CHAPTER 1

The Principles and Concepts of Life Science

Life is God’s most precious, complex and marvelous creation and gift. God
created man unto His image and likeness to have dominion over all His creation. God
endowed man with the gift of knowledge, that is science. As an organized process of
asking questions and providing answers to such questions, it evolved to be the best way
to study the universe. Thus, science encompasses a great deal about life and nature. One
such very important division of science is biology. Life science deals with a systematic
study of the living creatures of God. Biology opens new doors to the multifaceted study
of the science of the great diversity but unity of life. Certain gifted persons called life
scientists or biologists probe deeply into the quest to discover certain basic truths about
the why’s and how’s of life. This is just to let mankind know that there is only one source
of all this knowledge that we have gained. There is a Creator, from whom everything
emanates. Actually, life scientists utilize the scientific method to investigate and uncover
facts.

The word science is a noun derived from a Latin term (scientia) meaning
knowledge or knowing. Humans have accumulated a vast amount of knowledge using a
variety of methods, some by scientific methods and some by other methods. Science is
really distinguished by how knowledge is acquired, rather than by the act of accumulating
facts. Science is actually a process or way of arriving at a solution to a problem or
understanding an event in nature that involves testing possible solutions.

Scientists are in the business of distinguishing between situations that are merely
correlated (happen at the same time) and those that are correlated and show cause-and-
effect relationship. When an event occurs as the result of a known reason, a cause-and
effect relationship exists. Many events are correlated, but not all correlations show a
cause-and-effect relationship. Knowing that a cause-and-effect relationship exists
enables us to make predictions about what will happen should that same set of
circumstances occur in the future. This process has been so successful that others have
adopted the method to help them answer questions and make predictions in their field of
interests.

From Atoms to Organisms

The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity. The simplest
level of the structural ladder is the chemical level. At this level, atom, tiny building
blocks of matter, combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, and proteins.
Molecules in turn, associate in specific ways to form microscopic cells, the smallest units
of all living things. Individual cells vary widely in size and shape, reflecting their
particular functions in the body.

The simplest living creatures are composed of single cells, but in complex
organisms like human beings, the structural ladder continues on to the tissue level.

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Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function and the four basic
tissue types plays a definite but different role in the body.

An organ is a structure, composed of two or more tissue types, that performs a

specific function for the body. At the organ level of organization, extremely complex
functions become possible. For example, the small intestine, which digests and absorbs
food, is composed of all four tissue types. All the body’s organs are grouped so that a
number of organ systems are formed. An organ system is a group of organs that
cooperate to accomplish a common purpose. For example, the digestive system includes
the esophagus, the stomach, and the small and large intestines (to name a few of its
organs). Each organ has its own job to do, and working together, they keep food moving
through the digestive system so that it is properly broken down and absorbed into the
blood, providing fuel for all the body’s cells. In all, 11 organ systems make up the living
body, or the organism which represents the highest level of structural organization, the
organismal level. The major organs of each of the systems are shown in the figure as
you read through the following descriptions of the organ systems.

Living Things versus Non-Living Things

Most living things can be distinguished readily from non-living by the following
characteristics:

1. Form and size. Living things have characteristic form and size within certain
limits most of them are also arranged as definite individuals. While in non-
living things, materials vary widely.

2. Organization. Living things are made up of cells which are assembled into
interrelated system for performing the life processes. They rearrange and
combine the chemical elements for their need. Non-living things on the other
hand cannot recombine materials and their structure depends on chemicals
present and mode of formation.

3. Movement. Living things can move by themselves while non living things
can move with the help of an external force.

4. Growth and life cycle. Living things exhibit internal growth or intussusception
while non-living things exhibit external growth or accretion.

Living things grow by the development of new parts between or within

older ones and may replace parts during life. Each individual has a definite
life cycle-birth, growth, maturity, life span and death. If non-living things
grow, they do that by external addition and there is no orderly cycle of change.
Example, the salt in the container and the ice in the freezer increase in size
because only of the addition of new materials on their surface.

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5. Metabolism. The word metabolism is defined as various vital life processes
which includes all the changes that the materials taken as food undergoes.
There are two phases of metabolism namely: anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism is called as the constructive or building up phase. This includes
assimilation or building up of protoplasm from simple compounds and
elements which are end-products of digestion. Photosynthesis in plants is an
example of anabolism. Catabolism is the destructive or breaking down phase.
This involves the release of energy by breaking food substances through
respiration.

6. Irritability. Living things react to changes in the environment. These act as

stimuli that induce responses by the organism. The degree of response is
often disproportionate to that of the stimulus and the organism is not
permanently altered by the stimulus.

In non-living things, there is a definite quantitative relationship between

the intensity of the environmental change and the reaction produced as in the
expansion of a metal by heat.

7. Reproduction. This is defined as the ability of the organism to create another

one of the same kind.

Living things reproduce by using the materials within their bodies, a

characteristics which non-living things do not have.

Plants Versus Animals

Although plants and animals are both living things, they differ from one
another in some ways. The principal differences between animals and plants are:

1. Form and structure. The body form of animal is rather constant.

Their organs are mostly internal. The cells are within delicate
membranes and the tissues are both in solution containing sodium,
potassium and chlorine. Their growth is usually differential,
producing changes in proportion of body parts with age. While in
plants, body is often variable. Their organs are added externally. The
cells are within thick rigid walls of cellulose and sodium chloride is
toxic. Growth is usually terminal and often continues through life.

2. Metabolism. Animals depend on plants and other animals for their

food. Food is digested and rearranged chemically within the body.
Oxygen is needed for respiration. The end products of metabolism are
carbon dioxide, water and urea. While plants can manufacture their
own food. By photosynthesis-CO2 from the air together with H20 and
inorganic matter from the soil, with the help of chlorophyll, these

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 materials are formed into various organic compounds and O2 is
released as a by-product.

3. Irritability. Most animals have, nervous system and they can respond
faster to stimuli. Plants have no nervous system and they respond
slower to stimuli.

4. Adaptation. Refers to modifications that promote the likelihood of

survival. Living things not suited to a new conditions either move to a
better environment or change (evolution).

5. Organization. There are levels of biological organizations,

biochemical, structural, physiological and ecological organization:
atoms – molecules – cells – tissues – organs – organ system –
organisms – populations – communities – ecosystems – biosphere.

6. Assimilation. Process of converting non-living inorganic and organic

molecules into living cell that can be done inside a living cell.

7. Definite chemical composition. All organisms are basically made up

of similar inorganic (water, salts, minerals, gases) and organic
molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids).

History of Biology

The history of biology can be summarized in our four stages namely, Primitive
period, Classical period, Renaissance and Modern era.

The primitive period is characterized by uncritical accumulation of information,

mainly derived from the practical necessities of obtaining food, materials for clothing and
shelter, substances to cure ailments, and necessary information about the human body.
During this period, the accumulation of knowledge was not recorded, nor were the
scientific method and its associated intellectual activities a part of the procedure in
learning about life.

The classical period began with the Greeks and continued with the Romans. This
was marked by great curiosity about natural phenomena and an ability to organize
biological knowledge and record it. This began with the contribution of Hippocrates who
is called the “Father of Medicine”. He stated that diseases have natural causes and the
body has the power to repair itself. The most significant biological contributions were
made by Aristotle who is called as the ‘Great Ancient Scientist’ who excelled in making
observations. He studied almost all the areas in science. His pupil Theophrastus carried
on pioneer studies on the nature of plants; his works are the most complete biological
treatises to reach us from the classical period.

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 After the lapse of several centuries, the Greek physician Galen who practiced
medicine in Rome, began to study human anatomy and carried out the first physiological
experiment in animals. He was called as the last great biologist of antiquity. After Galen,
a biological darkness enveloped all Europe. There is a downward trend in scientific
inquiry and no biologist made critical observations.

The renaissance took place during the 14th to 16th centuries. Curiosity about the
structure of living things was rekindled by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo, who made accurate studies in plants, animals and human anatomy.
Andreas Vesalius published his book “The Structure of the Human Body”. William
Harvey described the blood circulation in man which contributed to physiology. By the
middle of renaissance, anatomy, physiology, botany and zoology were established.

The introduction of microscope at the beginning of the 17th century marked the
start of modern biology. The first microscope was devised by Jansen (1690) in Germany.
It worked on the principle that two lenses are needed to magnify an object. Galileo
Galilei accidentally magnified the tiny compound eyes of an insect while playing with
the lenses. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek became the first man to see a microscopic organism-
a bacterium, through a crude microscope that he had constructed. This was followed by
the establishment of the concept of the cell theory by Robert Hooke, botanist Matthias
Schleiden and zoologist Theodore Schwann. The spontaneous origin of life from non
living matter was experimentally disapproved by Francesco Redi and later experimented
by Lazzaro Spallanzani. Carolus Linnaeus ‘The Father of Taxonomy’ established the
system of nomenclature in which all living things are arranged by genera and species.

In the early 19th century, Jean Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of evolution.
But the most outstanding contribution to evolution came from Charles Darwin who
proposed the natural selection as an explanation by which evolutionary changes take
place.

Louis Pasteur ‘The Father of Modern Microbiology’ laid the foundation of

modern microbiology. Claude Bernard and Johannes Muller established comparative
physiology, Karl von Baer founded comparative embryology. Gregor Mendel made
studies on genetics and Hugo de Vries formulated the mutation theory.

During the 20th century, many of the ideas of the past centuries were consolidated
and refined and new concepts have been added. In endocrinology, our knowledge of
hormones was increased by the work of E.H. Starling. Ecology came into existence at
the time of Ernst Haeckel who stated that an organism was the product of the interaction
of its environment with hereditary factors. Ecology was put on a modern basis by the
American Botanists H.E. Cowla and F.E. Clements and zoologist V.E. Shelford. Today,
the generalization that all organisms living in a given area are closely interdependent with
each other and with the environment is a unifying biological concept as that of evolution.

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What is Life?

Life is generally defined as the sum of a specific set of processes and structures
that result from organization of matter. Some theories on the origin of life are:

1. Divine Creation Theory, which proposes that life comes from a supernatural
form called God.
2. Marine Theory, which believes that life originates from the sea.
3. Cosmozoic or Interplanetary Theory, which states that life comes from
outer planets as spores and are germinated on earth.
4. Abiogenesis or Spontaneous Generation Theory, which believes that life
arises spontaneously from non-living things.
5. Evolutionary Theory, which concludes that life is a result of chain of
chemical reactions giving arise to a mass of living protoplasm which then or
gradually modify to their present forms of life.
6. Big Bang Theory, also called physic-chemical or cosmological theory and
most scientific accepted theory. Heavenly bodies, including the earth,
originated from the explosion of a hot rotating ball of gas and eventually life
was formed from the chemical evolution of different compounds present in the
primitive earth.

