(e) ETYMOLOClCAL STYLE (1780-1840). The historical phonemes i
andy are strictly distinguished according to their etymology, though
the distinction is without relevance to pronunciation. This reform is
attributed to DobrovskY. Phonemes sand z are followed by i, noty.
(f) SAFARfK'S STYLE (1840-50). To the Czech Philological Section
of the Royal Society of Sciences Safafik, a Slovak, proposed on
June 2nd 1842 the abolition of g andy as representing thej-phoneme.
and ofj as representing {(though the symbol t had been used in the
Mala Strana Hymnbook as early as 1572). These overdue changes
had been anticipated by the Publications Committee of the Academy
when it published Vfehrd, a first volume of Old Czech texts. The
writing of initial uor au was left an open question. In 1844 Moravian
writers adopted the spellings ou (for au) and v (for w), but these
changes were opposed by SafaHk, Palacky, and others.
(g) MODERN STYLE (1850 onward) . Despite opposition from the
older writers the spellings ou and u came to stay. The Journal of the
Czech Museum for January 1850 opens with the word 'Vstoupiu . . .',
introducing an article by F. L. CelakovskY. Czech spelling is hence·
forward phonemic. At the turn ofthe present century an attempt was
made to suppress double consonants in loanwords, and to represent
ph and th byfand I respectively. Of these reforms all but the last have
taken root, thus hallada is now written halada. koncesse is written
koncese. phowgraphie is written fotografie. Modern practice hesitates
between the spellings these and tese (with occasional tlze). Slovak has
gone further and writes li.taJ while tcbl is proposed spelling for
both Slovak. and present Czech, text. Czech diagnosa displays all
the limitations of etymological spelling; in phonemic spelling this
would be dyjagnoza. Positional variants (glide-palatalizations) are
still unrepresented before i (thus kos/iJ htuii J oni for kosti, haai, oni),
and the spelling ch contradicts phonetic principle. Thc sound of ch
is represented phonetically in one word of Spanish origin J Mexiko
154 APPENDIX
(mtehiko). Long 0 (written 0) is optional in loanwords. thus f1I(Ida.
tona or m6da, tOna.
(h) liAvRANEK-Tu vNfl:EK STYLE. Reforms proposed in 1956 would
replace s by.c where so pronounced, thus tiQ.fi1o.coj, prt.tidnJl, ko~ul.
B. CHANGES IN PHONOLOGY BETWEEN 1100 AND 1600
The ambiguity of early Czech spelling and the uncertainty as to how
long old spellinp outlived changes in pronunciation make it impos-
sible to establish phonological milestones with accuracy. The chief
modifications are to vowels and vowel clusters; these took place
approximately in the following order:ja toje (before 1200); aj to 9
when prepalatalized (before 12oo);jU toji, i (before 1350); 6 to uo
(after 1375. but there are earlier traces); si to se. pfls to pfes, ellj to
eelj (before 1400); naj- to fIlIj-, U to ou, uo to tl, u to I (about 1500.
Chelcick'j's Si" Viery, 1440-3, and The Trojan Chronicle. 1468, still
have ntJj, u, uo, ie; B1ahoslav, Musika, 155B, has 9, au,d, I).
Of the consonants the change from (alleged) g to h is prior to
1100; f to f dates from about 1200, and the merging of I and I is
later than 1415.
C. MODERN CZECH DIALECTS
Dialect geography can be little more than approximate. Dialectal
regions arc seldom bounded by sharply definl':c1 frontiers eVl':n when
rivers and mountain ranges intervenl':j the definition is even less
APPENDIX 155
marked where geographical barriers are absent. Nor are common
dialect features necessarily contiguous; similar features may be
found in widely separated areas. The nonnalizing influence of
education has blurred distinctive dialect speech, and some of the
criteria given below have disappeared. Writers in dialect can express
non-standard phonemes only in terms of standard spelling; less
concemed with linguistic facts than with the telling of a story their
rustic dialogues do not ne<:essarily record the speech of anyone per-
son living at any particular time. Such writings must be assessed with
caution.
Traditional dialect areas are the following:
1. Western Czech. North ofa line joining Plsek with the juncture
Sumava-Cesky w. Chief town: Plzel't.
2. Southern Czech. South of a line Pisek-Jihlavske Vrchy. Chief
town: Ceske Bud~jov!ce.
3. Central Czech. East ofa line K.1adno-Pribram-Plsek. North ofa
line Plsek-Jihlavske Vrchy. West of the line Mlad! Boleslav-
Pod~brady-Kutna Hora-Jihlava. Chief town: Praha.
4. N.B. Czech. East of the line Mlad! Boleslav-Jihlava. West of
the Czecho-Moravian frontier. Eastern Czech subdialect: frontier
pocket enclosing Litom}'!1 and Policka. Chief towns: Hradec KraJove
and Pardubice.
5. Czecho-Moravian. Frontier heights round Jihlava, especially
to the S.W. Chief town: Jihlava. Subdialect round and N.E. of
Uar Heights.
6. Moravian (Hanak) . South of a line Jihlava-Olomouc, and
west of the Morava River. Subdialect spoken at Bmo.
7. Moravian Slovak. East of the Chnby Range, west of the White
Carpathians. Includes the lower basin of the Morava River. Chief
towns: Uherske Hradi!tt":, Kyjov.
B. Moravian Silesian. Area bounded by the rivers Opava, Odra.
and BeCva and the Slovak frontier. Chief town: Moravska Ostrava.
Chief criteria are the vowels and phonemic clusters. Twenty-six
of these have been selected; they are as follows:
I. d in krdsnd. 4. e in naIe dule.
2. din smdl se, pfdl. 5. e, I in 0 nlm. 0 naInn, 0 vJem
3. aj£ in mtlji, daja. 6. I, e in uidlL, slyId.
156 APPENDIX APPENDIX 157
,. 'in nou/ho, diu, mUko. 17. pi, etc. in pil, bil, vii, trefll. 18 dobR, EtItl; Igskovat; 20 tIll; 21 ddt; 22 dum, .rynum; 23 dlkuju, dllrujou;
8. tj in dei, ne}-. lB. H, It£ in dohft, ldll. 24 prauda, etc.; 25 novej, bejvd.
g. 1ft in mJdtl:i£. Ig. s&h in schood. Onn:R FEATURES: poudd = pouidd; tlOtJ1e = dlvlt; 11 zejml = v riml;

10. tin mln, fki. 20. III in jut!. tadykk = tadyhle; seuIim, vtIJIem = se vltm, VI vIem; tldl = dllal; molu,
11. j in jstm, jri. '21. ti in d4ti. mo[e1 = mollu, muttI: pomol! = pomoz!; s masllj =s mast!; tdtl)j = tdtl)ui.
HI. j injdu. 22 . d in dum, .rynum. (From Jirisek, U nds. Native dialect writer.)
13. M in Me, Mo. 23- uji, ujt in dJkuji, ilku}!. N.E. CZECH (BYSTR.t); 11 Stm, si; 15 oon.
14. mlin ml. 24. vd, un in pravda, q-OIlIlO. dirml. OtHER FEATUlU'.S: duk = dole; hil, z/tra = byl, zltra; kde = (also) Mm.
15. "in on, od, okM. '25. j in tWf!J. m{jn, bjud. E. CZECH (LrroMYh., PoutKA): 2 pfdlj 3 11Ulj, daj; 5 fI() ,rom, 00 nalom,
16. Oil injsou, moukou. '26. tfl in dwH. oou/om (T. Nova.kova.); 6 vidll, s!JIel; 7 notdho, djltj, mUko; 8 tkj, nej.;
WESTERN CZECH (CHaD STYLE): '2 smU se; pFll; 3 dail; 5 DO nom, naIom, 9 mldtlj; 10 mlf, fitt; 11 sem, si; 12 du and Mu (Novakova.); 13 de, do and
uIomj 6 mdll, sbIll; 7 ntJI!)'M, djl; B dej, ne}-; 9 mldti; 10 rnlI, feet; 11 jum, glk, gdo; 15 fl()n, DOd, vokno; 16 sou, moukou; Ig .skovat; 20 eIIl; 21 ddt;
jsij n dUi J31uU, Mo; 14 mland mi; 15 van, vod, vokno; 16jm, mUkuj 23 dlkuJu, dlkujou; 24 prauda, etc.; 25 novej, bejvd. According to Nova·
I7 pjii, bjit, etc.; 18 dobfi,le!l£j 20 elle; 21 adt; 22 dum, .rynom; 23 dlkuju, kova: 22 dum, .rynom; 18 leski.
dlkuju; 24 pravda and prauda, zrouna; 25 TllJfJej, mlejn, bejud. OTHER FEATURES: drwkom, hTltdkom = dnts, h~d; potomej, jenomej =

OTHER FEATURES: ltkdl. hukrdd, polkal, adl, pltil se = ltko.l, ukradl,
potJcaI, dllal, pial se; u-{el, -{alel, teky = u-{al, -{alal, taM; habysnu = aby-
thom; laite, prdl = lauiee, prauil; llal = lefl; dije se, smije SI = dlJt St,
smlJt St; fibtt, tepfiua = Mbtt, teprve; uiZlUlI = huizlUlI; eh/esll = Illsti;
eMdll, sedit, -{auffn, my!Unka = ehodil, stlllt, ,zauftn, my!knka; ehoudnut,
louJc """ ehladnouI, llofJlk; slUd' = sktt; mutu = mohu; !tyry = lryfi;
wmu = wenu: bJel = bil: wdll = vldlt; ndIe, nd1i = nalt, naJi; poskeh~
nite, diflk4 = posleelutlte, dlwlka; tim = tlm: muIlm = mw/m; Men, Ma,
lutl) c::: Jentl), ttJtI), toto; ~dvld = medvld; tuJik = tl)tik; dym = domu; bul =
byl.
