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Bandwidth constrained variable capacity links Context aware services • Follow-on services: call-forwarding, mobile workspace
• Information services: location specific services, time
Limited physical security dependent services
Network scalability • Infotainment: touristic information
Self-creation, self-organization and self- Coverage extension • Extending cellular network access
administration • Linking up with the Internet, intranets, etc.
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The concept of mobile ad hoc network- Technological Challenges traffic overhead or computational burden on
ing is not a new one and its origins can be the power constrained devices6. A large
traced back to the DARPA Packet Radio As already stated, the specific characteristics number of solutions have already been
Network project in 19723. Then, the of MANETs impose many challenges to proposed, some of them being subject to
advantages such as flexibility, mobility, network protocol designs on all layers of the standardisation within the IETF. A number
resilience and independence of fixed protocol stack5. The physical layer must deal of proposed solutions attempts to have an
infrastructure, elicited immediate interest with rapid changes in link characteristics. up-to-date route to all other nodes at all
among military, police and rescue agencies The media access control (MAC) layer needs times. To this end, these protocols exchange
in the use of such networks under disor- to allow fair channel access, minimise packet routing control information periodically and
ganised or hostile environments. For a long collisions and deal with hidden and exposed on topological changes. These protocols,
time, ad hoc network research stayed in the terminals. At the network layer, nodes need which are called proactive routing protocols,
realm of the military, and only in the to cooperate to calculate paths. The transport are typically modified versions of traditional
middle of 1990, with the advent of com- layer must be capable of handling packet loss link state or distance vector routing
mercial radio technologies, did the wireless and delay characteristics that are very protocols encountered in wired networks,
research community become aware of the different from wired networks. Applications adapted to the specific requirements of the
great potential and advantages of mobile ad should be able to handle possible dynamic mobile ad hoc network environ-
hoc networks outside the military domain, disconnections and reconnections. Further- ment. Most of the time, it is not necessary to
witnessed by the creation of the Mobile Ad more, all network protocol developments have an up-to-date route to all other nodes.
Hoc Networking working group within the need to integrate smoothly with traditional Therefore, reactive routing protocols only set
IETF4. Currently, mobile ad hoc network networks and take into account possible up routes to nodes they communicate with
research is a very vibrant and active field security problems. In the following sections, and these routes are kept alive as long as
and the efforts of the research community, technological challenges and possible they are needed. Combinations of proactive
together with current and future MANET solutions related to unicast routing, resource and reactive protocols, where nearby routes
enabling radio technologies, which are and service discovery, addressing and (for example, maximum two hops) are kept
summarised in Table 3, will certainly pave Internet connectivity, security and node up-to-date proactively, while far-away routes
the way for commercially viable MANETs cooperation are covered in more detail. are set up reactively, are also possible and
and their new and exciting applications, fall in the category of hybrid routing
with some of these commercially oriented Routing protocols. A completely different approach
solutions already starting to appear (for As mobile ad hoc networks are character- is taken by the location-based routing
example MeshNetworks† and ised by a multi-hop network topology that protocols, where packet forwarding is based
SPANworks*). can change frequently due to mobility, on the location of a node’s communication
efficient routing protocols are needed to partner. Location information services
† http://www.meshnetworks.com establish communication paths between provide nodes with the location of the
* http://www.spanworks.com nodes, without causing excessive control others, so packets can be forwarded in the
IEEE 802.11b 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s 2.4 GHz 25–100 m (indoor) ~30 mW
100–500 m (outdoor)
IEEE 802.11a 6, 9, 12, 24, 36, 5 GHz 10–40 m (indoor) 40 mW, 250 mW
49 and 54 Mbit/s or 1 W
UWB (IEEE 802.15.3) 110 – 480 Mbit/s Mostly 3 – 10 GHz ~10 m 100 mW, 250 mW
IEEE 802.15.4 20, 40 or 250 kbit/s 868 MHz, 915 MHz 10–100 m 1 mW
(for example, Zigbee) or 2.4 GHz
IrDA Up to 4 Mbit/s Infrared (850 nm) ~10 m (line of sight) Distance based
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networks and will run applications that use address will arrive at the node’s home agent address detection (DAD) techniques in order
existing Internet protocols such as transmis- (HA) (step 1). When the node in the ad hoc to impose address uniqueness within the
sion control protocol (TCP) and user network advertises to its home agent the IP MANET. Strong DAD techniques will always
datagram protocol (UDP), the use of IP address of the Internet gateway as its care- detect duplicates, but are difficult to scale in
addresses is inevitable. Unfortunately, an of-address (CoA), the home agent can large networks. Weak DAD approaches can
internal address organisation with prefixes tunnel all traffic to the ad hoc network tolerate duplicates as long as they do not
and ranges like in the fixed Internet is hard (step 2), on which it is delivered to the interfere with each other; that is, if packets
to maintain in mobile ad hoc networks due mobile node using an ad hoc routing always arrive at the intended destination. If
to node mobility and overhead reasons and protocol (step 3). For outgoing connections, interconnection to the Internet is desirable,
other solutions for address assignment are the mobile node has to route traffic to an outgoing connections could be realised
thus needed. Internet gateway, and for internal traffic an using network address translation (NAT),
One solution is based on the assumption ad hoc routing protocol can be used. The but incoming connections still remain a
(and restriction) that all MANET nodes main problem with this approach is that a problem if random, not globally routable,
already have a static, globally unique and MANET node needs an efficient way to addresses are used. Also, the use of NAT
pre-assigned IPv4 or IPv6 address. This figure out if a certain address is present in remains problematic when multiple Internet
solves the whole issue of assigning addresses, the MANET or if it is necessary to use an gateways are present. If a MANET node
but introduces new problems when Internet gateway, without flooding the entire switches to another gateway, a new IP
interworking with fixed networks. Connec- network. address is used and ongoing TCP connec-
tions coming from and going to the fixed Another solution is the assignment of tions will break (Figure 4(b)).