Natural science can be classified into biological and physical sciences.

Biological science deals with the study of living things while physical science deals with
the study of non-living things such as chemistry, physics, astronomy, geology,
meteorology, etc. Biology has two main divisions according to method of study such as
botany, the study of plants and zoology, the study of animals.

Branches of Biology According to the Nature of Study

Anatomy is the study of internal structures of living things.

Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.
Biochemistry is the use of chemistry in the study of living things.
Biological Earth Science is the use of the earth science, such as geography in the
study of living things.
Biological Psychology is the use of biology in psychological studies.
Biophysics is the use of physics in the study of living things.
Conchology is the study of shells
Cytology is the study of cells.
Ecology is the study of the relationships of living things to each other and to their
environment. Anatomy is the is the study of internal structures of living things.
Embryology is the study of the formation and development of living things from
fertilization to birth as independent organisms.
Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their actions.
Entomology is the study of insects.
Ethology is the study of animal behavior.

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 Genetics is the science of heredity and the lifelong development of living things.
Helminthology is the study of worms.
Herpetology is the study of reptiles and amphibians.
Histology is the study of tissues.
Ichthyology is the study of fishes.
Mammalogy is the study of mammals.
Malacology is the study of mollusks.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Morphology is the study of structures as to form and shape viewed as a whole.
Nutrition is the study of the use and conversion of food substances.
Ontogeny is the study of the development of the individual.
Ornithology is the study of birds.
Paleontology is the study of fossils.
Parasitology is the study of animals that live and subsist on or in other animals.
Pathology is the study of diseases, generally in animals.
Pharmacology is the study of the actions of chemicals on and in living things.
Phylogeny is the study of the development of a group or race.
Physiology is the study of normal functions of living things.
Protozoology is the study of one celled organisms.
Virology is the study of the study viruses.
Zoogeography is of the land and its animals.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

What is the scientific method?

Scientists rely primarily on the scientific method to investigate facts about the
material universe and to discover laws or theories that may govern this universe. The
scientific method is an organized and logical sequence of thought processes and activities
designed to gather information and test ideas.

Observation of a Phenomenon

A scientist using the scientific method begins with observation, which is an

examination of unexplained events or natural phenomena. The five senses (sight, smell,
taste, hearing and touch) are utilized to observe these. To aid the scientists, certain
instruments are used to observe a phenomenon.

Definition of a Problem

As a scientist continuously uncovers more empirical evidence about an event, he

begins to formulate questions about the event. He defines the problem to be studied. A
problem to be thoroughly studied should be limited in scope to make it manageable. A
problem should be properly defined, lest the researchers answer an unrelated problem
instead.

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Formulation of the Hypothesis

A scientist does not stop at defining a problem. A scientist proposes a tentative

answer to the problem. This is the hypothesis. A hypothesis must account for all
observed facts, aside from being testable.

The Experiment

An experiment is a recreation of a phenomenon or event done by a scientist in

order to produce valid and reliable evidence. Experimentation involves precise collection
of data and their organization in a manner that is systematically related to the hypothesis.

Drawing of Conclusion

After experimentation, a scientist draws a conclusion from an array of data and

explanations based on such experiment. A conclusion is a statement of whether or not the
results of an experiment support the hypothesis.

Hypothesis, Theory, Laws

We have defined the hypothesis to be the tentative answer or solution to a

problem. The hypothesis is based on the data used in an experiment. If the hypothesis
proves true in other subsequent but similar experiments, then a theory is now formed.
Thus a theory is a general statement, a plausible, scientifically accepted generalization
based on a number of tested hypotheses designed to explain a range of observations. A
new theory will be subjected to continuous experimentation. If the theory survives, it
becomes a valid scientific law.

Limitations of the scientific method

1. Existence of God
2. Beauty appreciations
3. Moral issues
4. Value judgment

The Study of Biology

The requirements for a successful study of biology are few:

(1) ability to observe carefully and to report accurately that which is seen;
(2) absolute honesty in all work – a prime requirement in all branches of science;
(3) clear thinking to arrive at dependable deductions or inferences from observations;
and
(4) a judicial attitude to appraise the relative values of conflicting evidence and to arrive
at appropriate conclusions in the presence of evidence pointing in another direction.
skill in attaining all these requirements may be gained even in elementary course.

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 CHAPTER 2

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

The chemistry of living things involves a variety of large and complex molecules.
This chemistry is based on the carbon atom and the fact that carbon atoms can connect to
form long chains or rings. This results in a vast array of molecules. The structure of each
molecule is related to its function. Changes in the structure may result in abnormal
functions, which we call disease. These chemical changes and interactions are called
reactions. Chemical reactions in living cells and tissues are responsible for activities such
as the production of secretions in glands cells, release of energy for the movement of
muscles, and the digestion of complex for food molecules. In order to understand animals
it is thus necessary to first cover some fundamentals of chemistry. Study of chemicals
compounds and their reactions in the cells and fluids of living organisms is the field of
biochemistry, which seeks ultimately to understand the chemical phenomena we call
life. A recent branch of biochemistry called molecular biology is rapidly accumulating
knowledge on some of the detailed chemical aspects of life, as in the case of DNA and
RNA. Some of the most common types of organic molecules found in living things are
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Matter, Mass and Weight

Matter is anything that occupies a space and has mass. Mass refers to the
quantity of matter in any body while weight refers to the gravitational attraction exerted
by a large body of matter on an object. Weight is dependent on gravity, therefore, it
depends upon the distance of the body from the center of the earth and so may vary from
place to place, whereas mass of the body is constant.

Properties of Matter

A. Physical Properties

Properties of matter which can be observed without changing the substance into
some new kind of matter are called physical properties. Physical properties like
odor, color, taste, transparency and physical states are determined by our senses
and therefore they are not always reliable. While density, boiling point and
freezing point are physical properties that are reliable because they can be
measured and numerical values are assigned to them.

B. Chemical Properties

Chemical properties are those properties that can be observed only when the
substance undergoes a change in composition. These are also the properties that

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 determine the ability of a substance to react with other substances. The capacity
of carbon to combine with oxygen at elevated temperature to form carbon dioxide
and iron oxide to react with coke to produce metallic iron and carbon dioxide are
chemical properties.

Physical States of Matter

There are four physical states of matter-gas, liquid, solid and plasma.

1. Gases. Are substances that neither have definite shape nor definite volume.
2. Liquids. Are substances that have definite volume but no definite shape, they
just follow the shape of the container.
3. Solids. Are materials that have definite volume and definite shape.
4. Plasma. Is a mixture of sub-atomic particles nuclei and electrons.

Structure of an Atom

The basic building block of matter is called atom. An atom is extremely very
small, it measures only from less than one to two Angstrom. An Angstrom is equivalent
to one ten-thousandth of a micron.

Kinds of Matter

Matter is either pure substance or mixture. Pure substances are defined as those
whose composition in terms of its elemental constituents does not change when subjected
to processes such as freezing, boiling, condensation, evaporation, recrystallization, and
solution. Copper, sugar cane and distilled water are examples of pure substances.

There are two kinds of pure substances: elements and compounds. Elements is
made up of only one kind of atom while compound is made up of 2 or more different
kinds of atoms. There are three kinds of element namely: metal, non-metal and
metalloid. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity while non-metals are good
insulators against heat and electricity. Zinc, iron, aluminum, tungsten, gold and lead are
some examples of metals while sodium, hydrogen, oxygen, and helium are some
examples of non metals. Metalloids are called borderline forms of elements or
intermediate elements since they possess both the characteristics of metals and non-
metals. There are only four metalloids, namely: arsenic, boron, germanium, and silicon.

Compounds may be organic or inorganic. Organic compounds contain carbon

atoms while inorganic compounds usually do not have carbon atoms. Methane,
carbohydrates, proteins, gasoline and kerosene are examples of organic compounds while
carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, water, sulfur dioxide and ammonia are examples of
inorganic compounds.

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THE CHEMICAL COMPOSTION OF LIVING MATTER

1. Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic Compounds making up living matter do not contain carbon.

They include water, salts, acids, and bases.

a. Water the single most abundant compound in the body. It acts as

universal solvent in which electrolytes (salts, acids, and bases) ionize
and in which chemical reactions occur, and it is the basis of transport
and lubricating fluids. It slowly absorbs and releases heat, thus
helping to maintain homeostatic body temperature, and it protects
certain body structures (e.g., the brain) by forming a watery cushion.
Water is also a reactant in hydrolysis reactions.
b. Salts in ionic form are involved in nerve transmission, muscle
contraction, blood clotting, transport of oxygen by hemoglobin, cell
permeability, metabolism, and many other reactions. Additionally,
calcium salts (as bone salts) contribute to bone hardness.
c. Acids are proton donors. When dissolved in water, they release
hydrogen ions. Strong acids dissociate completely; weak acids
dissociate incompletely.
d. Bases are proton acceptors. The most important inorganic bases are
hydroxides. Bicarbonate ions are important bases in the body. When
bases and acids interact, neutralization occurs—that is, a salt and water
are formed.
e. PH is a measure of the relative concentrations of hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions in various body fluids. Each change of one pH unit
represents a 10-fold change in hydrogen (or hydroxyl) ion
concentration. A pH of 7 is neutral (that is, the concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are equal). A pH below 7 is acidic; a pH
above 7 is alkaline (basic).
f. Normal blood pH ranges from 7.35 to 7.45. slight deviations outside
this range can be fatal.