SoUTHERN CzECH: 3 maJI; 7 mIlleo; 8 deJ; 10 mll: 11 som, siI; 131uU, Mo;
15 Oil and VDn; 16 mouJcou; 17 pJjl; 21 ddJ; 23 dlkujl; 25 nowj.
OrnER FEATURES: Hpa, ~jllp = fepa, nejlipe; Ime, IkpeJ, Itdrnout
(sporadically for) jsnu, skpj, stdrnout; Jane! = Jnu!;fldla = vlela;
Iltek = uukl.
CENTRAL CZECH: 7 notdho, djl, mUkc; 9 midtljl. I I mn, stI; 12 dUi 14 mnl;
15 fl()n, etc.; 18 dobrl; 19 sehovd; 20 eIll; 21 ddt; 23 dlkujll, dlkujou;
25 1I0Wj, etc.; 26 sehofi.
OTHER fEATURES:ji, s n!: dole; Iltek (= utekC) .
potom, jenom; dokonca, ukOtlea = dokonce, ukonee; pfijdout, najdout =
pfijft, najlt; k nlm,.s nlma,.s naIema, v nlch = k nim, s nimi, s naIimi, v nich;
vldlt, ehllt = vldlt, ehttl;jdit =jlt; rej!, repi = radlii; tatoj = Idtoui; na
nu, s nou = no ni, s nl; knlh = knih. (N.B. The above evidence is taken
from T. Novakova.'s Draiar. A native of Prague, married to a Southern
Czech, the writer lived in the Poli~ka area for nineteen years. There i!
evidence of uncertainty in her dialect records, thus abyehme and
abysnu, ktk and 1uU.)
CzECHo..MoRAVlAN: As E. Czech with occasional Moravianism!:
9 midtyou for midll,i, etc.; I I sem, stI; Ig skcvot; 20 tIlt; 24 pravtia.
0nuR FEATURES: no nu, s nou = na ni, s nl; dMska, luudka = tltw,
!md.
MORAVIAN (HANh): I krdmd; 2 smll St, pill; 3 maio, dajo; 4 nala du/a
(and ... doIa)5vo nhn, ... naiem, ... vIem6uidR and uid'il; 7 fII.Jtdho.
djl, mlikoj 8 dJ, ni·; 9 mldlfjo; 10 mlf, fief; 11 su, si; 12 dUi 13 de, do and
Me, Mo; mire; 15 fl()n, fl()d, vokno; 16 so, moko; 17 pil, etc.; 18 dobfl (dobri) ,
ltIll; Ig.skovaf; 20elle; 21 daf; 22 dum, .rynom; 23 dlkuju, dlkujo; 24pravda,
etc.; 25 nol!Y, mgn (and nove, mUn, with a 'closed' e) ; 26 z~hofi.
OUtER FEATURES: eheu prdeu = thci prdci, but lidi = lidl; na no, s no =

N.E. CZECH (NACHOD); 3 maj(f), lUlj{,); 6 lJit!al, s!JIal; 7 novyho and na ni, s nt; dule = dolej skala = skdla; leho, temu, stern, 0 tern = toho,
novjho, djl, mliko; 8 dej, ~j.; 9 mldtIJ{!); 10 mil, fict; 11 jsem,jseJ; 12jdu; tomu, .s tim, 0 tom; ~iilra = z'tra; padllile = padnlu; !ll = Id; vitt = vUe;
13 de, do, and gde, gdo; 14 ml; 15 fl()n and on, vokno and okno; 16 moukou; kde (gde, Me) = Me and kam (but dyt = kdyt); svajbd = svatbajpordEdm
 APPENDIX
(occasionally) = poroullm; obd = oha; moiu = mohu; lUre = try";
lom}, sodldk, votpolodne (occasionally) = lern}, sedldle, odpokdnej olIal;
= IJlJeZ; vizu (occasionally) = vidlm.
MORAVIAN SLOVAK: a loosely defined borderland of South-eastern
Moravia on the Slovak frontier broadly divisible into (I) ~i-ou-di alecu
and (2) iou-dialects of west and east respectively. Sometimes referred
to as 'Dolskf, this dialect-area is given western vowels by F. M. Bar-
to§ in Diakktologie moravskd, part I, and eastern vowels by Niederle in
Ndrodopis, Part I, Moravian Slovak, and by Josef Soukup, who
describes the dialect ofVala!sky Ktekov. The evidence is incomplete
and lacks consistency. Thus 2 smejl se (and ... sa), pfejl; 3 maju, daju;
4 naIa dula; 6 sb'Ial (Soukup); 7 nox:jM, mllko and mliilw; 8 dy, ny-, dej,
nej- and (Soukup) daj, naj-; 9 mlatija (at Babice), mldtijou (Barto§),
mldtiju (Niederle); 10 fief; 12 idu andjidu; 13 de, do; 14 mk and ne; 15
on,okno; 16 moukou (Bartoo), mUkU (Niederle, Soukup); 18 dobf£,ltI8; 20
elle; 21 ddfand daf; 25 nOIJej, mkjn (Bartoo), nox:j, m{jn (Niederle).
DTHERFEATURES: dneskaj = dtles; mna (emphatic for mne); miwd = mild;
biw = byl; dulo (vac. sing.); moju = mou (inst. sing.); potomd = potom;
padnite = padnlU; nafim = nalemu; prdcu = prdci. Eastern features
(Kfekov) are tnern = jenom; katdim = katdimu; in} = jinj; oM = oha;
prdcu (acc. sing.) = prdci;potern = potom; najednUc = najednou; oea = olii
po ryeh slovoeh = po t!eh sloveeh; doifho = do n!ho; hotfa, chyfn., invariable
act. part. = hod!, hodle, hodfce, etc.; hanba = hanba. Historical semi-
vowels in tlUlka beside tllka, slup, charpa, brlaf( = brulet), and slnilko.
MORAVIAN SILESIAN: characterized by short vowels and iotacism of e:
I krasna; 2 snial se, mol se, srnll se; pfal se, pfol se, phi se; 3 maju, daju;
4 nafa dula; 6 vidtel and vidfil; sb'Iel and stylil; 7 noveho, mlako and mlikoj
8 ~j and dojo nej- and noj·; 9 mlafa and mlofo; 10 mlt, fie; 11 sern and.rym,
.ry; 12 idu; 13 kaj (= k~), gdo and Mo; 14 ml and mm (acc. and dat.)j
15, on, od; 16 su, muku; 17 flil, Hil; 18 dobfi; 20 tIle; 21 dM; 22 dum,
.rynum; 23 dtekuju, 3rd plur. id.; 25 nol?)'.
OnmR FEATURES: dnlskaj and dniskaj; zautra and {Ytra; polo, mofo =
pok, mofe; teho, temu and rymu, 0 tern; s ifu = s nt; mojilw = miho; eud
tudi = cid lidl. Historical semivowel: dluho, butC£ variantssha,.ryha,
and slu.t,a 'teardrop'. Note vrana, skala, etc. as against Oz. vrdna, skdla,
but stolof, sedWf = slolaf, sedldf. Historically contracted d of Oz.
pfdtel, dobrd appears as 0 in pfotel, dobro.
APPENDIX 159
O. THE COMPOSITION OF CZECH VOCABULARY
(All items are given in their modern form in order to include recent
borrowings.)
Words common to Slavonic and other Indo-European languages:
I. oli, uli, srdce (-srdl); 2. mdf, bratr, sestra, ,ry'n, dcera, neW; 3. dva, In,
lryfi ... slo, Mc; 4. not, veetr, zernl, more, nehe, snlh, m/ha, djm; 5. zvife,
jtlen, bobr, vik, tur, myI, le/IJa,jef.ek, prase, los, owe, losos, slimak; 6. dum,
dutfe, hrad; 7. oiJe, vies, dfevo, zeU, mdle; f!mow:luJ, uosa, UDsk, rMdj g. semeno,
zmo, rel, Pir; 10. r&dlo, /lUz, osa, kow; I I. tesla, pila, seJ;yra, srp, !i'd/o,
stftla; 12. rnaso, sui, t!sto; 13. rudj, ;:elm}. Simple verbs, pronouns,
some prepositions.
Common Slavonic, including Balto·Slavonic words: I. hlava, ruJca,
noha, vias, etc.; 2. otee, llTIuk, did; 3. den, jitro, vzdueh, voda, feka, plsek,
skdla, Iwra, jezero, etc.; 4. kuif, krdva, pes, medvld, liIka, zmije, ryba, oreZ,
sokol, vrdna, etc.; 5. okno, prdh, stlna, zea, bfevno, most, ulice, etc.; 6. dub,
lipa, llska, ofech, jablko, hruJka, etc.; 7. ODes, plenice,;'elmen, mouka, mriuo,
etc.; 8. pluh, brdzda, brdny, mIat, pole, etc.; 9. felt/o, sit, sito, brdo, palice,
fdU, metla, etc.; 10. blij, lernj, ledj, etc.; I I. Buh, lcrt, peklo, bls, rdj, dul"
duch, hfich, etc. Most verbs and prepositions.