network can be handled using mobile IP random, internally unique addresses. This Another possible approach is the
(Figure 4(a))11, where the pre-assigned IP can be realised by having each node picking assignment of unique addresses that all lie
address serves as the mobile node’s home a more or less random address from a very within one subnet (comparable to the
address (HoA). All traffic sent to this IP large address space, followed by duplicate addresses assigned by a dynamic host
configuration protocol (DHCP) server).
When attached to the Internet, the ad hoc
network can be seen as a separate routable
Figure 4 Possible approaches to Internet connectivity and subnet (Figure 4(c)). This simplifies the
addressing decision if a node is inside or outside the ad
HoA Mobile Node Mobile Node hoc network. However, no efficient solutions
exist for choosing dynamically an appropri-
ate, externally routable and unique network
3
prefix (for example, special MANET prefixes
assigned to Internet gateways), handling the
162.191.250.0/24
merging or splitting of ad hoc networks,
handling multiple points of attachment to
the Internet, etc.
IP GW 1 = IP GW 1
IP GW 2 CoA Mobile Node The above discussion makes clear that,
although many solutions are being investi-
2
gated12, no common adopted solution for
Internet Internet
addressing and Internet connectivity is
available yet. New approaches using host
1 Corresponding Routing Table: identities, where the role of IP is limited to
Node 162.191.250.0/24 routing and not addressing, combined with
dynamic name spaces, could offer a
Home potential solution.
Network
Home Corresponding Security and node cooperation
Agent Node The wireless mobile ad hoc nature of
(a) Internet connectivity using mobile IP (c) Addressing using subnets MANETs brings new security challenges to
the network design13. As the wireless
medium is vulnerable to eavesdropping and
ad hoc network functionality is established
NAT through node cooperation, mobile ad hoc
IP CN, IP GW 2 Payload
networks are intrinsically exposed to
Mobile Node IP GW 2
numerous security attacks. During passive
IP MN attacks, an attacker just listens to the
channel in order to discover valuable
Internet information. This type of attack is usually
Corresponding impossible to detect, as it does not produce
NAT IP CN, IP GW 1 Payload Node any new traffic in the network. On the other
IP CN hand, during active attacks an attacker
IP GW 1
actively participates in disrupting normal
operation of the network. This type of attack
(b) Internet connectivity using network address translation (NAT) involves deletion, modification, replication,
redirection and fabrication of protocol
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control packets or data packets. Securing ad billing, to whom and for what, need to be made during the last years, a lot of challeng-
hoc networks against malicious attacks is answered and will lead to complex business ing technical issues remain unanswered.
difficult to achieve. Preventive mechanisms models. From an economical point of view, mobile
include among others authentication of We may conclude that in some ad hoc ad hoc networks open up new business
message sources, data integrity and protec- network scenarios, the network organisation opportunities for telecom operators and
tion of message sequencing, and are can completely or partially rely on a trust service providers. To this end, appropriate
typically based on key-based cryptography. relationship between participating nodes business scenarios, applications and
Incorporating cryptographic mechanisms is (for example, PANs). In many others, economical models need to be identified,
challenging, as there is no centralised key security mechanisms, mechanisms to together with technological advances,
distribution centre or trusted certification enforce cooperation between nodes or making a transition of ad hoc networks to
authority. These preventative mechanisms billing methods are needed and will the commercial world viable.
need to be sustained by detection tech- certainly be an important subject of future
niques that can discover attempts to research. References
penetrate or attack the network.