2. Organic Compounds

Organic Compounds are the carbon-containing compounds that living

matter comprises. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are
examples. They all contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Proteins and
nucleic acids also contain substantial amounts of nitrogen.

a. Carbohydrates – contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the

general relationship (CH2O) their building blocks are
monosaccharides. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose,
galactose, deoxyribose, and ribose. Disaccharides include sucrose,

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 maltose, and lactose, and polysaccharides include starch and glycogen.
Carbohydrates are ingested as sugars and starches. Carbohydrates, and
in particular glucose, are the major energy source for the formation of
ATP.
b. Lipids include the neutral fats (glycerol plus three, fatty acid chains),
phospholipids, and steroids (most importantly, cholesterol). Neutral
fats are found primarily in adipose tissue, where they provide
insulation and reserve body fuel. Phospholipids and cholesterol are
found in all cell membranes. Cholesterol all forms the basis of certain
hormones, bile salts, and vitamin 1). Like carbohydrates, the lipids are
degraded by hydrolysis and synthesized by dehydration synthesis.
c. Proteins are constructed from building blocks called amino acids, 20
common types of amino acids are found in the body. Amino acid
sequence determines the proteins constructed. Fibrous, or structural,
proteins are the basis structural materials of the body. Globular
proteins are functional molecules; examples of these include enzymes,
some hormones, and hemoglobin. Disruption of the hydrogen bonds
of functional proteins leads to their denaturation and inactivation.
d. Enzymes increase the rates of chemical reactions by combining
specifically with the reactants and holding them in the proper position
to interact. They do not become part of the product. Many enzymes
are produced in an inactive form or are inactivated immediately after
use.
e. Nucleic acids include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA). The building unit of nucleic acids is the nucleotide; each
nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose), and a phosphate group. DNA (the “stuff” of the genes)
maintains genetic heritage by replicating itself before cell division and
contains the code-specifying protein structure. RNA acts in protein
synthesis to ensure that instructions of the DNA are executed.
f. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the universal energy compound used
by all cells of the body. When energy is liberated by the oxidation of
glucose, some of that energy is captured in the high-energy phosphate
bonds of ATP molecules and is stored for later use.
g. Hormones are substances produces by ductless glands. Although they
do not contribute energy cells or play role in the protoplastructure, still
they are necessary for normal cell activities. Together with the
nervous system hormones regulate bodily functions. Insulin,
glucagon, adrenalin, thyroxin, and thymosin are among the well
studied hormones of the vertebrates.
h. Vitamins are inorganic compounds, usually of plant origin, needed by
man and animals for normal growth and development. There are 13
vitamins available but the body produces only three of them which are
not even sufficient to meet the body’s needs. Therefore, vitamins must
be supplied in a person’s daily diet. Each vitamin has specific uses

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 that one of the compounds cannot replace, or act for, another. But the
lack of one vitamin can interfere with the function of another.

Kinds of Vitamins

Vitamin A (retinol or anti-xeropthalmia) are found in liver, eggyolk, milk, cheese,

butter, cream, green and yellow vegetables. Vitamin A is essential for normal bone and
skeletal growth. It is also needed for healthy skin and for normal night vision. People
who do not get enough vitamin A may develop condition called xeropthalmia, in which
the surface of the eye becomes dry and likely to develop infection. Night blindness is an
early symptom of vitamin A deficiency.

Vitamin B Complex was first believed to be only one vitamin. Researchers later
discovered that it consists of 8 vitamins – thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine,
panthothenic acid, biotin, cyanocobalamine and folic acid.

B1 (thiamine) prevents beri-beri and diseases of the nervous system. It is

necessary for good appetite, good muscles tones and for carbohydrates metabolism.
Sources of thiamine includes yeast, meat, whole-grain, enriched breads and cereals, nuts
peas, potatoes and most vegetables.

B2(riboflavin) is most abundant in milk, cheese, liver, fish poultry, and green
vegetables. This vitamin is needed for growth and for healthy skin and eyes. It promotes
the body’s use of oxygen in converting food into energy. If a person does not get enough
riboflavin, cracks may develop in the skin at the corners of the mouth. The person also
may have inflamed lips and a sore tongue.

B6(pyridoxine) helps the body use amino acids. It is also needed for healthy teeth
and gums, blood vessels, nervous system, and red blood cells. Yeast, whole-grain,
cereals, meat, poultry, fish and most vegetables are good sources of this vitamin.

B12(cyanocobalamine) is essential for proper development of red blood cells. It

also helps for the proper function of the nervous system. B 12 are found in eggs, meat,
milk and milk products. A deficiency of either B12 or folic acid results in anemia.

Folic acid is needed for the production of red blood cells. They are found on
green and leafy vegetables, yeast, meat, poultry, and fish.

Panthothenic acid helps the body convert carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into
energy. Eggyolk, meat, nuts, liver, milk and legumes are good sources of this vitamin.

Biotin is needed for healthy circulatory system and for maintaining healthy and
beautiful skin. Foods rich in biotin includes eggyolk, nuts, liver, kidney, legumes and
most fresh vegetables.

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 Niacin is essential for cell metabolism and absorption of carbohydrates. It also
helps maintain healthy skin. Liver, yeast, lean meat, whole-grains, enriched breads and
cereals are good sources of niacin.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is very essential for sound bones and teeth. It is also
needed for tissue metabolism and wound healing. Good sources of vitamin C include
citrus fruits, tomatoes, raw cabbage, potatoes, guavas, strawberries, papaya, mangoes and
green leafy vegetables. A deficiency in vitamin C results into a disease called scurvy.

Vitamin D helps prevent rickets. It has been called the sunshine vitamin because
it forms in the skin when the body is exposed to sunlight. Codliver oil, milk, cheese,
liver, sardines, tuna, salmon, eggyolk, and fortified margarine contain large amount of
vitamin D.

Vitamin E (tocopherol or anti-sterility) helps the body convert fatty acids into
energy. It is also essential in the formation and proper functioning of the red blood cells,
muscles, and other tissues. The best sources of this vitamin are vegetable oil,
mayonnaise, salad dressing, margarine, nuts, legumes, lettuce and whole-grain cereals.

Vitamin K is essential for normal blood clotting. Liver, eggyolk, legumes,

tomatoes and leafy vegetables are good sources of vitamin K.

CELL PHYSIOLOGY

All cells exhibit irritability, digest foods, excrete wastes, and are able to
reproduce, grow, move, and metabolize.

Transport of substances through the cell membrane:

(1) Passive transport processes include diffusion and filtration

(a) Diffusion – is the movement of a substance from an area of its higher

concentration to an area of its lower concentration. It occurs because
of kinetic energy of the molecules themselves. The diffusion of
dissolved solutes through the plasma membrane is simple diffusion.
The diffusion of water through the plasma membrane is osmosis.
Diffusion that requires a protein carrier is facilitated diffusion.
(b) Filtration – is the movement of substances through a membrane from
an area of high hydrostatic pressure to an area of lower fluid pressure.
In the body, the driving force of filtration is blood pressure.

(2) Active transport processes use energy (ATP) provided by the cell.

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(a) In solute pumping, substances are moved across the membrane against
an electrical or a concentration gradient by proteins called solute
pumps. This accounts for the transport of amino acids, some sugars,
and most ions.

(b) The two types of ATP-activated bulk transport are exocytosis and
endocytosis. Exocytosis moves secretions and other substances out of
cells; a membrane-bound vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane,
ruptures, and ejects its contents to the cell exterior. Endocytosis in
which particles are taken up by enclosure in a plasma membrane sac,
includes phagocytosis (uptake of solid particles) and pinocytosis
(uptake of fluids).
(c) Osmotic pressure, which reflects the solute concentration of a
solution, determines whether cells gain or lose water.

(1) Hypertonic solutions, contain more solutes (and less water) than
do cells. In these solutions, cells lose water by osmosis and
crenate.
(2) Hypotonic solutions, contain fewer solutes (and more water) than
do the cells. In these solutions, cells swell and may rupture (lysis)
as water rushes in by osmosis.
(3) Isotonic solutions, which have the same solute-to-solvent ratio as
cells, cause no changes in cell size or shape.

15
 CHAPTER 3

THE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The concept of the cell has developed over a number of years. Initially, only two
regions, the cytoplasm and the nucleus, could be identified. At present, numerous
organelles are recognized as essential components of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
types.

The cell is the common unit of life. We study individual cells and their structure
to understand how they function as individual living organisms and as parts of many-
celled beings. Knowing how prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types resemble or differ
from each other helps physicians control some organisms dangerous to humans.

History of the Discovery of the Cell

In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered that thin slices of cork and other plant
materials contain minute partitions separating cavities that he called cells. In 1833,
Robert Brown discovered the nucleus as the central part of the cell. Botanist Matthias
Schleiden in 1838 stated that cells are the unit of structure in plants while zoologist
Theodor Schwann in 1939 that cells are the unit of structure in animals. The cell theory,
which says that all living things are composed of cells were enunciated by Schleiden and
Schwann, but a very important extension of this theory was contributed by Rudolf
Virchow, He stated that all living cells come from other living cell and that there is no
spontaneous creation of cells from non living matter.

Protoplasm

The jelly-like living substance of the cell is called protoplasm. Typically, it is

translucent, grayish and slimy. Physically it may be granular, or foamlike or contain
small fibers or threads. And chemically, protoplasm comprises water, mineral salts and
many kinds of organic compounds – the latter occur in mature cells only as components
or products of living organisms.

Nucleus

The control center of the cell is the nucleus. This is the largest and one of the
most conspicuous structural area. It plays the central role in cellular reproduction and in
conjunction with the environment, in determining what sort of differentiation a cell
undergo and what form it will exhibit at maturity. It also directs the metabolic activities
of the living cell.

16
 Within the nucleus are several structures. The entire nucleus is enclosed by a
nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane encloses and protects the nucleus. It also
regulates what passes in and out of the nucleus. The protoplasm inside the nucleus of the
cell is called the nucleoplasm. The chromosomes are threadlike bodies which are only
visible during cell division. The chromosomes bear the genes, the basic units of heredity.
The genes determines the characteristics of the cell, as they are passed from generation to
generation, and act as the units of control in the daily activities of the cell. The nucleoli
are dark-stained bodies which are visible when the cell is not dividing. They are
responsible for protein synthesis.

Cell membrane or Plasma membrane

Cell or plasma membrane encloses and protects the entire cell. It is triple-
layered containing protein and lipids.

Cilia and flagella. Some cells of both plant and animal have one or more
movable hairlike structures projecting from their free surfaces. If there are only a few of
those appendages and they are relatively long in proportion to the size of the cell, they are
called flagella. If there are many and they are short, they are called cilia. Both usually
function either in moving the cell or in moving liquids or small particles across the
surface of the cell.

Microvilli and Pinocytic vesicles. Microvilli are minute finger-like projections of

the cell membrane. These are sites of osmosis where fluids may pass in and out of the
cell. In pocketings of the cell membrane filled with water are called pinocytic vesicles.
When water is needed by the cell, the plasma membrane engulfs a droplet of water in a
process pinocytesis. In this way, the cell is able to “drink”.