Common Slav words of Eastern origin: kniha (Assyr.-Bab.), klobouk
(Turk.), lraMt (Ar. via Per.), klobdsa (Ar.), papule (Per.), bohatjr (Per.
via Ukr.).
Common Slav words of Germanic origin: loa, mjlo (fr. Lat.), ch/ib,
mUko, chI um, buk,jilm, ehjIe, vith, kn/z, penl{., neb(u;ez.
Common Slav and Western Slav words of Greek origin (the majority
via Latin): drkev, almuina, kftiti, Kfestan, andll, d'dbel, biskup, varhany,
BiM, apoltol, sobota (Heb .),jepliJka, abatyle .
Common and Western Slav words of Latin origin: (a) Religious
terms: pohan, mle, hostie, kostel, oIMf, sakristie, paJie, dlkan, pedeI, pdttr.
(b) Secular terms: kopule, komora, osel, mezek (fr. Ck.); krahice, kapsa,
lepice, kolile, hounl; kmet, kmotr; mdta (fr. Gk.). angrtIt, locika, latvlj,
ribi.{., vino, ottt; mramor, otel.
Western Slav words via German: (a) kW/er (Lat.), opal (Gk.),jdh.m
(Gk.),jara (Gk.), Vdnote, kfil. (Lat.), l.ehnati (Lat.) , kalieh (Gk.), ialm
(Gk.), DOz. pelhFim (Lat.), oplatek (Lat.); (b) zdzvor, bluma, petrlel
.60 APPENDIX
(Gk.), rjle (Ok.), lemlt (Gk.), c,dute (Gk. via Lat.), koul (Gk. via Lat.),
bedna (Gk. via Lat.) , /CbtU". balant (Gk. via Lat.), kuchyi (Lat.); palliD,
kofllk, /c01l40, poh4r (all Lat.); told, kartdl, kamaIe, marr.tttka (all Fr.).
Western Slav words of German origin; oarua, bouda, br-tUk, dlk, drtU.
flrt~h. JUra, IuUlf, llaifa, hejtmall, Iwbllk, !wId, jarmark, kejkllf, !Mdll",
}ulDfiik, "rejcdT, mandle (Gk.). mmtltl. 11IOTtk, m!Meti, penile, plec", punloeM,
rele, ffmsa, FUt, rotmiltr, roura, rjluJ, rytif,ldkk, lelnuJ, 1illuzti, Jlcoda.lp£t"
IpulI/, tallf, truhla, .cazvor,lert, lid/t.lolc, iumpa, ivantc,
Loanword5 from French: admiral, major, baterie, kasdrna, arstrnU.
barikdda (It.); !ulita, re[isb, lOb; auto, gartil. Mole, kmtroiek, lVIuna,
inltnjrj hilidr, karry, marid1; batist, brokdt (It.), fMpelin. mulelin, etc.;
krtdmc, almdra, leoblr"; bi.t:drnl, piluJntnl,JMnl, vdgnl, go/antnI, /w..{ardnl;
blamd.t (via Ger.), pakd!. (via Ger.), kurd!..
Loanwords from English: sport,fo/hal, etc.; oftet, amplion, klaJc.son, etc.;
juta (Hind.), glot, mo"'r, theviot, manthesteT; luJueiok, montgomerdk; kaul.
Loanwords from Spanish: armdda, limondda, papowek.
Loanwords from Polish: kofalka, karte.
Loanwords from Russian: mys, majdk, hodry. Some naval terms and
animal names.
The above lists do not include the many hundreds of technical and
abstract loanwords that are common to most European languages.
Religiow Calques (literal translations, such as sou-tit = sym-pathia =
&om-passio): milost, milosrd{, pomilouati, blo.hoslDviti,prorok, spasiul,
stvafiul, po~ati, ktkati, zpovidati, !VItiti, mitost. Plsmo,
Folk-etymologies (words rationalized by being made to resemble
native terms): hTO{'inJca, sekjTovat, hfbitofJ, Iunoldif, whiM, hrubidn,
[isliM, havlM, pokrytet, paifdca, utlbloud, utlryha.
E. SENTENCE-FoRMATION
Much of fourteenth-century Czech literature is translated, and the
word-order tends to follow that of the original model. In the Alexan-
dreid adjectives precede nouns (this is normal practice) with the
frequent intercalation of a genitive, dative, or instrumental case. By
the third quarter of the fourteenth century word-order in prose
writing had assumed some of the characteristics of German syntax,
APPENDIX
especially in the position of main verbs in subordinate clauses. The
following illustrations are taken from StftnY's 'DiscountS for Sundays
and Holy Days' (1tNS), ,a.
1392.
'that', and Accusative with Infinitive
slyIlli jsle, el. ., 'you have heard that ... '
,h/ie, by Bdh so/Ial 'they want God to hear',
'if'
stop-/i , , , -VJttl~il jut 'if he stands .•. he has triumphed',
&htll-li by, el by mohl . , . 'if he wanted to be able ... '
jest-li, el ' .. ldd4w 'if we desire',
'though .• , neverthelw'
al ry uelWho daru dostojen mjsi, au dostOjMjest md velebnru' 'though thou
art not worthy of a great gift, nevertheless my greatness is worthy',
al ddn jest jtmU utlikj dar, vIak sdm sebU nit mni, 'though a great gift has
been given him, he is nothing in himself'.
kaUkoli lUtI, tuporuIenl panny majl.{vldItl [sic] kOfUllku v tubesieth . , ,vIaIe
Plsmo i ry ntl{jrHi ... 'though the chaste inviolate virgiru have a
distinctive crown in heaven, .. yet the Scripture calls even those
virgins (who, etc.)'.
'even though'
al by i to bylD .ca toI hliahy 'even though it be for thy sins',
'lest'
al tu inked umrlui nJkolw MU,h smrulnj 'lest mortal sin strike anyone
dead',
'without'
ani k taJcimu skutku , , ,povoUm4 'without our yielding to such an act',
'until'
at by si v Kristu Toenohli 'until they grow strong in Christ',
mtbdme, aljim i budtm obvdtdni 'we heed not until we are bound by it' ,
'before'
df/ve tul by si rovnohla 'before it gains power',
donidll rollmoprchm 'before the rose withers'.
M
 APPENDIX
'that, , , might , , .'
jelil by pfemohii sv! fIlpfduly 'that they might overcome their enemies',
'that, , ' not, , .'
tapovltill, aby i lddnj fIljtdl 'he ordered that none should eat',
'as , , , so ' , .'
jtlikl si jtdna 'O{11lot, stoUk mdll druM 'as the one increases, so the other
wanes',
'let', 'let not', Cr. Jussive construction
al fit skondm 'let me finish my speech',
filCh/ fku, cot mohU 'let them say what they can',
filch I nnninu i jtdni lUky 'let me not pass a single meadow',
'is to be'
ka! hi jest potkati 'how he is to be met',
'cause to do'
mdada jim klopotati 'not causing them to stumble',
a on ktkalJtmu ddti mlsto 'and he ordered him to surrender the town',
'how long'
dokudl bude [akali, nenuljut! . , , 'how long he will wait is not certain',
'so long as'
tknidll B6k laJcd , , , 'so long as God waits, . "
donidl kto chtt pfitltl bjli tolwto svlta, dottJd bof.lm bude fIlpFitUiem 'as long
as anyone wishes to be the friend of this world, so long will he be
God's enemy',
'nor'
ani my m6bm co dobrlho ulinili 'nor can we do any good',
'neither , , , nor, , .'
fIlbude mod ani !Upili ani prodati 'will be able neither to buy nor to sell',
'unless'
ltl si svu v6U podddmt, fIlmdtjinak zultlziti 'unless we submit of our own
free will we cannot otherwise triumph',
APPENDIX
'because'
p,oto ttj.ru si vzdvihiy dctry sionski 'because the daughters of Zion have
risen up',
'as if'
jako by bylo flleno 'as if it had been said',
'even then'
jelt! i tthdy fIlpFlstdvai 'even then do not desist',
'wherever'
kdtt by si k ndm pfivinul Krist 'wherever Christ may join us.'
'what, , , that, , .'
to, cot vduhnt B6h v nale mkt, to ndm povie fIl skrze uIi 'what God breathes
into our heart He does not tell us through the ean',
'when'
copak, kdyt lobi mut s fenu neshoviela, arub lobi om,zntta? 'what (of it)
when man and wife shall not agree or when they bore each other?'
'there, , , where, • "
tamje uvede dar boBt milostijamljsu byli, , ,upflli umysl'there does the
gift of God's grace lead them where they had fixed their intention',
'whether'
kto by chjbal, an (= a on) tolik svltIa , , ' pfintsl 'who would doubt
whether he had brought, , , so much light',
Purposive construction
torjest vdlt bofit, aby svati byli 'such is the will of God, that they may be
holy',
ehci jen aby Iwfal'l merely want it to burn' ,
abych vds !I jedni (fiE) rudrlal dlUho 'that I should not keep you long in
one discourse',
vivnlt, byclwm v tlmt ndsltdovali $Vat/ho Pav/a a aby byl jinjm ku pflkladu
'let us see that we follow St Paul in the same, and that he should be
an example for others',
 APPENDIX
APPENDIX
Hypothetical construction Participle constructions
kdyby byl pfi!el do svaM {em/'if he had come into the holy land'. ta toJci pfiIedJi pole chvdliti Hospodina 'who having also come began to
kdybyclwm u vlrnim mm vIi lMostl volali k Nlmu 'if we had called unto praise the Lord'.
