CHAPTER II

CONTENTS

2.1 TEACHING ACROSS AGE LEVELS

A. Teaching Children
Popular tradition would have you believe that children are effortless second
language learners and far superior to adults in their eventual success. On both count,
some qualifications are in order.
First, children’s widespread success in acquiring second languages belies a
tremendous subconscious effort devoted to the task. Second, adults are not necessarily
less successful in their efforts. Third, the popular claim fails to differentiate very young
children (say, four- to six-year-olds) from pre-pubescent children (twelve to thirteen)
and the whole range of ages in between.
1. Intellectual Development
An elementary school teacher once asked her students to take a piece of paper
and pencil and write something. A little boy raised his hand and said, “Teacher, I ain’t
got no pencil.” The teacher, somewhat perturbed by his grammar, embarked on a
barrage of corrective patterns: “I don’t have a pencil. You don’t have a pencil. We
don’t have pencils.” Confused and bewildered, the child responded, “Ain’t nobody
got no pencils?”.
Since children (up to the age of about eleven) are still in an intellectual stage of
what Piaget (1972) called “concrete operations,” we need to remember their
limitations. Rules, explanations, and other even slightly abstract talk about language
must be approached with extreme caution. Children are centered on the here and
now, on the functional purposes of language. They have little appreciation for our
adult notions of “correctness,” and they certainly cannot grasp the metalanguage we
use to describe and explain linguistic concepts. Some rules of thumb for the
classroom:
a. Don’t explain grammar using terms like “present progressive” or “relative
clause.”
b. Rules stated in abstract terms (To make a statement into a question, you add a do
or does) should be avoided.
c. Some grammatical concepts, especially at the upper levels of childhood, can be
called to learners’ attention by showing them certain patterns (Notice the ing at the

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 end of the word) and examples (This is the way we say it when it’s happening
right now: I’m walking to the door).
d. Certain more difficult concepts or patterns require more repetition than adults
need. For example, repeating certain patterns (without boring students) may be
necessary to get the brain and the ear to cooperate. Unlike the scene with the little
boy who had no pencil, children must understand the meaning and relevance of
repetitions.
2. Attention Span
One of the salient differences between adults and children is attention span.
First, it is important to understand what attention span means. Since language lessons
can at times be difficult for children, your job is to make them interesting, lively, and
fun. How do you that:
a. Because children are focused on the immediate here and now, activities should be
designed to capture their immediate interest.
b. A lesson needs a variety of activities to keep interest and attention alive.
c. A teacher needs to be animated, lively, and enthusiastic about the subject matter.
Consider the classroom a stage on which you are the lead actor; your energy will
be infections. While you may think that you’re overdoing it, children need this
exaggeration to keep spirit buoyed and minds alert.
d. A sense of humor will go a long way to keep children laughing and learning.
Since children’s humor is quite different from adults’, remember to put yourself in
their shoes.
e. Children have a lot of natural curiosity. Make sure you tap into that curiosity
whenever possible, and you will thereby help to maintain attention and focus.
3. Sensory Input
Children need to have all five senses stimulated. Your activities should strive to
go well beyond the visual and auditory modes that we feel are usually sufficient for a
classroom.
a. Pepper your lessons with physical activity, such as having students act out things
(role-play) play games, or do Total Physical Response activities.
b. Projects and other bands-on activities go a long way toward helping children, are
excellent ways to get them to learn words and structures and to practice
meaningful language.
c. Sensory aids here and there help children to internalize concepts. The smell of
flowers, the touch of plants and fruits, the taste of foods, liberal doses of
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 audiovisual aids like videos, pictures, tapes, music-all are important elements in
children’s language teaching.
d. Remember that your own nonverbal language is important because children will
indeed attend very sensitively to your facial features, gestures, and touching.
4. Affective Factors
A common myth is that children are relatively unaffected by the inhibitions that
adults find to be a block to learning. Teachers need to help them to overcome such
potential barriers to learning.
a. Help your students to laugh with each other at various mistakes that they all make.
b. Be patient and supportive to build self-esteem, yet at the same time be firm in
your expectations of students.
c. Elicit as much oral participation as possible from students, especially the quieter
ones, to give them plenty of opportunities for trying things out.
5. Authentic, Meaningful Language
Children are focused on what this new language can actually be used for here
and now. Your classes can ill afford to have an overload of language that is neither
authentic nor meaningful.
a. Children are good at sensing language that is not authentic; therefore “canned” or
stilted language will likely be rejected.
b. Language needs to be firmly context embedded. Story lines, familiar situations
and characters, real-life conversations, meaningful purposes in using language-
these will establish a context within which language can be received and sent and
thereby improve attention and retention. Context-reduced language in abstract,
isolated, unconnected sentences will be much less readily tolerated by children’s
minds.
c. A whole language approach is essential. If language is broken into too many bits
and pieces, students won’t see the relationship to the whole. And stress the
interrelationships among the various skills (listening, speaking, reading, and
writing), or they won’t see important connections.