Cytoplasm

The protoplasm outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm. It contains several

structures and cell organelles such as:

1. Endoplasmic reticulum are system of membrane-enclosed canals forming a

network in the cytoplasm. They serve as routes of transport for the materials
within the cell. There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum: rough and
smooth. Rough endoplasmic reticulum are lined on their outer surfaces by
small particles called ribosomes. While the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lacks ribosomes.
2. Golgi Complex (bodies or apparatus) consists of a system of membrane-
enclosed vesicles arranged parallel to each other. Golgi complex are involved
in the secretion of several chemical products, membrane repair and transport
of materials in and out of the cell.

17
 3. Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. They appear as rounded
cylinders or globules enclosed by membranes. They are sites of many
chemical reactions that extract energy from food and later use as energy for
the activities of the cell.
4. Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed bodies smaller than the mitochondria.
They contain powerful digestive enzymes and are thought to function as the
digestive system of the cell.
5. Plastids. This organelles are found in the cells of most plants but not in
animal cell. There are two kinds of plastids: chromoplasts (colored plastids)
and leucoplasts (white or colorless plastids). Chloroplasts are chromoplasts
containing green pigments chlorophyll. Chromoplasts lacking chlorophyll are
usually yellow or orange (occasionally red). It is these kinds of plastids that
give the yellow or orange color to flowers, fruits and autumn leaves.
Leucoplasts are plastids in which materials like starch, oils and protein
granules are stored.
6. Centrosome contains one to two centriole which are small dark bodies
located above the nucleus. They play an important role in organizing the
spindle during cell division.
7. Vacuoles are membrane-enclosed cavities filled with either fluid or granular
material. Some vacuoles expel excess water and wastes from the cell which
are called contractile vacuoles. Food vacuoles contain food particles.

Differences between plant cell and animal cell

Animal cell contains only the plasma membrane while plant cell have plasma
membrane and cell wall (which contains cellulose and other compounds) to help the plant
withstand very dilute external media without bursting. Only animal cells contain
lysosomes and they lack plastids while plant cells contain plastids but lack lysosomes.
The reason for this is that animals have digestion but they don’t perform photosynthesis
while plants undergo photosynthesis but no digestion takes place. Lastly, animal cells
have small vacuoles for storage of food while plant cells have large vacuoles for storage
of water.

CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

As the cell performs its life processes and converts absorbed food substances into
new living protoplasm, it increases in size? After attaining a certain size, it divides.
Unicellular organisms undergo direct cell division or amitosis wherein a constriction
appears on the plasma membrane which deepens and divides both cytoplasm and nucleus
resulting into the daughter cells. Cells that undergo this type of division are called
procaryotic cells. Cells of multicellular organisms undergo indirect cell division or
mitosis wherein several changes take place in the cell prior to division. Eucaryotic cells
undergo mitosis.

18
 Cell division has two phases, mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis
(division of the cytoplasm)

(1) MITOSIS. Body cells undergo a cell cycle which includes a period of first
interphase, followed by a period of synthesis, then a period of second interphase prior
to mitosis. After the formation of two daughter cells, the cells enter the period of first
interphase. Thus, the cycle is repeated.

During the first interphase, the chromosomes are single-stranded and uncoiled.
This is followed by the period of synthesis wherein the DNA and chromosomes replicate
to become two-stranded chromosomes. After the period of replication of chromosomes,
the cell enters second interphase followed by mitosis.

Mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
At prophase, the two centrioles become visible and move to opposite poles of the
nucleus. The chromosomes appear as much shorter rod-like structures as they start to coil
tightly. Each chromosome consists of two strands or chromatids joined together by a
small body called centromere. The nucleolus and the nuclear membrane start to
disappear. The two centrioles move apart and fiber-like structures appear in the
cytoplasm between the centriole and around the centriole. This arrangement is called
central spindle or division figure.

Metaphase is a stage wherein the chromosomes migrates and aligns at the

equator of the spindle. The centromere divides thus separating the two chromatids.
Anaphase follows immediately. Each chromatid of a double-stranded chromosome
separates from its sister chromatid and goes to the opposite poles. Telophase starts as the
two sets of chromatids reach the poles. Each set of chromosomes becomes enclosed in a
nuclear membrane. The spindle disappears. The chromosomes starts to uncoil. A
nucleolus appears on each pole. A constriction appears at the equator of the cell that
divides the cell into two daughter cells. The daughter cells enter into interphase one and
grow to the same size as the parent cell.

(2) CYTOKINESIS. It usually begins during anaphase and progressively pinches the
cytoplasm in half.

(3) MITOTIC CELL DIVISION. It provides an increased number of cells for growth
and repair.

Multicellular Organization

Bodies of multicellular organisms, particularly animals, are organized on the basis

of tissues, organs and organ systems. A tissue is composed of cells with similar
structures and functions. An organ is composed of several tissues grouped together into

19
a structural and functional unit. And an organ system is a group of organs that work
together in the performance of a specific function.

The Microscope

Among the numerous tools of a life scientist, the microscope is the most
useful.The first microscope was devised by Jansen (1690) in Germany. It worked on the
principle that two lenses are needed to magnify an object. Two decades later, Galileo
Galilei accidentally magnified the tiny compound eyes of an insect while playing with
the lenses. Stunned by what he saw, Galileo described the startling geometric patterns of
the insect’s eyes. This was the first scientific observation.

A few years later, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek became the first man to see a
microscopic organism – a bacterium, through a crude microscope that he had constructed.
Continuous improvements were made on the microscope, transforming it into a more
powerful instrument of greater sophistication. Microscopes which had been used to
magnify minute details of microscopic objects or organisms began to range from a simple
magnifying glass to a sophisticated electron microscope.

A microscope is a device that enables us to see and observe the details of minute
objects. Such tiny objects which cannot be seen with the unaided eye are called
microscopic. What we see when we study the object through the microscope is referred
to as its image. Magnification is the ratio of the image size to the object size.

Magnification

The magnification of a microscope refers to its ability to enlarge the image of an

object in one direction such as length but not to change in size. This means that if a
microscope has a magnification of 100x, it will appear to be 100 millimeters long even if
the image of a line is only 1 millimeter. Thus, the area of an image is increased by the
square of magnification. It will be useful to note that 1002 = 10,000.

The total magnification of a compound microscope can be determined by simply

multiplying the magnifying power of the objective by the magnifying power of the
eyepiece or ocular. For ex., the high-power objective is 43x and the ocular is 10x. if you
are using the high-power objective, the total magnifying power of the microscope is 43 x
10, or 430x. This shows the distance between two points in the image of the microscope
is 430 times greater than the actual object. When a microscope magnifies an image of an
object, it does not add any details to the object, because the details really exist. What it
does is to spread the details apart so that the human eye can distinguish them. If there are
two small spots close together, such sports are seen far apart from each other. This is
what is referred to as the resolution or sharpness of an image of a microscope.

20
TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

1. Light microscope – of makes use visible light.

1.1 Simple microscope – also known as a magnifying glass and consists of a single lens.
1.2 Light microscope – it uses light to produce an enlarged view of an object. What we
see when we look into the microscope to examine an object is called an image.
1.3 Compound microscope – it uses two lenses. One lens produces an enlarged image
that is further magnified by the second lens. This type of microscope has an optical
system, a mechanical system, and a light system. Included in the optical system,
aside from the lenses and the mirror, are two or more objectives of different
magnifying powers.
1.4 Fluorescence microscope – makes use of the fluorescence light which illuminates
the image of an object.
1.5 Phase-contrast – It is a special type of compound microscope. It allows details
within living organisms to be seen without staining.
1.6 Inverted microscope – composed of two objectives, ocular and body tube located
below the stage. It is useful in observing hanging drop preparations.
1.7 Stereomicroscope or binocular microscope- this is a type of light microscope used
in studying the surface of external structure of specimens. It has two eyepieces and
two objectives. It is used mostly for studying anatomy or when performing
dissections.

2. Electron microscope – It uses streams of electrons that bend in much the same way
as beams of light are bent by glass lenses. Its types are the transmission electron
microscopes (TEMs) and scanning electron microscopes (SEMs).

Electron microscopes differ from the ordinary compound or light microscopes in

the following ways: they use beams of electrons instead of light, can examine dead
specimens only (as these are fixed and placed in a vacuum), use specially stained
specimens, have much higher magnification (up to 250,000x), use electromagnets to
focus and magnify the image, can reveal finer details of the surface structure of whole
specimens and can focus on tinier parts of cells.

2.1 Transmission electron microscope – which makes use of electrons with very short
wavelengths, hence, the resolving power of this microscope is increased
tremendously. It is also equipped with electromagnetic fields, no lenses. The images
can be seen in a fluorescent screen and can be recorded in a photographic film.

2.2 Scanning electron microscope – which employs beam of electrons which are
focused as a spot moved back and forth over the specimen instead of being
transmitted through the entire field.

21
 COMMON BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

1. Fixation – soaking of a specimen in a fixative like formaldehyde after cutting it into

small piece.
2. Mounting – placing of a specimen on a slide for investigation.
3. Embedding – placing of a fixed specimen in wax or plastic so that it can be easily
sliced.
4. Sectioning – slicing of an embedded specimen into very thin cuts by a microtome.
5. Staining – coloring of specimens to bring out more details in a specific cell or in
tissue cultures
6. Centrifugation – use of centrifuge to spin suspended materials in a liquid so as to
collect these materials by fractions or layers.
7. Microdissection – use of tiny instruments to perform various operations on living
cells; done under a microscope.
8. Chromatography – separation and analysis of complex chemical mixtures. Color
comparison is usually its basis.
9. Electrophoresis – separation of substances composed of particles with electric
charges.
10. Spectrophotometry – use of light to analyze samples to determine what a substance
is and how much of it is present in a sample
11. Cell and tissue culture – technique used to maintain living cells or tissues in a tissue
culture outside the body.

BODY TISSUES

1. Epithelium is the covering, lining, and glandular tissue. Its functions include
protection, absorption, and secretion. Epithelia are named according to arrangement
(simple, stratified) and cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar).
2. Connective tissue is the supportive, protective, and binding tissue. It is characterized
by the presence of a nonliving, extracellular matrix produced and secreted by the
cells; it varies in amount and consistency. Fat, ligaments and tendons, bones and
cartilage are all connective tissues or connective tissue structures.
3. Nervous tissue is composed of cells called neurons, which are highly specialized to
receive and transmit nerve impulses and supporting cells. Neurons are important in
control of body processes. Nervous tissue is located in nervous system structures
–brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
4. Muscle tissue is specialized to contract, or shorten, which causes movement. There
are three types –skeletal (attached to the skeleton) cardiac (forms of the heart), and
smooth (in the walls of hollow organs).
5. Tissue repair (wound healing) may involve regeneration, fibrosis, or both. In
regeneration, the injured tissue is replaced by the same type of cells. In fibrosis, the
wound is repaired with scar tissue. Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well.
Mature cardiac muscle and nervous tissue are repaired by fibrosis.