Him, trusting in heart and with utmost desire' . tlksrrfm lddostem umflv,tiv jest duclwvnl 'having died for bodily desires
kdyl bychom podk tlksnjch f.ddostt poddali si Illu 'if we had submitted to is spiritually alive'.
the body by reason of bodily desires'. f!Y!el jest, sijl, ro;:,slvat, semene svllw 'there went forth a sower, sowing his
reed' . (BR)
Question construction Wikufovl. chtUce z tlto flli l?Yniknuti pravie, le to fllerw knltlm jest 'The
.{daJi tiv bude? 'will he be alive?' Wycliffians, wishing to avoid the issue, declare it was said to the
priests'. (Appendix to ttNs, not by the hand of SUtny.)
Auxiliary verb with infinitive lddajlce, at i hudu ndm dflvn! hfuIi odpuJtlni 'desiring, until our former
sins are forgiven also'.
mol si sdm milovati 'can love himself'.
malnu sl,jelikl. TTWhrlt ... 'let us strive as much as we can',
smll vlfiti 'dared believe'.
hudem cot mohUc odklddati ... 'we will delay as much as we can'.
jeIto i umfieti chill 'who even wanted to die' (but chtll, by tomu rO.cMmJli
'wanted them to understand it').
F. NOTE ON NUMERALS
majl mluviti 'are to speak'; md drOn bolu pfikd.{dnu 'is to keep God',
commandments' . The numerals tfi!, ltyfie have plural inflections; the numerals Pit,
ntrodte duchu pohaIovati 'seek not to quench the spirit'. lest, sedm, osm, devlt, and deslt have the singular inflections of type kost.
The singular inflections were later appropriated by the 'tens' above
Supine construction fifty on the analogy of those below, thus modern Czech has padesdt,
.{OVl dllat, pracovat do svI vinnicl 'he summons to work, to labour in his inflectedpade.rdti (where the inflection is not historical) on the analogy
vineyard'. of dvacet-dvaceti, tficet---tficeti. St1tny inflects numerals as follows :
I1 (dat.) kjtdnddcti; 12th (instr.) druhjmnadcet; 13 (Ioc.) v tfuhTllJdcet
Jussive construction (cf. 'let, let not') utech; 20 (gen.) do duUdcal ut; 21 (gen.) do jedenme~cietnw.; 22nd
pros BOM, a( si smiluje nad teM 'call upon God to have mercy upon dvamezcietmj; 30 tfidelt; 40 (gen.) 19fdcat dnl; 60 Iestdesdt; 70 (loc.) po
thee' . sedmidcat letech.
fUchOkU, col moM 'let them say what they can',
ndsledujrru 'let us follow',

Passive and Reflexive construction

lfastnj, v kterllkoli .{ tlch kto .{IlSlrUl v.{at bjn 'happy he who deserves to
be taken in any of them'.
lte si 'it is read. one reads'.
kdylf ddno bude 'when it will be given'.
hjti napomlndn, hjli napomenut 'to be reminded'.
tolik jut flleno 'so much has been said, is said'.
 INDEX

TO CZECH REFERENCES IN THE GRAMMAR

Numbers refer to paragraphs. Paragraphs I to 100 deal with Phooo--

logy, the remainder with Morphology. Numbers in italic refer to
paradigms. Ch follows h.
a,45 blabtati, lita
anglicky, 130 blbotati, 28
af, 142 blby, 44; 129
bledu, blbti, '49
baju, bati, 28; 159 bleeha (mod.). 9:1
banka (mod.), 112 bl6ti, str bledu
bati, se, baju blcha, 91 j 11 I
bati ~ , Ut boju s! blltka, z- (mDd.), 1:18
baviti, 16, bllzko (prep.), 14:<1
bdieti, Set btu bluju, blvati, 159
bertl, I 10, 1I4 bociu, b6sti, 149
beru, bri!.ti, 13. 26, 28, 40. 77; 101, '47. BOh, b6h,plur.: bozi, 118, 99; 103
148. 150 bohaty, 136
befi,511 boju st, bati st, 166
be:z, beze, '42 BolesIav, 131
bezm.aJa (mod.), 139 bofu, botiti, 167
Mhati, 181 hOOti, ' " bodu
bkh, '7' bozi, ,"Mh
beejl, 136 Bote, 105
Mleju, beleti, 165 boHe, 131
bMu, bef~ti. 166, 181 brada,67; I11
Biblie, 114- bradaty, 129
bieda, I11 brati, $U beruj inf.: ISI
-biehati, 182 bratr, 45j lOS, 120
biech,17' bratr6v, 127, 1118
bidy, 'oinJNuaji~.,: 136 brattie, 114
-bierati,58, 182 bray, brawi, 176
blj~ju. b!jt ti, 168 brdu, btisti, 33; 153
-biju, -hlti, 159 bm~, 113
hili, m -biju bnkj,136
168 INDEX INDEX 16 9
brzo, tomparatill4; 144 tirj,47 diet~, 119 duti, s" dmu
brf, hne, 144 cistajasna, z- (mod.), 128 dieti, s" diem. dva, dv~, 26, 118, 4B, 50; 103, 107, 139
bfezen (mod.). 105 lfsti, set tlu; inf: 181 dieti st, see d~je !~ dvefi, 1113
bf~zie, 33 &t1,36 dJlo (mDd.), 107 dv~ II~, 107
bfidkj. 1:t9 tiovo!;te, 105 divi, 47; 131 dv6j, 1119
bfiem~. 118 clun,92 divny, 129 dvojtata, 119
bficho (mod.), 107 trieti. Sit lru dIe, 142 dychati, SII dylu
bfisti, see btdu trot. 36, 92 dlieti, 89 dym,49; 102
bubel, 73 trpati,g2 dluh, 23, 114, 89 dyme tmd dyroa, djmati, 13; 14B
budu, budieclJ, Ife., 171 crt, 92 dlUho, cDmpa1'aliw: 144 dylu, dychati, 160
Buh, hUh (mod.). 105 eru, meti, 156 dhlhY,89 (twice); =pa1'alw.r: 136
but~, 113 m, 11I4 dmu, duti, 155
dna , 138
evandeIista, 1111
byk, g6 tso,14O
b'9If, 110 ttu, tisti, 33; 153 dnc:iek (mod.), 105 fabuIe, 100
.byt,95 ftvrt, 124 dno, 311 ferule, 100
btti, Sit jSetnj itif.: 16, ftvrtek, 105 do, 1411 filolog (mod.), 10.5
by tie, 110 ftytie, 124 doba, IHI
byv, byv§i, '76 fuju, l:uti, 159 dobry, 130, (;{/fllpa1'alw.r: 136 haj, g6
bjvati, 181 dobf~, cDmplUatir!l: 144 Mrati, 77
bzu, bdieti, 147. 1411. 166 d;1.le, l44 dobytek, 105 havM. 118
daleka, z- (t7Wd.), 128 docela (mod.), 1118 haz~ju, Mz~ti, 168
cB, ceIY. 27. 50, 99 daleko, cDmpa1'atWe: 144 dojka,511 hbity (mod.), 83
c8eju, cHeti, 165 d;1.m, diti, 171 d6l, 28; lOll hlava, I11
cma, 27. 52, gB; I11 dar, 48, g6; 125 d6m, 17,411; III5 hlad,97
ciediti, 36 dareba (mod.). 117 dopis, 105 hladky, 95; 136
cierkev, g8; 1116 dat (glJ1llld), 177 dopoledne, 109 hiM, 103
cirkua (mod.), 105 dati, s" dam; inf.: 181 doati, 100 ·hla~ti, 1811
co, l~O d;1.vati,181 dotek (mod.), 83 hllna, I11
cud,33 d;1.vno,45 dovoliti, dovolovati (mod.), 181 hit, lOll
-f, 140 dcera (mod.), 112, 120 drahy, 136 hltan, 117
fajlta, II1 dci, uo drati,57 hluchy, 95; 130
t!r,46 d ehet, 122 drafe, 144 hluk, 105
weo, 84. '43 do::ch,81 drbu, drbat (mod.), 157 hmyz. g6
~tf, comparative: 136 dBe, 144 drly, 129 hn;1.ti, Sll !enu; iI!/.: 181
fber,92 dell,136 drobet, Hl2 hniju tmd hdu, hnJti, 159
Cech, 99; lQt/ den, 91; loB, 116 dru, dfieti, 57; 156 hnu st, hmlti se, 163
telo, 27 dellll, 138 drva, 106 hil.u, sa hniju
femelice (mod.). '.1.7 drvoli';~p, 78 hoch (mod.), 105
deru, drati, 57; 150
ferny (mod.), 92 dmty, 28, 71 drlimy, 174 holomek,94
terpati (mod.), 9:<1 devef, 120 drlu, drl~ti, 101, 166 holub, 124
cert (mod.), 92 d~je st, dieti st, 159 dUve,l44 holliM,119
terven (mod.), 105 d~laju, d~lati, 147, 14B, 168 dftvo, 78; 106 honiti, 181
tesati, see feiu d~lat (gmmd), 177 dfieti, Jll dru h6f~, '44
leaky, 130 d~lati, su deIaju dfieve, 144 hot~ti,77
test, 124 d~lav, d~lav!i, 176 dfvi, 116, 118; lIlj (twice) hotl (=pafatiw q!dy), 136
tau, tesati, 160 d~lavati (mod.), 181 duben, 105 hofu, hof~ti, 166
tot!,84 d~ti, 119 duch,81 hoacu, hoatiti, 148. Sll also pohoatiti
tbt~jl. 136 dtva,IIl dui (mod.), 105 hoapoda, I III
cl, 27; '40 dtvl:e, 119 dum (mod.), 105 hospodaf, 94
tiest, 124 diera, 112 dU§~, 24, 81 hospodatiti, 94
 • 70 INDEX
INDEX
host, .,. lI6, 4', 51; Uj, 124 ehapiti.35
hostiti, 4U hoseu chot, 123 jb;!., 52 kanuti, 32
hov~ju, haved, '3. liB; '47. 165 chovu, chovati, 35; 151 jb;!.a, jb;!.uci, 173 kapati,32
hrabati, 7, chram,38 jbiu, j~ti, 171 li.asati, su kallJ.