The previous problems were all related Conclusions 1 Basagni, S., Conti, M., Giordano S., and
to malicious nodes that intentionally Stojmenovic, I. (Eds.) Ad Hoc Networking.
damage or compromise network functional- The rapid evolution in the field of mobile IEEE Press Wiley, New York, 2003.
ity. However, selfish nodes, which use the computing is driving a new alternative way
network but do not cooperate to routing or for mobile communication, in which mobile 2 Chlamtac, I., Conti, M., and Liu, J. J.-N.
packet forwarding for others in order not to devices form a self-creating, self-organising Mobile ad hoc networking: imperatives and
spill battery life or network bandwidth, and self-administering wireless network, challenges. Ad Hoc Networks, 1(1), 2003,
constitute an important problem as network called a mobile ad hoc network. Its intrinsic pp. 13–64.
functioning entirely relies on the coopera- flexibility, lack of infrastructure, ease of
tion between nodes and their contribution deployment, auto-configuration, low cost 3 Freebersyser, J. A., and Leiner, B. A DoD
to basic network functions. To deal with and potential applications make it an perspective on mobile ad hoc networks.
these problems, the self-organising network essential part of future pervasive computing In: Perkins, C. (Ed.) Ad Hoc Networking,
concept must be based on an incentive for environments. As a consequence, the Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, 2001,
users to collaborate, thereby avoiding selfish seamless integration of mobile ad hoc pp. 29–51.
behaviour. Existing solutions aim at networks with other wireless networks and
detecting and isolating selfish nodes based fixed infrastructures will be an essential part 4 IETF MANET Working Group. http://
on watchdog mechanisms, which identify of the evolution towards future fourth- www.ietf.org/html.charters/manet-
misbehaving nodes, and reputation systems, generation communication networks. From charter.html
which allow nodes to isolate selfish nodes. a technological point of view, the realisation
Another promising approach is the introduc- of this vision still requires a large number of 5 Toh, C-K. Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless
tion of a billing system into the network challenges to be solved related to devices, Networks: Protocols and Systems.
based on economical models to enforce protocols, applications and services. The Prentice Hall, 2002.
cooperation14. Using virtual currencies or concise discussion in this paper shows that,
micro-payments, nodes pay for using other despite the large efforts of the MANET 6 Corson, S., and Macker, J. Mobile Ad hoc
nodes’ forwarding capabilities or services research community and the rapid progress Networking (MANET): Routing Protocol
and are remunerated for making theirs Performance Issues and Evaluation
available (Figure 5). Considerations. RFC 2501, IETF, Jan. 1999.
This approach certainly has potential in
scenarios in which part of the ad hoc Acknowledgements 7 Abolhasan, M., Wysocki, T., and
network and services is deployed by Dutkiewicz, E. A review of routing
companies or service providers (for exam- This research is partly funded by the protocols for mobile ad hoc networks. Ad
ple, location- or context-aware services, Belgian Science Policy through the IAP V/ Hoc Networks, 2(1), 2004, pp. 1–22.
sports stadium, taxi cab network, etc.). 11 contract, by The Institute for the
Also, when ad hoc networks are intercon- Promotion of Innovation by Science and 8 Royer, E., and Toh, C. A Review of
nected to fixed infrastructures by gateway Technology in Flanders (IWT) through the Current Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc
nodes, which are billed by a telecom contract No. 020152, by the Fund for Mobile Wireless Networks. IEEE Personal
operator (for example, UMTS, hot-spot Scientific Research - Flanders (F.W.O.-V., Communications, 6(2), Apr. 1999, pp. 46–55.
access, etc.), billing mechanisms are needed Belgium) and by the EC IST integrated
to remunerate these nodes for making these project MAGNET (Contract no. 507102). 9 Hoebeke, J., Moerman, I., Dhoedt, B., and
services available. Questions such as who is Demeester, P. Towards adaptive ad hoc
network routing. International Journal of
Figure 5 Enforcing cooperation by remunerating nodes for Wireless and Mobile Computing: Special
relaying packets Issue on ‘Wireless Ad Hoc Networking’,
to be published.
Initiator Correspondent
10 Kozat, U. C., and Tassiulas, L. Service
discovery in mobile ad hoc networks: an
overall perspective on architectural
€ € € choices and network layer support
€ issues. Ad Hoc Networks, 2(1), 2004,
pp. 23–44.
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