B. TEACHING ADULTS
Although many of the “rules” for teaching can apply in some ways to teaching
adults, the latter age group poses some different, special considerations for the
classroom teacher. Adults have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more

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 successful in certain classroom endeavors. So, as you consider the five variables that
apply to children, keep in mind some specific suggestions and caveats.
a. Adults are more able to handle abstract rules and concepts.
b. Adults have longer attention spans for material that may not be intrinsically
interesting to them.
c. Sensory input need not always be quite as varied with adults, but one of the secrets of
lively adult classes in their appeal to multiple sense.
d. Adults often bring a modicum of general self-confidence (global self-esteem) into a
classroom; the fragility of egos may therefore not be quite as critical as those of
children.
e. Adults, with their more developed abstract thinking ability, are better able to
understand a context-reduced segment of language.

C. TEACHING TEENS
Perhaps because of the enigma of teaching teenagers, little is specifically said in
the language-teaching field about teaching at this level. Nevertheless, some thought are
worth verbalizing, even if in the form of simple reminders.
1. Intellectual capacity adds abstract operational thought around the age of twelve.
2. Attention spans are lengthening as a result of intellectual maturation, but once again,
with many diversions present in a teenager’s life, those potential attention spans can
easily be shortened.
3. Varieties of sensory input are still important, but, again, increasing capacities for
abstraction lessen the essential nature of appealing to all five senses.
4. Factors surrounding ego, self-image, and self-esteem are at their pinnacle.
5. Secondary school students are of course becoming increasingly adult like in their
ability to make those occasional diversions from the “here and now” nature of
immediate communicative contexts to dwell on a grammar point or vocabulary item.
Reference :
Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (Second Edition)

2.2 TEACHING ACROSS PROFICIENCY LEVELS

A. DEFINING PROFICIENCY LEVELS

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 Is there a standard set of guidelines by which these three mysterious terms may be
uniformly understood? The answer is yes, and while textbooks and curricula do not by
any means adhere to these guidelines universally, the guidelines nevertheless offer us a
practical description of speaking, listening, reading, and writing proficiency at
numerous gradations.
Levels can be defined in three such as beginning, intermediate, and advanced.
Now, teachers have some guidelines, which are useful to develop the topics and the
tasks for every level because teachers have to organized what they are going to teach
and evaluate. Teachers cannot teach beginners something that is for intermediate level
because students are not going to understand the topic.
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (1986) have come to be a widely recognized
proficiency standard in language-teaching circles. The current version of the
guidelines is historically related to what for many years was referred to as “FSI
levels” of speaking proficiency.