hrabe, 119 ehtadnu, cb1adouti, 36; 164 jekc::u, jEktati, 160 WIu, ka!lati, 160
brad, 23. 118, 97; 105 chtieti, .tll cheu jH, 24, B4 ka!u, kasati, ISo
hr.i.ch, 104 chudeji, 144 j&n~, 24, B4 kavka, I11
hranic::e,9i cbudoba, 11 J j~ti, lujMu; iJif.: 181 kazati, se, Wu
htdtju, hrdeti, 165 cbudY. ~alw,: 134 j~tie, 69, 71, B4; 110 kaidy, 92
hrdiDa, IIIi chut, 35 jfvt, :it4, B4; 106 Utu, kallati, 160
hrdlo. 23. B9i 107, IlIB chuzl, 144 j~zditi, IBI kda, 143
brdY.89 cbvatati. chvatiti, 183 jho ('hint'), 57 kde, 143
hmec,lIJ chvEju ~, chvieti ~, 35; 159 jbo ('yoke'), 26, 30, 43, 59; 106, 107 kdo (mod'.), 140
bmek,89 c::hvoj,3 6 jhra, 112 kdy, 143
hrob, 77; 105 chvrasten, 38 jhraju, jhn1.ti, 159 k6 (mod.), 129
hryfu, hryzati, 160 c::hybati,35 jiem,jiesti, 46; 171 -Wdati, 182
hlada, Ill, Ill! -jiemati, IB2 kIadu, klisti, 149
htbieti, 77 j,jE,je, 127, Ij8 jiesti, IU jiem kIamu, k.lamati, 157
hlbitov, 105 ja, 137 jieti ('to take'), Gg, 71, B4 k.lapu, kIapati (17Wd.), 157
hfeben, 11, jablko, 107 jiezva,52 kIMti, Sll k.ladlJ.; iJif.: IBI
htebu, hfbti, 77. 149 jalOVY,45 -jidd~ti, 182 kI"ter, t8
hfec, 92 jama,IIJ jib (mod.), 104 kIati, III koIu
Mali, III hfebu jam, 24 jlcha, III juc::ha kI~ti, s" ldnu
.hfebati, 77 juan, 4B, B4 jO,51 -k.lahi, I B2
hMju, hrieti, 159 jamy. 24, B4 Jiff (1Md.), 110 kInu, kl~ti, 155
hfieti, 77. 159.111 hfeju jat,jaty, 69, 71, B4; 129 jlskaci, 50 kIllb, 73
huba, I11 jatra, 69, 70; 106, 107 jlti, see jdu kIubko (mod.), 73
hudu, hdsti, 149 javo, 24, B2, B4, BSi 106 jmim,jmieti,I71 Huju, klvi!.ti, 159
HWI, u3. 124 jb,137 jmtno (17Wd.), 107 (Iwit', ) kluk (mod.), 105
hW3, III jazyk, 104, 105 jmE, liB klU!u, kluzati, 160
hUser. IlIO jdu, jlti, 171 jmieti, Stl jmam klvati, lee kluju
hdsti, III hudu jeden, 39; 139 jmievati, IBI lunen, 117
hWltina,94 jedenie. 110 jla, 60 kmet, 124
hUlee, 144- jeho, 57 jmu ('to him'), 57 Ir.nb:,I08, 110
hvb:da,23 jelen, 39; 117 jmu ('I take'),jieti, 147, ItB, 155,lIIaUo knMI (mod.), 110
hybju, hybati, 83; 14'. 160 jem, jemli, 176 jieti knMie, 114
hynu, hynuti, 147. 163 jemu,57 jsem, byti, 13; 171 knieha, 112
jen (/JroNJUII), 138 jlu, 72 knid!, 119
eMpu, eMparl (lIUId.). 157 J ene, 105 ju, 73 Ir.otl, 11 0, 114
·chaztti, 182 jen!, 141 jueha,jlcba, 31, 49 Ir.olem, 142
chcu and chocu, chtieti, 23; 1,1 jenb,3B JutI, HO Ir.olenou (17Wd.), 107
chladno. 107 jeptilka, 39 ju!,~ lr.olC$8., 121
chlap, 103 jes, jesen, tB, 84 koliko, 139
chla~, 1(9 jeseii, 39 It, Ite, ku, 14!! kolu, klati, 160
chUb, 105 jeskynE (1tWd.), 113 kady, 143 kolo,59
chl~. 10,5 j est, 40 kachna, III komoly (mod.), 44-
chllld. 36 jdlo, 141 kak, 143 konec,23
(hocu, Set cbeu je!et'O, 23, 39; 107 kal, 45, g6 Ir.onfesl, 1'4
choditi, 181 jd: (rel. jlrONJUtI), 141 kalhoty (mod.), 103 k6ii, 24; lOB
chodlvat (mod.), ,81 jEemen, 117 ki!.men, 117 kopec::, 27, 4', 91; 108
Ir.amenie, I 10 kopu, kopad, 2'. 157
 INDEX '73
'7' INDEX
m«h,35
kofan, do - , 117 kynu, kynuti, 163 loket, !l3; I!I!I
kahn, 1f7 kyvu, kyvati, 157 10ni,68 m!n, m~, 15, 52
kOllt, Il(] lopot, 124 mbicc, loB, 173
kostd, 1011, 105 lahnu,lahnuti. 164 mBtblln, I 17
losos, 44-
m~td, SlI matu
koUi!,119 lah6dka,94 lovtl, 110, 114
ko!ule, 100 lahu, l&:i, 152 loie, 4!1; 109, 121 mhla, 91; I I I
tOld, 10:! laju, Uti, 159 -Ioiu, _loiiti, 1«.8; set pololu, polonti mi,5 2
kotl, 119 Iakota,94- miera, I l l , I n
lubiti, 54
limu, Iamati (mod.), 157 _mierati, 182
kovati, 157, 169 ruby, 54; 1!l9
Ir.ovu, lr.ovati (mod.), 157 lan.itva, 94 miesti, SII matu
I11t, 123
Jr.6.te, 113 Ib:.i, III lahu ludie, 51, 54; 1!l3 miestru, 131
krabic!, 67. 100; (uabice) 113 lecu, Ict~ti, 166 iun, 112 miesto (prep.), I~
kradmo, 143 led, us l\lka, Ill, 112 mieti, ue mnu
mJj~ju, mlj~ti, 147, 165, 168
kraj,96 leden, 105 luna, 29, 55; I11
kraj~l, 85. 110, 114- ledvie, 114- lyiu s~, Iyziti S!, 167 milosrdie, 27, 88, 89
Wkohl, krikorati, 6,; 160 legacl, 114 Hu, ihati, 160 mimo,142
kral, 108, 127 lebt~j!1, 135
minu, minuti, 147, 1«.8, 161
ImUev, 127. IllS lehkt, 129 mad:cha,94 minuv, minuwi, 176
kraliju, kralevati, 13; 147, 148. 170 leju, I~ti, 159 major, 11«. sing.: majore, 105 mli'l (mod.), 144-
kril6v, 127. 1:18 leknu S!, leknllti S!, 162 mak, g6 miuti, SII milu
krapet, 122 len, 23, 41, 91 maIo, '39, rom/JMatioe: 144- mbto (mod.), 107
krisa, 95; I1I len~ju, len~ti, 165 malt, comparlltiw: 136 milu, mi.sali, 160
kratk1. 136 IUI, 46; 1!.I3, 131 MaH,114 mil;ina, 94
kriV8, 112 Icp, 91; 102 m;Wo, 38 mknu, mknuti, 16!1
krejli (mod.). 8s I~pe, 144-
mitu, mltl/;ti, 166
maso,7°
ml~ko, 107
mm, mm!, 142 Icpl, 135, 136 mast, 34
krpec.44- les, 103, 105 mau, 7' mlet, 175
mI~ti, SII mel'u
Juyju, kryti, 14/3, 159 lest, 41, 9 1; u3 matcH, 131
kfemen, 117 Mtati, 181 matelin, 1!l7, 1!l8 mlolr., 67
kfesati, see !dau letcctvo (mod.), 107 mati, mat~, 45; uo mlyu, 105
liest!nin, loS, 117 let~ti, stllccu; in/: 181 matka (mod.), uo mne, 60
kfdu. ldesati, 160 liti, Set leju matu, miesti, 79, 84; 152 mnl/;, 59, 60
kfit':u, kfiteti, 166 I~to, 106, 107 mazati, 34, 38. tOO rnnich,43
kfldloma (mod.). 107 letos, 138 mAzdra,38 mnohem (mod.), 139
kfiknu, kfikndti. 1611 levy, 50; 1!l9 mdu, mazati, 160; Sll mazati rnnoho, 59; 139
kflf:,96 Id, 41, 43, 91 mdleju, mdleti, 165 mnohy, 59; 139
lr.tery, :17; '41 Idu,ld~ti, 16, 77; 166 mccu, metati, 160 mnu, mieti, 155
mnu, mnieti, 166
kto,14O lhati, see l!u tmd Ihu med, 40; 1°4, 125
ktQ!, 14' ihostajny, mod.: ihostcjny, 85 meduju, medovati (mod.), 1«.8 moc, 35; 123
kuju, kovati, 169 Ihu, !hati (mod.), 154 medvM. I!l4 moh, mohli, 176