22
 CHAPTER 4

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE

The vast number of living things on earth shows an almost limitless variety of
sizes and shapes. Over 1,500,000 different kinds of organisms have been identified and
many are still being discovered. Because of this diversity of organisms, a system of
classification that is both logical and meaningful has been devised to eliminate confusion.

In the 18th century, Carolus Linnaeus established the science of taxonomy by

devising a system of classifying plants and animals. This system is called binomial
nomenclature. In this system, each plant or animal is given two names, a generic name or
genus and a specific names or species. This is how the system works:

All animals belong to Kingdom Animalia or the Animal Kingdom. The Animal
Kingdom is made up of groups called phyla (phylum). Each phylum is divided into
classes. Each class is divided into orders. Each order is divided into families. Each
family is divided into genera. Each genus is made up of several species. The species is
the smallest group which includes a population of individuals that could interbreed and
produce fertile offsprings.

Present-day biology recognizes a five-kingdom system of classification after

having evolved from the old two-kingdom system. In addition to Plantae and Animalia,
we now recognize Protista which contains most of the unicellular organisms including
the flagellates; Mionera which contains bacteria and the blue-green algae; and Fungi
which includes the molds and mushrooms.

Taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming organisms. Phylogeny is the

science of trying to figure out the evolutionary history of a particular organisms. The
taxonomic ranking of organisms reflects their evolutionary relationships. Fossil
evidence, comparative anatomy, developmental stages, and biochemical evidence are
employed in the science of taxonomy.

Animals that adapted to a terrestrial environment had to have:

(1) a moist membrane for gas exchange;

(2) support and locomotion suitable for land;
(3) a means of conserving body of water;
(4) a means of reproducing and providing for early embryonic development out of
water; and
(5) a means of surviving in rapid and extreme climatic changes;

23
Kingdom Animalia

All animals are many-celled. The cells are differentiated to form specialized
tissues. Tissues are usually grouped to form organs and the organs into organ systems.
Most animal cells have a nucleus and organelles such as mitochondria, golgi bodies,
lysosomes and ribosomes. Animal cells are bounded by a plasma membrane. They are
not rigid like plant cells. Animals are heterotrophic. They feed on other organisms.
Most animals are motile and can move from place to place. All animals are capable of
sexual reproduction although some reproduce asexually.

1. Phylum Protozoa (Protozoans)

The protozoans are mostly one-celled animal like protistans of microscopic size.
Structurally and functionally the single cell of a protozoan is more complex than
the cell of metazoan animal, and for that reason these organisms are classified in
the Kingdom PROTISTA. Some protozoans are very simple in structure, and
others are complex, with organelles (cell organs) which serve particular vital
processes and which are functionally analogous to the organ systems of
multicellular animals.

a. Class Sarcodina. The common amoeba proteus of a clean fresh waters

that contain green vegetation serves as an introduction to the
PROTOZOA and to the SARCODINA. Amoeba, Actinophrys,
Globigerina, Badhamia.
b. Class Mastigophora. Flagellates. One to many flagella for
locomotion. Ceratium, Euglena, Trypanosoma, Volvox.
c. Class Ciliata. Infusoria or Ciliates. Paramecium, Oxytricha,
Vorticella, Podophrya.

6. Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

Sponges are the simplest of the animals. The body is perforated with minute
pores called ostia for the entrance of water into a central cavity, the spongocoel.
The skeleton is in the form of microscopic spicules or a network of spongin or
both. The sponge is attached to the sea bottom or to rocks by means of a stolon.

a. Class Calcarea. Calcareous sponges. Spicules limy (CaCO3) 1-3 or

4-rayed; body surface bristly; marine in shallow waters. Example:
Grantia
b. Class Hexactinellida. Glass sponges. Spicules siliceous, 6-rayed;
marine, at 300 feet or deeper. Example: Venus’ flower basket.

24
 c. Class Demospongiae. Skeleton siliceous; mostly marine. Example:
bath sponge.
d. Class Sclerospongiae. Coralline sponges. Massive skeleton of
calcium carbonate. Example: Merlia

7. Phylum Coelenterata (Cridaria)

Most coelenterates are colorful so that most of the time they are referred to as
“flower animals”. These are the animals that fascinate scuba divers for they
abound in the sea bottom.

The body of the coelentrates is radially symmetrical. The digestive tube is in the
form of a hollow, gastrovascular cavity. There is no anus. Hence the digestive
tube is incomplete. Their mouth is surrounded with tentacles which are provided
with stinging cells or nematocysts.

a. Class Hydrozoa. Hydroids. Mouth opens directly into a digestive

cavity that lacks partitions; hydroid stage usually colonies; medusa
with velum. Example: Hydra (freshwater polyp)
b. Class Scyphozoa. Jellyfishes. Small to large medusae, chiefly of
gelatinous mesoglea, and of bell or umbrella shape, margined with
tentacles; polyp stage minute or none. Example: Acrometoides (a
common specimen found in Manila Bay)
c. Class Anthozoa. Sea anemones, corals, ets. All polyps (no medusae);
a flat oral disk with tentacles; digestive cavity divided by radial
partitions. Examples: sea anemone, sea fan, staghorn coral, organ
pipe coral and black coral.

8. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

These are the unsegmented worms. The body is dorsoventrally flattened and
bilaterally symmetrical. The digestive tube is incomplete because there is no
anus. Flatworms are either free-living or parasitic. They are usually
hermaphroditic.

a. Class Turbellaria. Free-living flatworms. Their body is ribbonlike to

disklike. They have no hooks or suckers. They are either marine,
freshwater, or terrestial. Example: Planaria
b. Class Trematoda. Flukes. Their body is often leaflike, with thick
cuticle and no cilia. Some have ventral suckers or hooks or both. All
are parasitic. Example: Fasciola (liver fluke)
c. Class Cestoidea. Tapeworms. Their body is flat, narrow, elongate,
comprising a scolex. They make use of suckers or hooks or both for
attachment. All are parasitic. Example: Taenia (pork tapeworm)

25
9. Phylum Nematoda. (roundworms)

Their body is cylindrical. There are about 10,000 species of these worms. Some
feed on decaying matter and are therefore scavengers. Most species are parasitic
on plants and animals. A few are free-living.

A typical example is Ascaris lumbricoides, eelworm of man. The sexes are

separate. The female looks differently from the make and are therefore sexually
dimorphic. The body is slender and cylindrical, tapering at both ends. It is
covered by a smooth, tough and elastic cuticle, bearing minute striations. The
female is larger than the male.

Turbatrix aceti, vinegar eel, is the most familiar example of a free-living

nematode. This is seen as the minute organism on the surface of naturally
fermented vinegar. These are non-pathogenic forms. Parasitic forms include
hookworms, whipworms and pinworms.

10. Phylum Rotifera (wheel animalcules)

They are called wheel animalcules because of two groups of cilia which beat the
water like a pair of spinning wheels. They are microscopic forms found in
freshwater ponds, streams, muddy ditches and street gutters. They feed on
unicellular forms with the use of the wheel organ. Example: Hydatina.

11. Phylum Bryozoa (Moss Animals)

They are called moss animals because they are similar in appearance to
bryophytes. All bryozoans are aquatic and most are marine. They are colonial
and most are attached or sessile. The body is cylindrical with the mouth
surrounded by ciliated tentacles. The digestive system is complete. Example:
Bugula.

12. Phylum Mollusca (Mollusks)

Their body is radially symmetrical, usually no segmentation. Their soft bodies

are covered by a mantle that usually secretes a limy shell. They usually have an
anterior head and a ventral muscular foot for locomotion. The digestive tract is
complete. Sexes are usually separate. Some are found in saltwater, others in
freshwaters and some on land.

a. Class Polyplacophora. Chitons. Their body is usually elliptical. They

have shells made up of eight plates. They are marine type. Example:
Chiton

26
 b. Class Scaphopoda. Tooth shells. They have a tubular shell open at
both ends and shaped like an elephant’s tusks. Example: Dentalium.
c. Class Gastropoda. Univalve mollusks. They are known as stomach-
footed mollusks. The foot is long and flat and lies under the belly. It
is used for creeping, hence, the name stomach-footed or gastropods.
They are also called univalves because of the presence of single shell
which may be spiral or not. The head is distinct, with one or two pairs
of tentacles. Example: snail, slug, abalone, and cowry.
d. Class Bivalvia. Bivalve mollusks. They are known as the
hatchetfooted mollusks. The foot is wedge-shaped and is used for
digging. The shell is made up of two valves, hence the name, bivalves.
They have no head or jaws. Examples: clam, mussel and oyster.
e. Class Cephalopoda. Squids, octopus, ets. They are known as
headfooted mollusks because the foot is in the form of tentacles
attached to the head, hence the name head-footed. The foot is used for
foodgetting. Eyes are large and prominent. The shell is internal as in
squids or external as in nautili. Examples: squid, octopus (devilfish)
and nautilus.

13. Pylum Annelida (segmented worms)

There are about 10,000 annelids. The unique feature of this group is
segmentation. The body is divided into similar ringlike segments or somites.
They have a complete digestive tract. They are found in freshwater, In moist and
damp places, in seashores or in burrows.

a. Class Polychaeta. Sandworms, tubeworms, etc. Segmentation is

conspicuous, with many somites having lateral projections that bear
numerous setae. The head region is evident, with tentacles. Sexes are
usually separate. They are chiefly marine. Example: clamworm.
b. Class Oligochaeta. Earthworms, etc. Segmentation is also
conspicuous. They have no head or parapodia. Their setae are usually
few per somite. They are found in freshwaters and moist soil.
Example: Pheretima benguetensis (common local earthworm).
c. Class Hirudinea. Leeches.
Their bodies are flat. The somites are inconspicuous, each is divided
externally into several annuli. They have no setae or parapodia. The
first and last body segments are modified to form suckers used for
locomotion and attachment. Example: Hirudo (leech)

14. Pylum Arthropoda (Arthropods)

This is the largest of all phyla. They are found in almost any environment-on
land, underground, in water, on plants, on animals and inside animals. The
arthropods are joint-footed with numerous paired appendages. The body is

27
 covered by a chitinous exoskeleton. Their digestive tract is complete. Sexes are
usually separate.

a. Class Merostomata. The cephalothorax broadly joined to abdomen on

which are five or six pairs of appendages. They are aquatic type.
Example: horsehoe crab.
b. Class Arachnida. Arachnids. Their abdomen lacks locomotor
appendages. They are usually terrestial. Examples: tick, scorpion,
head louse, spider, and itch mite.
c. Class Crustacea. Crustaceans. They have two pairs of antennae, one
pair of jaws, and two pairs of maxillae. The body is divided into a
cephalothorax and abdomen. The cephalothorax is formed by the
fusion of the head and thorax. Most of them are aquatic. Examples:
crayfishes, lobster, crab, shrimp and prawn.
d. Class Insecta. Insects. These animals have distinct head, thorax and
abdomen. The thorax typically with three pairs of legs and two pairs
of wings. They are mainly terrestial. Examples: grasshopper, fly,
butterfly, and mosquito.
e. Class Chilopoda. Centipedes. Their body is long, flattened and has
15 to 181 somites, each with a pair of legs. They have one long pair of
antennae. Centipedes are predators. They are terrestial. Example:
Scolopendra (centipede)
f. Class Diplopoda. Millipedes. Their body is cylindrical and not
flattened. The body is divided into a head, thorax and abdomen. The
abdomen has 9 to more than 100 double somites, each with pairs of
legs. They are terrestial. Example: Julus (millipede).