B. TEACHING BEGINNING LEVELS

Basic level in the first day students are vey dependent on the teacher for models of
language, the teacher is like the center of the classroom because students are focused in
what he says. The teacher has to articulate his English and very important to speak
slowly for an easier comprehension. Teacher can use techniques, but those techniques
should be short and simple.
The most challenging level of language instruction. (students at this level have
little or no prior knowledge of English on which to build). The presentation of material
should be simple and should not overwhelm the students. (as students’ capacity for
taking in and retaining new words, structures, concepts is limited)
Teaching beginners is considered by many to be the most challenging level of
language instruction. Since students at this level little or no prior knowledge of the
target language, the teacher (and accompanying techniques and materials) becomes a
central determiner in whether students accomplish their goals. This can also be the most
tangibly rewarding level for a teacher because the growth of students’ proficiency is
apparent in a matter of a few weeks.
1. There will be a lot of repetition of a limited number of words, phrases, and sentences.
2. A lot of controlled language forms used.
3. Short, simple techniques must be used such as pair and group work.
4. Fluency is only expected within limited structure/forms.
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 5. Teacher should talk with clear pronunciation.
6. Most of the time teacher will be the center of the classroom activities.
7. Listening and speaking : meaningful and authentic communication tasks. They are
limited more by grammar, vocabulary, and length of utterance than by
communicative function.
8. Reading and writing : brief and real-life materials consider their literacy in their own
native language.
9. Grammar : very simple verb forms, pesonal pronouns, definite & indefinite articles,
singular and plural nouns, simple sentences.
a. Students’ cognitive learning process
You can expect to engage in plenty of repetition of a limited number of words, phrases,
and sentences. Make sure your utterances are limited to short and simple phrases.
b. The role of the teacher
Students at this level depend on the teacher, so teacher-centered/ fronted classroom is
appropriate at this point. (as students gain in their proficiency, they will be able to
initiate questions and comments Shift of control).
c. Teacher Talk
Your input is crucial. Slow your speech for easier student comprehension, but don’t lose
its naturalness. Use simple vocabulary & structures that are at or just slightly beyond
their level. You have to restrict classroom language to English (unless some advantage
is gained by using Thai such as explanation of SIMPLE grammatical points) inductive
approach to grammar with suitable examples and patterns will be more effective in
teaching any complex grammatical points.
d. Fluency and accuracy
The flow of language is important to establish at this level. Attention to accuracy should
center on the particular grammatical, phonological elements that are being practiced.
Be sensitive to students’ need to practice freely and openly without fear.
e. Techniques
Short, simple techniques must be used. e.g. choral repetition, drilling, teacher-initiated
questions. Group and pair activities are excellent techniques (as long as they are
structured)

C. TEACHING INTERMEDIATE LEVELS

Intermediate level, students have developed some of their abilities of learning the
target language, so the teacher has to apply different teaching methods in the class.
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Teacher has to dare students ask questions; make comments during the class to their own
learning. The teacher is able to use more advanced word according to the level. Students
are grouped based on their proficiency levels. The groups are : beginning, intermediate,
advanced. Student grouping is based on certain guidelines or using placement tests.
Students have progressed beyond novice stages to an ability to sustain basic
communicative tasks, to establish some minimal fluency, to deal with unrehearsed
situations, to self-correct on occasion, to use a few compensatory strategies, and generally
to get along in the language beyond mere survival.
Now turn your attention to that vague curricular territory that we call intermediate,
where students have progressed beyond novice stages to an ability to sustain basic
communicative tasks, to establish some minimal fluency, to deal with a few unrehearsed
situations, to self-correct on occasion, to use a few compensatory strategies, and generally
to “get along” in the language beyond mere survival. The picture changes somewhat.
Your role and the students’ capacities change. Consider the same ten factors.
Some automatic processing has taken hold:
1. Learner-centered work is possible
2. Teacher should not occupy the major proportion of a class hour
3. More complex techniques can be used
a. Students’ cognitive learning process
Phrases and sentences and structures and conversational rules have been
practiced and are increasing in number, forcing the mental processes to automatize.
(automaticity placing elements of language into the “hard drive” of neurological
computers)
b. The role of the teacher
You are no longer initiator of language. Students should be encouraged to ask
questions, make comments, and negotiate certain options in learning where
appropriate.
More student-student interaction can take place in pairs, small groups. Learner-
centered work is now possible for more sustained lengths of time.
c. Teacher Talk
Speak at a natural pace, as long as articulation is clear. You should not occupy the
major proportion of a class hour. For Thai teachers, you should be using less of Thai
at this level. At this level, students sometimes get overly concerned about grammatical
correctness and many want to discuss grammatical details far from authentic, real
language
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 d. Fluency and accuracy
Fluency exercises are a must at this level. These exercises help students be less
concerned about saying everything absolutely correctly. Your job is to maintain their
“flow”. Students at this level are creative and probably say something like “I must to
make a lot of money”. Interlanguage error = a good indication of the creative
application of a system within the students’ mind.
e. Techniques
Because o the increasing language capacities of your students, techniques can
increase in complexity. Common interactive techniques for intermediates include
surveys and polls, paired interviews, group problem solving, role plays, story telling.