Ir:upiti, 181 libo, 14!1 mech, 43, 91 mohu, mod, 35; 149
kupole, 100 !fee, 109 mel'u, ml~ti, 13. 147, 160, 175 moo, see mohu
lr.upuju, lr.upovati, 147, 148, 16g, 181 lid~ (rruJd.), 1!l4 m~ne, J44- m6j, mojl/;, moje, 24; 1!l9
hIR,I19 liju tmd lu,llti, 159 mem, 41, 91; 135, 136 moknu, moknuti, 13; 1«.8
!r.dl,73 listie, 110 mest, 43, 9 1 mofe, 29, 39, 42; log
Ir.vi!t, 23, 80 llti, see liju moro, Illofiti, 44-
met, 91
Ir.vtten, 105 l.I!u, llzati, 160 metati, J t, mccu most, 105
hil,80 loaf, 108 mez (mod.) , 113 mom, 36
lr.vte, ltvisti. Bo; 153 locika, 35 meze, 17, 33, 86; 113 mramor, 67
kt. 52; l!Zg. 140 lodl, lodie. 68; 110, "4 mezi, 142 (twice) mm, 97; 103
 '74 INDEX
mrcev, mrtvj, 911:; 129
INDEX '75
nesu, n~ti, 15; '49, 181 Permenio, Penneni6v, 1!OI7
mrt (mod.), 41 okolo, 142
neltaslnt, 130 pero, 32; (mod. pb'o), 107 (twiu)
mru, mfieti, 57; 156 oidfju,oldieli, 159
net, netet, 32; 120 (Iwiu) olenu S!, oleniti sf, 167 peru, pn!.ti, 150
mfieti, see mru nC!kde, '43
mAic!,35 omraliti, IB3 pelina, 94
ni,5 I
rnulnt, 111:9 nie, IJt, 110 on, ona. ono, 137, 13B peatrf (mod.), 92
mucha, II1 opru, opfieli, 156 pfju, pieri, 159
nice, 110
mUD,95 opfieti, JU opru pbt, 124
nilse, I/O
muka, 95; III orati, JII oru pB,13 1
nilte, '40
mutiti, 79 nU, 124- orel, 105 pfl, ::14, 70,84; 1::14
mubtvo,107 oru,orati, 13; 160 pieti, III (I) pnu, (2) pfju
Doe, 23, 29, 35, 42; 115, 116, 123 piju and piu, plti, 47; 159
my, 137 nodvati, Jtt nociju os, 34. 39; 123
myju, mjti. 159 osel, 10::1 pila, III
n6ci, a - , 138 plla, III
mysliti, SII myllu aset, 122
nociju, nocfvati, 13; 148, 170 asika (mod.), 32 pau, p$1ti, 160
myl, 31, 49; 123 noha, I l l , 112
mylru, m y.liti, 167 O!Itrov, 105 pit, 95
nos, 105
mzda, 36, 38, 91; 112 olt~fju, otli.~fti. 168 plti, In piju, piu
n05u, n03iti, 13; inf.; IBI pitie, 110
otc6v, 127, 128
nov, novy, 52. 54; 129 otee, lOO, 108 pitomy. 174
na, 142 (twiu) novfjl,24
oat, 140 otevru, otevfieti, 57; 156 piu, It, piju
novoltf (mod.), loB otieti, Jt, otmu platu, piakati, 160
na&f, 140 nozf, 99; 112
natrt, 92 otmu,otieti, 154 plakati, In platu
nr, 60; 137 otnaifju, otnMfti, 168 plamen, I 17
nad, nade, '411: (twia) nyju. nyti, B2; 159, 167
nadace, 113 otpOCinu, otpolinuti, 46; 161 piapolu, plapolati, 160
n!u. m:ieti, 166
naden!, 141 otvieraju, otvierati, 58 plat,96
naden, 138 ovcf, 100 plati, JlI polu
0, 142 (twic#) plav, plavy, 64
Dadluz~, 144 ovoce, 109
oba, oM, 103, 139 plavu, plavati, 81; 157
namaie (mod.). 139 ObU,I13
namazati, 183 padu, pasti, 149 pl~mf, liB
obe<: (mod.), 113 plbti, Stl pletll
namno~ e (mod.), 139 pamH, 41; 1!OI3
ob&i, 105
naplniti, napinovati, 181, 183 pan, w<. sing.: pane, 105 .pl~tati, 77
obleku, obl~ci, 149 pl~ti, In pievu
naproti, '42 ob6j, 129 panl, Il~
nap$3ti, 181, 183 panuju, panovati, 13; 148 pletu, plbti, 35, 77; 149
obr, DOt:. sing.: oble, 105 plevu, p[~ti, 158
narod. 104 obrva, 126 pUl,13 1
naroditi st, 18) pap!r, 104 pin, plny, 24, 88, Bg; 129, 134 «(om-
obuju, obuti, 159 pilu, parati, 160 parotillt)
nautili, I83 ocel, gB
mu,¥! p:l..smo (mod.), 107 plna hrdla, z - (mod.), uB
ocel, 9EI
nmp (mod.), 83 puti, m (I) padu, (2) P&u plot, 77
<It,I40 PlUtva, I11 plovu, pluti, tlI)f.: pluch, 13,40, BI; 158
rutsil~, 110 <lti, 107, I!J3
nO, naJ~, oale, 139 p&tvee,9::1 pIt, 81, go, 91
od, ode, 142
-rulJC!ti, 182 pastyt. 60; loB plucf, log
odonud. 143 pluch, 13, 146, SeI plovu
m1v, U4 pasu, pisti, 13, 34; 149
odpoledne, log
naviti, 82; 167 pat, 71 pluti, III ploVll
oheb (mod.), 83
nebe, log, UT pity, 24, B4 plytva,81
ohen, 44; loB, 124
nebesa, 120 pec,35 pnu, pieti, 147, 155
ohlisiti, 183
nebYI, 142 peci (imjHrlltillt), 99 po, 21: 107, '42 (thrll timu)
ohi\ovy, 129
nedaleko (prep.). 142 p&:i, see peku; inf.: 35; 146 pobluditi, IB3
ochevny, 133 petu (mod.) , 101 pocu, potiti, 13
nebet, 87; 111:2 ochuditi, 183
nepfietel, 108 pek, peldi, 176 pot, 140
oje, 52
nes, nes§i, I 76 peku, ~ci, 146, 149 pol:ieti, set pOCnu
oklamali, IB3
penieze, 108 pOClsti, 183
 I)6 INDEX INDEX
pOCnu, potieti, 155 prosptju, pros~ti, 36; 183 rd~ju s!, relicti d, 13,43; 147, ,,.s, 165 filii, SlI fcvu and f'uju
pod, pode, '42 (twic.) prostrt, 17.5 relate (mod.), 113 tva ti, III tcvu
podtl, '42 prost? 36 relacl, "4
podl~, '42 prod, '411 rcpcu, rcptati, 148 I,se (prep.), 142 (twiu)
podzim, 105 pna,12. rez (mod.), 113 I,acn (prOIlOlDl), IJ8
pohlcu. pohltiti, '3; 16, pm, 124 ref, 4', 43, 9 1 aaditi, 167
pohQICu, pohostiti, 13; 167 pnou (mod.), 107 robe,68 lAd1o,II3
poehcv, 126 ~u,~uti, 164
pnt, '5. 117 rod,33
pochva (mod.), 126 prsten, 117 rodiCc, 108 aadu, siesti, 152
powiti, ,83 pm:w:, pfieti~. IS6 roh, plur.: roti, 118; 10~, 105 sihati, 183
pokrmiti, 183 pruint.36 rok, 102, 105 sahnuti, 183
p61,11I5 pfadu, ptiesti, 15~ role, 68 tahu, sad, licci, 14; 147, 1511
pole, log pfahu, pfied, 36; 1511 roll, 114 $Am, sama, ~o, 139
poledne, 109 pfcdati, pfcdavati (mod), 181 ronlm, roniti (mad.), 44 tApu, $Apati, 157
poled, Uf poru pfedscda (mod.), 1111 ronu, ronuti, 13; l,.s, 161 aad;, 77
poloba, liB pf~-, 1411 tA:r.fju, sAdti, 24; 101, 14', l,.a, 168
r6st, 33
polozl;, tU poJoha pfUisti, 181, 183 tOIItu, r6sti, 33 Ibicraju, sbierati, 58
polofu. poloiiti, '3; ,6,; bI/.: 18, ptM, pf&:ic, 14~ (Iwi&,) roucho (mod.), 107 lbor, 77
poru, plAti, aIId paled. 160 ptedel'l, 136 rot·, 23; 1411 sedl', scd.ied, 173
pomalu, '39. '43 pfMII, "4 sedl'ti, su sczu
ro1fiti, 183
pomluviti, 183 pUju, pfieti, 159, 165 ~l id s!, 183 ledl jscm, 171
pondl!:lek (mod.), 10,5 ptes, pt!.:, 1411 rot ti, 183 sedlAf, It)O, 110