15. Phylum Echinodermata (Echinoderms)

The body of the echinoderms are radially symmetrical and has no segmentation.
Characteristic of the group is the presence of spines that are either minute or large
covering the body. The body is supported by a skeleton of bony plates. Another
unique feature of the group is water vascular system of circulation. Water, not
blood, is issued for circulation.

a. Class Crinoidea. Sea lilies, feather stars. They are flowerlike. The
body is small and cup-shaped, which is called the calyx. Attached to it
are five flexible arms. Each arm branches into two, each bearing
slender lateral pinnules. Thus, the arms resemble feathers. Example:
Antedon
b. Class Asteroidea. Starfishes or sea stars. Their body is star-shaped or
pentagonal with five to fifty arms or rays not sharply distinct from
central disk. Their skeleton is flexible, usually with short spines.
Example: Asterias

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 c. Class Ophiuroidea. Brittle stars. They have five long, segmented
arms that move like snakes, hence, they are called snake star. The
arms easily break when handled, hence the name brittle star. It has
great power of regeneration, the ability to replace lost parts. Example:
Ophiura (brittle star)
d. Class Echinoidea. Sea urchins, sand dollars. Their body may be
rounded or ovoid; some are flattened, others are globular. They have
no projecting arms. The body is covered with small or large spines.
Example: Strongylocentrotus (sea urchin); Dendraster (sand dollar).
e. Class Holothuroidea. Sea cucumbers. Their body is bilaterally
symmetrical. They have no arms. The mouth is on one end
surrounded by retractile tentacles. The body is elongated or wormlike.
Example: holothuria

16. Phylum Chordata (Chordates)

There are three unique characteristics of this phylum: they have notochord, gill
slits and a hollow nerve cord.

Protochordates

The protochordates are the invertebrate chordate or chordates without

vertebral column. They look more like primitive invertebrates rather than
chordates. However, they share the three unique characteristics of chordates, thus
suggesting a biological relationship or kinship with chordates. Example:
amphioxus (lancelet)

Vertebrate Chordates

There are about 49,000 species of vertebrates inhabiting the seas,

freshwater, and land. Of these, 30,000 species are fishes, the others are terrestial
forms. However, the amphibians, some reptiles and some mammals share the
waters with the fishes.

a. Class Cyclostomata. Lampreys. Their body is cylindrical, slender and

with median fins only. Their mouth is always open because they have
no jaws. They are called cyclostomes (circular mouth) or jawless
vertebrates Example: Petromyzon (lamprey)
b. Class Chondrichthyes. Cartilaginous fishes. These fishes have
skeletons of cartilage instead of bone. All species breathe through
their gills.

The gill slits are exposed and seen at the sides of the head. The skin is
covered with placoid scales. Examples: Squalus (shark): Raja (ray)

29
c. Class Osteichthyes. Bony fishes. These fishes have skeletons made
chiefly of bone. All species breathe through their gills. The gill slits
are covered by an operculum or gill cover. The scales are usually
cycloid and large. Examples: salmon, milkfish and lungfishes
d. Class Amphibia. Amphibians. Most amphibians live partly on land
and partly in water. As a result, they have legs instead of fins and
lungs instead of gills in the adult. However, their larvae are aquatic
and breathe through the gills. Examples: frogs, toads, salamanders,
and mud puppies.
e. Class Reptilia. Reptiles. These animals have dry skin covered with
horny scales (hardened skin). They breathe through their lungs. Most
of them are terrestrial and only a few are aquatic. They lay large eggs
covered by a soft shell. Examples: tuatara, lizards, snakes, crocodile
and alligator.
f. Class Aves. Birds. Birds are the only group of vertebrates (excluding
bats) capable of true flight. This is the only group with feathers. They
breathe through the lungs. They lay eggs covered by a hard shell.
Birds are warm-blooded or homeothermous. Most of them are
terrestial but some are aquatic. Some birds are unable to fly like the
ostriches. Examples: duck, crow and sparrow.
g. Class Mammalia. Mammals. This is the only group of vertebrates
with hair. They gave birth to their young alive. They nurse their young
with milk coming from their mammary glands. They are
homeothermous or warm-blooded. Examples: man, kangaroo, horse,
pig, cat, dog, cow, whale, bat, rabbit, fox monkey, bear and others.

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 CHAPTER 5

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system includes the integument and all its derivatives or
outgrowths. The study of vertebrate’s skin is called dermatology. The integument,
commonly called the skin, is the body’s largest organ. It is interface between the body ’s
internal structures and the environment. The average adult human body is covered with
about eighteen square feet of the skin. It varies in thickness. The skin has a surface area
of about 1.5 to 2m squares in adults and it contains glands, hair and nails. The skin
completely covers the body and is continues with the membranes lining the body orifices.
It protects the underlying structures from injury and invasion by microbes. The skin
contains sensory (somatic) nerve endings of pain, temperature and touch also involves in
the regulation of the body’s temperature.

Functions of the Integument

1. Protection – the skin is one of the main protective organs of the body. It
forms a relatively waterproof layer that protects the deeper and more delicate
structure and acts as the main barrier against;

a. invasion by microbes
b. chemicals
c. physical agents; e.g. mild trauma, ultraviolet light
d. dehydration

Due to the presence of sensory nerve endings in the skin, the body reacts by reflex
action to unpleasant or painful stimuli, protecting it from injury.

2. Regulation of body temperature – the temperature of the body remains fairly

constant at about 36.8 degree Celsius (98.4 degree Fahrenheit). In health,
variations are usually limited to between 0.5 and 0.75 degree Celsius.
Although it is raised slightly in the evening, before exercise, and in women
just before ovulation. If the temperature is raised metabolic rate is reduced.
To ensure this constant temperature, a fine balance is maintained between that
produce in the body and heat lost to the environment.

3. Sensation – sensory receptors of nerve endings in the dermis that are sensitive
to touch, pressure, temperature, or pain. They are stimulated by changes in
the external environment and generate impulses that travel to the cerebral
cortex. Some areas have more sensory receptors than others causing them to
be especially sensitive, e.g. lips and fingertips.

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 4. Absorption – this property is limited but substances that can be absorbed
includes:

a. Some drugs in transdermal patches – e.g. hormones used as

replacement therapy in postmenopausal women, nicotine as an acid to
stopping smoking.
b. Some toxic chemicals – e.g. mercury

5. Excretion – the skin is a minor excretory organ for some substances including:

a. Sodium chloride – in sweat and excess sweating may lead to

abnormally low blood
b. Urea – especially when kidney function is impaired.
c. Aromatic substances – e.g. garlic and other spices.

6. Formation of Vitamin D – a fatty substance, 7 dehydrocholesterol, in the skin

and the ultraviolet light from the sun converts it to vitamin D. This circulates
in the blood and is used, with calcium and phosphorus, in the formation and
maintenance of bone. Any vitamin D in excess of immediate requirements is
stored in the liver.

Structures of the Integument

Two Main Parts:

Epidermis – is the most superficial layer of the skin and it is composed of

stratified epithelium, which varies in thickness in different parts of the body. It is thickest
on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. There are no blood vessels or nerve
endings in the epidermis, but the deeper layers are bathed in the interstitial fluid from the
dermis, which provides oxygen and nutrients, and is drained away as lymph. There are
several layers of cells in the epidermis, which extend from the deepest germinative layer
to the stratum corneum. The innermost cells, called basal cells, are polygonal. They
have fibers fixed to small intra-cellular structures called desmosomes, that link the cells
together. The cells on the surface are flat, thin, non-nucleated, dead cells in which the
cytoplasm has been replace by keratin-an inert protein found in hair and nails. These
cells are being rubbed off and replaced by cells which originated in the germinative layer
and have undergone gradual change as they progressed towards the surface. Complete
replacement of the epidermis takes about 40 days. The dead surfaces are simply
remnants.

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Five Layers of Epidermis

1. Stratum Corneum – the thin, non-living layer which is composed of stratified,

flat squamous epithelial cells. This layer consists of couple of dozen layer of dead
scale like keratins. The most superficial layers are continually flaking off, a
process called desquamation or exfoliation.

2. Stratum Lucidum – a clear layer consist of three or four layer of translucent cells
containing eleidin – precursor of keratin.

3. Stratum Granulosum – a granular layer consist of two or three layers of cells

containing dark-staining granules of keratohyalin, the precursor of eleidin.

4. Stratum Spinosum – composed of several layers of irregularly shaped cells

displaying spine like processes.

5. Stratum Basale / Stratum Germinal rivum – The living and growing layer
consists of a single layer of columnar cells that undergo mitosis.

The maintenance of healthy epidermis depends upon three processes being

synchronized:

Desquamation of the keratinized cells from the surface. The effective keratin of
the cells approaching the surface. Continual cell division in the deeper layers which cells
being pushed in the surface.

The surface of the epidermis is ridged by the projection of cells in the dermis
called the papillae. The pattern of the ridges is different in every individual and the
impression made by them is the ”fingerprint”. The downward projections of the
germinative layer between the papillae are believed to aid nutrition of epidermal cells and
stabilize two layers, preventing damage due to the shearing forces. Blisters develop
when acute trauma causes separation of the dermis and epidermis and serous fluid
collects between two layers.