D. TEACHING ADVANCED LEVELS

Advanced level, students have developed not only their reading and listening
comprehension but also their fluency in speaking. Techniques can be like group debates
and argumentation, complex role-plays, scanning and skimming reading material. We
will focus on “advanced level” not “superior’ level (keeping with reality) At this level,
students normally have specific purpose for which they are planning to use English
As students move up the developmental ladder, getting closer and closer to their
goals, developing fluency along with a greater degree of accuracy, able to handle virtually
any situation in which target language use is demanded, they become “advanced”
students. At the very top of this ladder is what the ACTEFL Proficiency Guidelines
describe as the “superior” level, comparable in most aspect to an educated, so in order to
be more in keeping with reality, we will simply focus on what the Guidelines describe as
the “advanced Students have mastered larger chunks of languages and automatic mode
should appear in this level:
1. Natural language at natural speed is a must at this level
2. Techniques are more complex covering the sociolinguistics and pragmatics
competencies.
3. Learner-centered
4. Speaking and listening : students can focus more carefully on all the sociolinguistic
nuances of language, pragmatic constrain sometimes occur
5. Reading and writing : progress to native speaker competence à critical reading,
interpretation, etc
6. Grammar : metafunctional grammar level.
a. Students’ cognitive learning process
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 As competence in language continue to build, students can assign larger and
larger chunks to automatic modes. Students at this level are able to negotiate meaning
and convey thoughts and feelings in interactive communication.
b. The role of the teacher
At this level, the classroom will be heavily student-centered. You should make the
most of this opportunity, create effective learning opportunities such as. Encourage
students to notice mistakes. For any discussion or debate activity, place students in
groups of three. But the third student won't participate in the discussion, and instead will
listen to the conversation, notice mistakes, and take notes.
c. Teacher Talk
Natural language at natural speech is a must at this level. Make sure your students
are challenged by your choice of vocabulary, structures, idiom, and other linguistic
features. Make sure your students have enough opportunities to produce language so
your role is to provide feedback.
d. Student’s creativity
Students at this level are “fluent” and they are now able to apply classroom material
to real contexts. Avoid classroom activity that simply ends right there in the classroom.
e. Techniques
Techniques can now tap into a full range of sociolinguistic, discourse
competencies. Group debates, argumentation, complex role plays, scanning and
skimming reading material, writing essays and critiques.
Reference :
Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (Second Edition)

2.3 TEACHING ACROSS SOCIOPOLITICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT

A. Sociopolitical Context
The importance of the sociopolitical context in terms of language cannot be
released in linguistic teaching. This can be seen by the dominant social role in
knowledge learning; such as the process of interaction, negotiation, interpretation, etc.
And the learning compilation of knowledge extends to a community, region, country,
and even a continent, the politics of linguistics used.
When we consider the important roles of language in social contexts and extend
them into communities, regions nations and continents, then the political side of
language becomes visible. Social and political issues are correctness and
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 appropriateness, styles, acceptable forms of speech within communities, regional and
national standards, national language policy, and international varieties of English.
Among some of political and issues are:
a. Correctness and appropriateness
b. Registers and styles
c. Acceptable speech varieties in a community
d. Regional & national standards of language
e. National language policy
f. International varieties of English

B. Second and foreign language

Once students walk out the classroom door, what languages will they be hearing in
the hallways, or out in the streets, on the sidewalks, and at home? "Second language
learning contexts are those in which the classroom target language is readily available out
there." Teaching English in the U.S. or Britain falls into this category and as such is
considered to be English as a Second Language (ESL). Foriegn language contexts are
those in which the student does not have that context, that ability to hear and speak
outside the classroom, albeit through books, magazines, and other foriegn language
speakers, they can find comadrie. Teaching English in Bangcock or Calcutta is almost
always a context of English as a foriegn language (EFL).
All over the globe English is being used as a second language and is being learned
by students for practical purposes internationally. ESL context vary from region to region.
Look at the country and see if English holds any official status, whether it is recognized
by a government or institution, and whether or not resources for learning are readily
available, and notice that learning English in Britain, Canada, and America all vary by
dialect and more. In many countries such as Japan or India, there are venues for
authentic use of language, such as movies, clubs, and media, such as the world wide web.
Culture Context:
a. Language is part of culture-culture is not a mere tool but a superordinate concept.
b. Language and cultural identity go together.
c. Cultural connotations & nuances
d. No high or low culture-different cultural schemata
e. Diversity and multicultural education
1. EFL Context
a. Compensation for the lack of ready communicative situations
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 b. Use class time for optimal authentic language input and interaction.
c. Don’t waste class time on work that can be done as homework.
d. Provide regular motivation-stimulating activities.
e. Encourage the use of learning strategies outside class.
f. Form a language club and schedule regular activities.
g. Maximize learning through using multimedia & by forming online/virtual
communities.
2. ESL Context
a. Give homework that involves a specific speaking task with a person outside the
classroom(e.g.,listening to a radio or TV program, reading a newspaper article, writing
a letter to a store or a charity).
b. Encourage students to seek out opportunities for practice.
c. Encourage students to seek corrective feedback from others.
d. Have students keep a log or diary of their extra-class learning.
e. Plan and carry out field trips (e.g.,museums, local sites).
f. Arrange a social “mixer” with NSEs.
g. Invite speakers into your classroom.