pop]uti, 183 pfi, 1411 rot;, III roh acdlo, 119, 77
poraditi, 183 pfiblliiti S!:, 183 rofcn, rote", 66 sejmu aM scumu, tnieti, 155
posel, 105 pfied, I" pfahu rtoma, 105 scmemif, 108
posice (mod.). 113 pfiesti, IN pfadu rod, 117, 99; 112 ICIIlcno (mod.), 107
pospieehaju, poapiechati, 168 pfietcl, 85; 108 rot, 131 $CJI (,dream' ), 1I3, 311, 43, 91; 102
postaviti, 183 pfieti, I" pf~ju rW!~, 143 scn (pronoun), 138
postel (mod.), 113 pficti ~, III pro st rodj, 29, 55; 129 $CJImu, Jee scjmu
postrl1iu, postrUhati, 160 pfijmu, plijieti, '!is roch, 105 $CSttin, 1117.128
polIepmo, '43 ptiklad (mod.), 105 roka, 37; 111, 1111 &ever (mod.), 104
pot, 35 pHtcl (mod.), III pfictd rukoj~t, 1114 sczu, sedhi, 13; 166
potid, IU potu pHtclkyn~ (mod.), 113 <i~ g6 .Maju, sMati, 13. 77; 168
poul (mod.), 124 pd.f, 108 ryju, Jjti, ' !i9 -s&llj, 1119
povlaka,64 pd.ti, III pOu; it{.: 181 nl', 23, 43; 113 KjU, dcti, 159
pozd!, 38 PStrt,911 riu, mti, 160 Kku, ded, 149
pracovat (zmmd). 177 pu~, 119 fad, Gg, 14 sMd, sa sahu
pradlf, 114 put, 711; 123 (Iwiu) f:i.d, Gg, 84 .clinu, schnuti, l,.a, 1611
pd.h,97 pytu, pykati, 160 fcbfl, 110 lie, 131
pta3!, 65; 119 pYcha, Ill, 112 fcbro,38 . ice, 143
prati, peru
IU pykati, su pytu fchcu, fehtati, 13; 160 liel, 139
prl.VQ, 107 (twiu) fcfh'Y, 38, 77 l icci, JU (I) sahu, (11) ~ku
pro, 117; 142 ri.dlo,68 few, lvati, and Nti, 150 lieml', 46; 118
probudu, prob9ti. '7' radon, radOlti, 100 nditel, Gg, 14 licsti, III sadu; it{.: 167
proeesl, 114 rakcv, 1116 utu, fbati, 160 lieti, su KjU
prOC, 140 ramcnou (PMd.), 107 ficci, lee fku sUa, 95; Ill, 112
prodej,8s ram~, 113; 118 ficditi, Gg, 84 .Unj, U9
proithati, 77 r:i.na, 1111 fljen (mad.), 105 sipju, si~ti. 166
prOTaditi, 183 rano, 107 fku, fiw, (lful feci, 147, 148, 153 .kifu, skAkati, 160
pl'OIIiv, pl"OIIivli, '76 rataj, 108 fuju, 159 skakati, It' sklil'u

N
'78 JNDEX JNDEX '79
.Ula, 1If, 1111 snieh, 28, 52 .traka, I 11 Imbu, lmbati (m"".), 157
.uti, lit nu .mesti, 183 striU, 78 ilapu, lIapati (mod.), 157
.k1ad, 105 .nicti, su aejmu .trm:9, 77 l ie, 35
illep, 105 sruh (mod.), 105 Itrom, 77; 105 Uu, '" leru
1lt61a. s6 SIlovati, IN snuju strop, 105 Ipiu, IN spiu
uon~iti, 183 muju, movari, IGg stru, stfieti, 57; 15 6 luf, 124
uop, 36 sOl. 1113 .I:r'!W, 124 Ivadll, 11 4
.kofu, tkofiti, 44; 167 soudtuh (mod.), 105 sttemen (!Md.), su lUmen Ivec, 9'2
akryti, 183 souhlas (mod.), 104- .tfemhlav, 77 lvitofiti (mod.), 13
dn, Une, '4!'/ sovati, u, luj u stfenb (!Md.), lU denb
illebtati, 36 spasitd, 94. 108 .tftd (!Md.: stfed), 23; 104 lib, tihli, I 76
Utemen, 1 1 7 spat (ztnmd), 177 ,lfbia (mod.: stfcda), 104- lAbati, 183
.ktIpu, Ikfipati (mod.) , 151 spati, sn spju slUhu, sdtci, tJNi sdieci, 78 i 147, 1,5 1 ~u, lAhnliti, 164, 183
nu, 'Uli, 154 specb,3 1 sdeJa, 4fi tabu, lAhnliti, 152, 183
ilkubu, RUsti, 31t; ' 49 sptju, spieti, 159 slficl, SlI stfihu u,jemne,8s
skWti, lit skubu sp8n:9, cfmlJuull.livt: 136 sttieti, lU stru tajne,8s
.kytu, u9sti, 33; 153 spid,l44 stfibu, stHcl, 149 taj nt,85
.labj,95 spide, spidf, 136 still (mod.), 105 lAl, 124
, lad, 23. 66 spieli, SlI spCju ItP.U st, stydeti st, 166 lapu, tapati (mod.) , 1,57
Iladkj.66; 1119 spiu II.tId ipiu, spati, 166 IUe, 28, 99 ta ta, I11
.lima,64 spfahu, spfieci, SlI prabu, pried; Uif.. lud, 125 lAnti se, s" tidu se
.lut,33 s"
(tieti, tku
"Ali, sa leru
dBva, 81
'"
spu, .Uti,
.rd«,
'Sa
100; l og
I UjU, sovati, 16g
such:9, 31, 53; 136
s-o.std, 127
tdy, 143
tebe,60
..lech,8 1 srp, 44, 8g Jlbtd6v, 127 ttci,s" tau
IIi!m!, 11 6 srpen, 105 tIlti, '" spu tehda, tebdy, 143
l i epola, I I1 ssu, ssati, '54 Ivate (mod.), 84 tejn~, 85
Ilczeft, 36; 117 staje, 36, ?6 Ivalt,84' 130, """ptulltiol: 136 tek, teldi , 176
dimtk (mod'),!i! staletl (!Md.), 110 wet, So; 105 teku, teci
aioveao, 121 stan, ' 25 wete, tJdu. , 84 ten, ta, to, ,j8, 139
alovo, 5-4. 59. 81; 10,. 1111 ,!aDU, stAti, 171 wttejl, svelej1f, 84; 136 teneto, plllT: ten.ata, 87; 106
liovu, ,lull, 40. 81; 158 starosta, I 12 avietiti, So tepati, s" tepu
aIllbiti~. 183 slAti, lU stoju II.tId s!anu; ilIf.: 167 sv6j, M, wt, 129 teplo, 107
dUditi, 183 stblo, 91 ,tvie st, So tepu, tepati, 147, 157
duh., lilt IItblo (!Md.), 9!1 sudf, 110, "4 teraz (Slovak), 138
lluch,61 Itehuju,ltehovati, 13; 16g .Ulofie, 110 taati, S" tdu
dub,lll -It8ati, 182 lVeUev, svarvy, u6 teslo, 38; 106
aluUju, tluUli, 16,5 sldu, stlati, 160 ayn, 49; 11.5 tat, 124
.hlti, IN slovu stalmu, staknuti, 162 synagoga, I 12 tdu, tesati, 13, 38; 147, 1..,8, 160
altchati,8 1 stMu, stMiti, 13,28; 1408, 16? synu, lIOC. sing., 105 tekaju, I~kati, 13
llylu. , lyUti, 81; ,66 stiekati K, 77 IYPU, sypati (mad.), 83; 157 Itleso (mod.), 121
am~ju. unieti, aM amlti, 165 stidl·,36 ituka, II1 tMu, tMeti, 166
am!ju K, ,mieti.e, 1.59 --suerati, IS2 led, k<l!i, 1 76 ti,5 2
amieti sE, Jlf sm~ju stihnu, stihnliti, 147, 1..,8, 162 Idu II.tId Uu, siati, 160 tiehnuti, m tabu
am6la, III stIati, SN .tdu kst:9, 129 tieme, 118
Imrl, 41,89; 123 110, 27, 74; /06 lclfiti, 35 _tierati, 182
In'ch, vc - (mod.), 104 slOju, stati, ,6, 82; 166 liju II.IIl.I !iu, Uti, 49. '47, 148, '59 tieti, SII tnu
Inacha, 9!1j 105 lif, 124 tie~u se, tazati K, 160
stoletl, plur.: stalet! (nwd.), 110
lIlcm, 92 ston, 42; 102 lit, !it:9, 95. 129 tich9, 33
In~hory. 118, .54; 1119 st6iiu, stonati, 13; 160 Jiu, see Jiju tis, 33
 INDEX .0 •
• 80 INDEX
tUi~c. 108, 116, 173 uboh1. 130 vu, -tBi 137 vhva, 52
risk, 81 ubytuju, ubytovati, 13; 16g vU, vue, vale, 139 vchod, 105
tUk, tiaUi, 176 utesati, 183 vtzati, 183 vid, 51, 60