Dermis or Corium – is tough and elastic. It is composed of collage fibers inlayed

with elastic fibers. Rupture of elastic fibers occurs when the skin is over-stretched,
resulting to stretch marks, that maybe found in pregnancy obesity. Collagen fibers bind
water and give skin its feasile strength, but as this ability declines which age, wrinkles
develop, Underlying its deepest layer there is areolar tissue and varying amounts of fat.

33
Structures in the Dermis

1. Blood Vessels – Arterioles form a fine network with capillary branches supplying
sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles and the dermis. The epidermis has no
blood supply. It obtains nutrition and oxygen from interstitial fluid derived from
blood vessels in the papillae of the dermis.

2. Lymph Vessels – forms a network throughout the dermis and the deeper layers of the
epidermis.

3. Sensory Nerve Endings – nerve endings which are sensitive to touch, change in
temperature, pressure and pain are widely distributed in the dermis, are conveyed to
the spinal cord by sensory (somatic cutaneous) nerves, then to the sensory are of the
cerebrum where the sensations are perceived.

4. Sweat Gland – are found widely distributed throughout the skin and are most
numerous in the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, axillae and groins. The bodies of
the glands lie coiled in subcutaneous tissue. Some durfs open on to the skin surface at
tiny depression, or pores, and other open on to the skin surface at tiny depressions, or
pores and others open in hair follicles. Glands opening hair follicles do not become
active until puberty. In the axillae they secrete an odorless milky fluid which, if
decompose by surface microbes, causes an unpleasant odor. The functions of this
secretion are not known. Sweat glands are stimulated by sympathetic nerves in response
to raised body temperature and fear.

The most important function of sweat secreted by glands opening on to the

surface is the “regulation of body temperature”. Evaporation of sweat on the surface takes
heat from the body and the amount is produced is governed by the temperature-regulating
center in the hypothalamus. Excessive sweating may lead to dehydration and serious
depletion of body sodium chloride unless intake of water and salt is appropriately
increased. After 7 to 10 days exposure to high environmental temperature, the amount of
salt lost, is reduced but waterless remains high.

5. Hairs – these are formed by the down-growth of epidermal cells into the dermis or
subcutaneous tissue called hair follicles. At the base of the follicle there is a cluster of
cells called bulb. The hair is formed by the multiplication of cells of the bulb and as they
are pushed upwards, away from theirs source of nutrition, the cells die and become
keratinized. The color of the hair depends on the amount of melanin present. White hair,
is the result of replacing of melanin by tiny air bubbles.

6. Arrectores Pilgrim – are little bundles of involuntary muscles fibers attached to the
hair follicles. Contraction makes the hair stand erect and raises skin around the hair,
causing “goose flesh” muscles are stimulated by sympathetic nerve fibers in response to
fear and cold. Although each muscle is very small the contraction of large number
generates an appreciable amount of heat, especially when accompanied by shivering.

34
7. Sebaceous Gland – consists of secretory epithelial cells derived from the same tissue as
the hair follicles. They pour their oily secretion, sebum (an oily substances that keeps
hair soft and pliable and gives it a shiny appearance), into hair follicles so they are
present in the skin of all parts of the body except the palms of the hands and the soles of
the feet. They are numerous in the skin of the scalp, face axillae and groins. There are
sebaceous glands that are independent of hair follicles, secreting sebum directly in to the
surface such as lips, eyelids, nipple, labia minora and glans penis.

Sebum provides waterproofing and acts as a bacterial and fungicidal agent,

preventing the successful invasion of microbes. It is also prevents drying and cracking of
skin, especially on exposure to heat and sunshine. These gland increases at puberty and is
less at the extremes of age, rendering infants and the elderly prone to the effects of
excessive moisture e.g. nappy rash in the infants.

8. Nails – nails in human being are equivalent to the claws, horns and hoofs of animals.
They are derived from the same cells as epidermis and hair consists of a hard, horny type
of keratinized dead cell. They protect the tips of the fingers and toes. Fingernails grow
more quickly than to toe nails and growth is quicker when the environmental temperature
is high.

RECEPTORS – places the body in sensitive touch with the outside world. This is
accomplished through external receptors, sensory nerve terminals that respond to pain,
heat cold, touch and pressure.

Types of Receptors

1. Pain Receptors or Nociceptors – are naked nerve filament found throughout

the skin and in several other areas. They are most numerous of all five kinds
of receptors.
2. Meissner’s Corpuscles – encapsulated receptors, which are, located in the
dermal papillae of the finger and toes, over the lips, in the mammary glands
and in the external genitals. They are tuned to the sense of touch.
3. Ruffian’s Corpuscles – receptor, which is branching, nerve endings in the skin
and are sensitive to heat.
4. Pacini’s Corpuscles – receptors found in the deeper parts of the skin covering
of the hand and feet. It is also occur throughout the subcutaneous tissue in the
muscles, mesentery and mesocolon.
5. Krause’s Corpuscles – also called the “end bulbs of the Krause” – are cold
receptors consisting of spheroid capsule enclosing a granular mass and a
terminal neuro fibril – located in the mucous membrane of the mouth, nose,
eyes and genitals.

35
 CHROMATOPHORES – specialized connective tissue cells, which contain
pigments and result in skin coloration – the genetic result of the blending of hues found
in skin pigments. Pigmentation of the skin is a result of the blending of hue found in skin
pigments. Pigmentation of the skin is a result of the melanocyte cells of the skin. These
cells are displaced from the crest in the development and settle just below the junction
which the epidermis. Under this cells, produce melanin pigment. This melanin is
distributed to some of the epidermal cells. These are still visible as cells more up into the
stratum spinosum but it disappears as the process of keratinization proceeds.

Types of Chromatophores

1. Melanophores – with brown to black pigments

2. Guanophores – with colorless, crystalline material called guanin.
3. Lipophores – with red pigment called “ERYTHROCIN” or with yellow pigment
called “XANTHIN”
4. Photophores – with pigment which makes animal luminous.

36
 CHAPTER 6

SKELETAL SYSTEM

Humans are wonderful living things. They have this great posture, and this
posture we are talking about covers in our discussion about skeletal system. We will
learn the importance of skeletal and appreciate it more. We will be able to know the use
of each part.

The word “skeleton” came from the Greek word meaning “dried up body” our
internal framework is so beautifully designed and engineered that it puts any modern
skyscraper to shame, strong, yet light, it is perfectly adapted for its functions of body
protection and motion. Skeleton is a structural framework that supports the body against
gravity and also provides beverage for the action of muscles and the movement of the
body’s part.

Osteology is the study of bone and bones, the hard supporting tissues of the body.

When the skeleton is found externally, the skeleton is called exoskeleton and
when found internally, it is called endoskeleton. Exoskeleton is the outer superficial
component, well developed in many invertebrates but represented in man only by hairs,
nails, and teeth. The endoskeleton is that part of the supporting structure within the
animal.

All 24 ribs are attached to the vertebral column posteriorly. However, variations
in the anterior attachment of these slender, curved bones have led to the following
classification:

1. True ribs. These are the first seven pairs, are those attached directly to the
sternum by means of individual extensions called coastal cartilages.

2. False ribs. These are the remaining five pairs. They are attached to the
cartilage of the rib above. The last two pairs have no anterior attachment at all
and are known floating ribs.

The bony framework of the head, called skull. The frontal bone forms the
forehead, the front of the skull’s roof over the eyes and the nasal cavities. The
two parietal bones form most of the top and side of the walls of cranium. The
two temporal bones form part of the sides and some of the base of the skull. The
occipital bone forms the back and a part of the base of the skull. The foramen
magnum, located at the base of the occipital bone, is a large opening through
which the spinal cord communicates with the brain.

37
 Before birth, the spine consist of 33 separate bones called vertebrates, but nine of
these eventually fuse, forming the two composite bone, the sacrum and the
coccyx that construct the anterior portion of the vertebral column.

The bones of the vertebral column are named and numbered from above
downward:

1. The Cervical vertebrae, seven in number, are located in the neck. The first
vertebra, called the Atlas, supports the head.
2. The Thoracic vertebrae, 12 in number, are located in the thorax; the posterior
ends of the 12 pairs of ribs are attached to these vertebrae.
3. The Lumbar vertebrae, five in number, are located in the small of the back.
4. The Sacral vertebrae, are 5 separate bones in the child. However, they
eventually fuse to form a single bone. Wedge between the 2 hipbones, the
sacrum completes the posterior parts of the bony pelvis.
5. The Coccyx, or the tailbone, consists of four or five tiny bones in the child.
These fuse to form a single bone in the adult.

The lower end of the sternum consists of a small tip that made of cartilage in
youth but becomes a bone in the adult. This is the ziphoid process. It is used as a
landmark for CPR to locate the region.

The Chest Compression

The Pelvic Girdle is a strong bony ring that forms the wall of the pelvis. It is
composed of two Coxal Bones, or Ossa Coxae commonly called hipbones, which form
the front and the sides of the ring, and the sacrum, which joins the hipbones to complete
the ring at the back. In addition to their general shape, bones have other distinguishing
featured called the Bone Markings. These markings include raised areas and depressions
that help form joints or serve as points for muscle attachments and various holes that
allow the passage of nerves and blood vessels.

Depressions or Holes

1. Foramen, a hole that allows a vessel or a nerve to pass through or between

bones.
2. Sinus, an air space found in some skull bones.
3. Fossa, a depression on a bone surfaces.
4. Meatus, a short channel or passageway, such as a channel in the temporal
bones of the skull that leads the inner ear.

38
Division of the Skeleton

The Skeleton may be divided into two main groups of bones:

1. The Axial Skeleton, which includes the bony framework of the head and the trunk.
2. The Appendicular Skeleton, which forms the framework for the extremities (Limbs)
and for the shoulder and hips.

Axial Skeleton

- forms the main axis of the body composed of the notochord, vertebral column,
ribs, sternum, and skull.

1. Notochord – the primitive axial skeleton, replaced by the vertebral column.

2. Vertebral column – the main axial support of vertebrates commonly called
backbone. In man, there are 26 vertebrae: 7 cervical, (the first vertebrae is the
atlas and the second is the axis), 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 1 sacral (five fused to form
the sacrum), and 1 caudal vertebrae (three to five fused to form coccyx)
3. Ribs – series of cartilaginous or elongated bony structures attached to the
vertebrae.
4. Sternum – commonly called as the breast bone.
5. Skull – the framework of the head. Parts of the skull: cranium, three pairs of sense
of capsule for the organs of smell, sight, and hearing, visceral skeleton.