C. English As An International Language

Over one half of the one billion English speaking people in the world learned
English as a second language. Most English teachers in the world today are non-native
English speakers, so the norm isbilingualism. Rather than teaching English as a tool for
understanding American and British culture, it is more often seen as a tool for
international business, commerce, torism, and research. Students will be most interested
in the practical applications of speaking English.
As far as policy is concerned, we can see that mandatory English as in some regions
of the United States fall into one end of a spectrum. English Plus is an idea that English is
a compliment to the learners native language and is appropriate for both languages to be
used in teaching, particuarly in public school settings. Policy and climate dictate status
accorded to native and secondary languages.
The growth of a nativized variety of English
1. Most English language teachers across the globe are nonnative English speakers
and bi- or multi-lingual.
3. A tool for international communication in transportation, commerce, banking,
tourism, technology, diplomacy, and scientific research.
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D. Language Policy Issue
1. English Only – subtractive
2. English Plus – additive
3. Cummins-pass beyond threshold levels
BICS (basic interpersonal communication skills)
CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency)
4. A student’s “proficiency” by a grueling computer-scorable standardized multiple-
choice examination
5. Sts’ proficiency related more to the ability to cram for a standardized test
6. Always try to keep your students’ vision fixed on useful, practical, reachable goals for
the communicative use of English.

E. Institutional Context
In an institutional context, submersion is a way of treating second language
learners. In this way students are submerged into regular sontent-area classes with no
special attnetion to foriegn language instruction, a Darwinian approach. research shows
that some succeed of course, though others do not find success either in content of study
or in learning their new language, thus some schools have created a pull-out program
where a student can be tutored or receive ESL training.
With immersion program students share the same mother tounge, for example
French students taking a geometry class in English. The teacher may know some French
and likely will be credentialed in the subject or content-area. In most immersion
programs, students are in a EFL setting and learning the second language is a compliment
to the subject area, and students have support in the community in their native language,
through parents, peers, and society. Sheltered English is a popular form of immersion
programs, in that students come from varying bacdkgrounds, and the teacher is trained in
subject-area and ESL methods.
Further, in many two and four year universities, there are other specialized
programs, such as a pre-academic course designed to prepare the student for success in
regular college ccourse. There is EAP (English for Academic Purposes) courses, ESP
(English for Special Purposes), such as an English for Business course, and there are
Vocational Technical (Voc/Tech) designed for those learning trades and other occupations
not commonly taught at universities. literacy courses are designed to teach reading and

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writing skills to students whose native language skills are either non-existant or very
poor.
Finely tuned curricular & instructional support to offer courses in conversation,
academic skills, ESP, workplace English, vocational or technical English, test-taking
strategies, and other specializations and often allied to the sociopolitical considerations.
1. Elementary and Secondary School
a. Submersion: “Sink or Swim”
b. Immersion: bilingual in content courses
c. Sheltered English: multilingual students, Ts are content teachers with ESL training
d. Mainstreaming: exiting after ESL programs
e. Transitional bilingual program
f. Maintenance bilingual program
g. Enrichment bilingual program
Transitional bilingual programs: using native language for content areas while
ESL courses are provided separately. Maintenance bilingual programs: continuous
learning of subject matter content in native language, high cost for staff &
maintenance, not mastering TL. Enrichment bilingual programs: choice of subjects in
FL while most learning done in native language, enrich linguistic or cultural horizons.
2. Post-secondary and Adult Education
Language schools or centers, adult education, community colleges, extended learning
(continuing education).
a. Survival/social curriculum
b. Literacy programs
c. Vocational ESL
d. Workplace ESL

F. Institutions of Higher Education

1. Intensive English Programs(IEPs): mostly pre-academic/preparatory courses
2. EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
3. ESP (English for Special Purposes)
Other factors to consider; nstitutional regulations, budgetary and bureaucratic
constraints, administrators or supervisor’s hegemony, textbooks, colleague support or
pressure, teaching hours & dedication, sts’ level of motivation.

Reference :
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Brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to
language pedagogy (Second Edition).

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