tisknu, ti$knuti,81; 16~ uliniti, 183 v.i.znu, vaznuti, 164, 183 vid_, vidua, 173
tknu, tknuti, 162 Odaj (1)NId.), 85 vazu (I), vaditi, -tBi 167 vid&lt, 129
tku (I), Itieti, 153 ud!lati, 183 vazu (2), viesti tItId viati, 1511 vidl:ti, IN vizu
tku (2). tkiti, 154 uhd,I24 _WUti, 1811 vidh', vid!vli, 1']6
tlupa. B9 dhd, 23. 43. 73. 91; IO~ wova, 17, 30, 41, 50 (twiu), 91; III vidin_, 94; III
vidom,174
_9' Uhry, 103 ve<:e, '7 1
vidom1, 129
Inu, lieu, 32, 57; 155 ucho, 31; 107 vcter, lOll, 104
tobl,60 ulice (mH.), 113 veten (mCId'.: vetefe), 104 viece, 144
tok, 77, 99 vettrO$, 138 viem, ved~ti, 511; 171, 173
Ulob, "
lolilr.o,139 um,811 ved, vedJi, 1']6 viera, 46, 95; III
tonu, tonuti, 32; 163 umo!;ju, umo!;ti, 165 ved', vedo!;, 80 -vierati, 182
lopiti, :ill umieraju, umierati, 58 ved.nj, 1119 vieste, 33
tradicc: (mod.), 113 Umrt, 89; 1113 ved1e, 1411 viesti, viezti, IN VllZU
trava, I11 umrtviti, 13 vedu, vbti, 15, 33; lpj, 149, 180 vieti, IN vlje
traviti,82 unaviti, 183 (ana{l>sis) vielu, vhat;, 160
treUo, 106 .mor, 105 vejce (mod.), log viju tmd viu, vlti, 46; 159
treskcu, tresktati, 160 uptci, 163 yell, 136 viJu, vis!ti, 166
tresl, 9' j 1:14 uplt3ti, 183 Velikonoce, 115, 116 vitaju, vitati, 168
Irhaju, Irhati t 44 uprostted. 1411 velikj, 130 vhr (mDd.), 105
trhnu, trhnuti, 162 utad, 105 velim, 144 viu, IN viju
1rn,8g uslyio!;ti, 183 vizu, vid~ti, 13,80; 147, 1-tB, 166
vdm~, 143
tr6j, 129 Wlnu, usnuti, 163 vdmi,l44 vladu, vluti, 149
trovu, tnlti, 82 Wltav, 105 vdu, veleti, 160 vlAdyka, 112
Irpju, trpeti. '3: 166 o.stie, 110 ven, 33 vlak, 64, 78, g6
tru, tfieti, 57; '47. 1411. '56, '75 ustU.ti, 183 venkov, 105 vlUti, III vladu
trull, 117 Usvit,6o ves ('village'), 91; 1113 vitci, St, vldr.u
Wti t III trovu u!i (m ucho), 31, 53; 107, lU ves, vd (,all'), 13~ -vl&ati, 78
tfasu, tfiati, 152 ullti, 183 vc:slo, sS; 106 vldr.u, vlta, 611, ,8; 149
IteU, 91 j 131 ulitj (IVMdr.), 1119 vcsna, I1I vlk, ,8, 8g
ttfmcn,63 uterdr. (mod.), 105 vbti.suveduandvexu;Uif.: 181 vina, 23, 8g; I t I
ttmka,63 ulerj, ?4 vettas, 138 vlnaf, 108
tltp.23 utBiti, 183 vtvoda, 112 vinatj, 1119
tift, 175 utidr.aju, utidr.ati, sS vezmu, V1ieti, 155 vniblu, vniknuti, 1611
tfie, tfi t 27. 51; u,J. 124 utieraju, utierati, sS vezu, v&.ti, 13, 118, 38, 40; 147. 1-tB, vnii, 143
tfiesti, ut tfasu uvid~ti, 183 149; Uif.: 181 vnovl: (mod.), 1118
Ilieti, IU tru uvnitf (mCId'.), 1411 vb:. 124 vnutt, 119
00, 3B, 43 w:fieti, 163 v~I, 136 vflu!, 143
tutny, 129 U!bt, 1113 vb::l,80 v6ti, 14\1
tur, 52, 53. 59; IOZ uiina,47; III vb::la, vb::luci, 173 voda, III
tuHt 131 vMl, 80; 171 vodnl,13'
tv6j, lva, tv~, 129 v, ve, 1411 (Iwic,) vb::l~ti, IN viem v61,1115
Imy. 136 v;l.bju, vabiti, 116 vb::lom, 174 volaju, volati, 13; 148
Iy ('thou'). 27. 49 -v;l.do!;ti, 1811 vkhet, 11111 vole, 119
tyju, 'yli t 159 vaditi, Ul va:w vo!;je, vieti, 159 v6le, 86, 95; 113
tykati si! (mod.: - se), 63 vadnu, vadnuti, 147, 164 vo!;nO,33 v6li, k -,1411
vajce,.s; log ,,~rny, 1119
v6no!;,33
VOIla, 311; III
v;l.l, g6 vo!;tev,911
 INDEX INDEX
1I6:t, 24 za, 14,2 (Uuu times) zuuditi, 183 feru, friti, 1,50
1Iofu, V():titi, 13; 147, 148, 167; iItf.: 181 zablUditi, 183 :tub, 711, 79 f9,46
1Iracu, vni..titi, 13, 33; 167 zabu, ziebsti, 79; 152 :tuju, zuti, 1,59 t~leju, Uleti, 13,28,46; 165
1Irana, I I I zada, 107 :tufivr, 53 thu, Uci, 153
vnUka, 6,5 zaklad, 105 :tviti, '" Z()VU ticti, su (I) filu, (2) tmu
vrata, 65, 78 zaiI:on, 105 :tvH, 46; 123, 124 (twiu) fOa, 28
vratiti, su vni..cu zamane, third sint·, ~l1ti, itif., 164 zvHina, I11 flli,,u tivu
vrci, UI vrhu zamietaju, umietati, 58 :tvict!, 87; lOO, T1g liv, tivt, 47; 1:<19
vrcu, mfti, 166 zapad, 1041 105 zvnu, :tvn!ti, 166 _flvati, 182
1Irl!fti, 8g zaplatiti, 183 w,n.g6 fivot, 44; 104, 105
vrhu, vrci, 153 p,pomanu, zapomandti, 164 lamu K,lamUti K, 164 fivu, tlti, 147, l,.s, 15
1Ircb, 1115 zasedaju, :taSb:Iati, 58 fdu, fditi, 147, 154 flab, lU lltb
,,"Iev, 126 zastierati, 182 febro (mod.) , I " febro; 107 lLiza, I " U&a
vntvl, 126 zastficti, 1811, 183 feci, see thu lltb, flab, 23, 62
vnfti, 78 :tavieraju, u.vierati, ,58 idud,11I4 II&a,4 1
vru, vtieti, 1,56 :tavolati, 183 fclva, 126 lmu, ficti, 15,5
vf~leno, 23, 63, 78 :tavru, :tavtieti, 156 fen,:f:di, 116 li'lu, fieri, 13, 57; 147, 1411, 160
vfieti, SII vru zazvor,7 1 fena, I I I lri.ti, UI fcru
vldina (1Md.), 74- zde, 143 fenu, hnati, 57; 150 ltt, 92
viI:t (mod.), 105 zdrav, zdrlry, 78 fcravt, 77 lviti, IU luju
vy, 60; 137 zed, 1114 fert (mod.), 92 luju, tV>1ti, 28; 1,59
vy-, 142 zcm (mod.), 113
vti>!r, 77 zcm~nln, 108, 117
vybo.ti, 183 dbcl, see zabu
vydra,4-9 ;dju, :tieti, 116; 159
vychiz!ju,vychaz~ti, 168 ;dC, 28, 70; 1113, 1114
vtchod, 104-, 105 z.iebsti, I" :tabu
vyju, vjti, 159 -zicrati, 182
vyk, g6 z.ieti, see ~ju
1Iyklad, 105 rima, 118, 95; I11
rykl\1diti, 183 zltfek (mod.), 105
ryknu, ryknuti, 162 zjcv (mod.), 85
vtm~, 33; 118 zbatka, 143
vym~niti, 183 dc, Ulm/NUtllioe: 144
vyplti, 183 zly, umjHutltiw; 136
vypravtju, vypriv~, 168 znaju, znAti, 168; inj.: 179
vysokt, 136 z:namcnie, 110, 114
V)"tlfliti, 183 z.ru1ti, itif.; 179, su znaju
n,I42 znova (mod.) , 1118
nbuditi, 183 :l:obu, :tObati, 157
vuior, 142 :l:ovu,:t",ati, 147, 154
vuivihnu K, ...m.vihnl1ti ,~, 162 zpod, 142
ndychati,81 zplijieti, 183
nicti, III vt:l:mu; inj.: 181 zprmtfieti, 183
nplodili, 183 uakoma, 105
npomanu, vzpomanuti, 164 :z:rnaty, 129
vnlraiiti, 183 zmo, 23, 26, 28, 59, 89; 106
vzV>1zati, 183 zfu, zneli, 166
ztratiti, 183
:t, ze, 1411 :ttmu, zlmuli, 311; 163