Appendicular Skeleton

- consists of the interior pectoral appendages and girdle and the posterior pelvic
appendages and girdle; in fishes, the appendages are fins while in tetrapods,
limbs. Composition of the Appendicular Skeleton:

1. Pectoral girdle – scapula (shoulder blade), coracoids, clavicle (collarbone).

2. Forelimbs – humerus (upper arm), radius and ulna (forearm), carpals (wrists),
metacarpals (palm), phalanges ( fingers).
3. Pelvic girdle (hip bones) – ilium, ischium, pubis.
4. Hindlimbs – femur (thigh), tibia and fibula (shank), patella (knee cap), tarsals
(ankle), metatarsals (sole), phalanges (toes).

DISTRIBUTION OF BONES IN HUMAN ADULT

- There are total of 206 bones in adult human, while the infant has 350 bones.
- Infants have more bones that adult due to numerous joints.
- Distributed as follows:

39
 - Skull (cranium + face) - 22 (8 + 14)
- Ears -6
- Hyoid -1
- Vertebral column - 26
- Sternum -1
- Ribs - 24
- Pectoral girdle - 64
- Pelvic girdle and hindlimbs - 62

Every bone in the human body is a collection of several different

combinations of the organic matrix laden with the calcium. The outer covering of
the bone is called periosteum, is a layer of tough, fibrous tissue with a vascular
network that provides nutrients to the bone.

JOINTS

Articulation between cartilages or bones. The study of joints is known as

syndesmology.

Types as to Amount of Movement and Structural Composition

1. Synarthroses – immovable joints, connected by fibrous tissue cartilage- like

sutures, which are the lines of junction of the skull.
2. Amphiarthroses – slightly movable joints; symphysis, a joint where two long
bony surfaces are connected by a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage.
3. Diarthroses – freely movable joints, most common joint in the body.

Types of Diarthroses:

1. Gliding joint – gliding movement only; wrists, ankles, vertebrae.

2. Ball and socket joint – permit full freedom movement. The hip and shoulder
joints are examples.
3. Pivot joint – movement in the long axis of a bone. The best example is the
articulation between the radius and the ulna.
4. Biaxial or saddle joint – concave in one direction and convex in another
metacarpal bone of the thumb.
5. Hinge joint – angular movement in one direction; humerus and ulna, knee, ankle,
phalanges.
6. Condyloid joint – permit angular movement in all planes but no axial rotation.
The wrist joint, between the radius and carpals, is a good example.

40
GAIT
- manner of walking of animal or the manner by which any part of the foot or hand
in contact with ground when animal walks.

Types of Gait:

1. Plantigrade – entire sole of the foot touches the ground; man, apes, bears, raccoons.
2. Digitigrade – which the digits are provided with pads touch the ground and the rest of
the foot is elevated as in cat.
3. Ungultigrade – tips of the digits (specialized into hoofs) touch the ground; ungulates
or hoofed animals, cows, carabaos, pigs, horse, goats

Practical Considerations

This section emphasizes the relevance of anatomical and physiological features to

the health sciences in general and brief discussion of disorders:

Arthritis – an inflammatory condition of one or more joints, accompanied by pain and

often by changes in bone position.

Gout – an increase of uric acid in the bloodstream. Uric and Crystals are deposited in
joint cavities and kidneys.

Ricketts – usually found in children and caused by a lack of vitamin D. Bones become
soft, due to lack of calcification, causing such deformities.

Whiplash injury – trauma to the cervical vertebra, usually the result of an automobile
accident. The force generated by the strain on the cervical spine and neck muscles.

Abnormal Curvatures of the Spine

 Kyphosis – (Hunchback) is a humped curvature in the thoracic area of the spine.

 Lordosis – (Swayback) is an exaggerated inward curvature in the lumbar region of the
spine just above the sacrum.
 Scoliosis- is a side-to-side or “lateral curvature” of the spine.
 Osteoporosis – a disease where in the mineral density of the bone is reduced from
65% to 35%. The lose of bone mass leaves the bone thinner, porous, and susceptible
to fracture.
 Osteomyelitis – an infection, which may involve all parts of the bone. It may result
from injury or systematic infection and most commonly occurs in children between
the age’s 5-14 years.
 Osteosarcoma – or bone cancer may occur in younger people. The most common site
of affliction is just above the knee.

41
 CHAPTER 7

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system includes the organ, which by their contraction and
relaxation facilitate movement of the body. Muscle cell is the structural unit, which is
long and provided with myofibrils that enable them to shorten or contract. We will focus
more on human muscles. In man, the great bulk of the body consists of muscles. It is
attached to the skeletal system and they give the body a graceful symmetry. Muscles are
contractile, that is they can change their shape. They are irritable, that is, they received
and respond to stimuli. They are elastic and flexible so they can return to original
position. They are covered by sarclolemma and they all have blood vessels and nerves.

Functions of Muscles

1. Motion – the most obvious type of motion performed by the skeletal muscles is to
move the body and / or its appendages, as in walking, running, writing, chewing, and
swallowing. The contraction of skeletal muscle is equally important in breathing and
in moving body fluids. The stimulation of isolated fibers within the muscles
maintains muscle tonus, which is important is the movement of venous blood and
lymphatic fluid. The primary impetus for blood flow is the contraction of cardiac
muscles within the heart. All of the involuntary systems (urinary, digestive,
respiratory, circulatory, etc.) contain smooth muscles for the involuntary movement of
materials through the body.

2. Heat production – body temperature is remarkably consistent. Metabolism within

the cells releases heat as an end product. Since muscles constitute nearly one half of
the body weight and are in the continuous state of fiber activity, they are very
important in the production of heat. The rate of heat production increases immensely
as a person exercises strenuously.

3. Posture and body support – the skeletal system gives support and stability to the
body, but skeletal muscles maintain posture and support around the flexible joints.
Certain muscles are active postural muscles whose function is to work in opposition
to gravity. Some postural muscles are working even you think you are relaxed. As
you are sitting, for example, the weight of your head is balanced at the
atlantooccipital joint through the efforts of the muscles locate at the back of the neck.
If you start to get sleepy, your head will suddenly nod forward as the postural muscles
will relax and the weight (resistance) overcomes the effort.

4. Elasticity – a muscle tissue has an innate tension that causes it to assume a desired
shape regardless of how it might be stretched.

42
Types of Muscles

1. Skeletal muscle – designed primarily to give movement to the skeletal

framework. These are attached to bones by tendons, their gross of action are
directed by higher centers of the brain, and its voluntary thus it is called
voluntary muscles. A typical skeletal muscle is an elongated mass of
numerous and generally parallel fibers enclosed in a tough covering of
connective tissue, the fascia. The fascia thickens at the end of the muscle into
a dense fibrous connective tissue called the tendon which attaches the muscle
to the bone. Each skeletal muscle has two points of attachment; the origin,
which is the more movable or distal attachment. A muscle may have more
than one attachment at its origin or insertion. The enlarged part between the
origin and the insertion is the belly of the muscle.

2. Smooth muscle – composed of elongated, spindle-shaped cells with large

elongated nuclei. Ordinarily microscopic, though maybe greatly extended, as
in the uterus of pregnant women. It is involuntary.

3. Cardiac muscle – muscle tissue that composes most of the wall of the heart.
It is involuntary; the brain does not control it. Heart muscle has the ability to
contract and to keep on contracting tirelessly for all year of one’s life. During
ordinary contraction, it will not respond to an additional stimulus. It could be
said then, that its refractory period is rather long, lasting from 1 to 5 seconds.
It is not possible to maintain a state of complete contraction.

Classification of muscles according to the type of action

1. Agonist or prime mover – each muscle bears the responsibility for a specific action.
2. Antagonist – the muscle produces the opposite action.
3. Synergist – the muscle helps to stabilize the action of one joint so that the force can
be applied at the desired point.
4. Fixator – the muscle fixes the position of a limb when movement is occurring in the
distal point.

Muscle contractions

Muscle produces force through the process of contraction. When it contracts, it

may change its shape, but its volume remains the same. It does not become smaller.
During the process of contraction, the energy from chemical reactions in the muscles can
be converted into useful work. Thus, the contraction of muscle enables human beings to
move about and perform directs actions to the environment. The basic mechanism of
contractile process is the coupling of the splitting of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the
interaction of two proteins myosin and actin.

43
The Chief Actions of Muscles are the following:

1. Flexors – to draw one segment toward another.

2. Extensors – to straighten two segments of a part such as limbs or vertebral
column at a joint.
3. Adductors – to draw a part such as a limb toward the ventral surface.
4. Abductors – cause displacement away from the ventral surface.
5. Protractors – cause a part, such as the tongue or hyoid, to be thrust forward or
outward.
6. Retractors – pull a part backward or inward.
7. Levators – raise a part.
8. Depressors – lower a part.
9. Rotators – cause rotation of a part on its axis.
10. Supinators – rotators that turn a part such as the palm upward.
11. Pronators – rotators that turn a part as the palm downward or it make it prone.
12. Tensors – make a part such as the eardrum more taut.
13. Contrictors – compress internal parts.
14. Sphincters – constrictors which make an opening smaller.
15. Dilators – constrictors which make an opening bigger.

Skeletal Muscles are further classified into:

1. Axial muscles – attached to the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
2. Appendicular muscles – attached to the appendicular skeleton such as the bones
of the limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdle.
3. Branchiometric muscles – attached to the visceral skeleton.
4. Integumentary muscles – some skeletal muscles which are inserted on the skin.

Types of muscle contraction

1. Isotonic – exhibited when a muscle becomes shorter and thicker. The

example of isotonic contraction is the contraction of biceps brachii. The
tension remains essentially constant, but the muscle shortens, performing
work. It involved body movement.

2. Isometric – in this type of contraction, the tension increases with the load, but
the muscle does not shorten. The muscles concerned with posture are
examples of isometric contraction.

44
Some of the disorders and the diseases that affect the muscle system

1. Fibromyositis – is an inflammation of both skeletal muscular tissue and the

associated connective tissue. It causes are not fully understood.
Fibromyositis frequently occurs in the extensor muscles of the lumbar region
of the vertebral column where extensive aponeuroses exist. Fibromyositis of
this region is called lumbago, or rheumatism.

2. Muscular dystrophy – is a genetic disease characterized by a gradual atrophy

and weakening of muscle tissue. There are several kinds of muscular
dystrophy, none of whose etiology is completely understood. The most
frequent type affects children and is sex-linked to the male child. As muscular
dystrophy progresses, the muscle fibers atrophy and are replaced by adipose
tissue. Most children who have muscular dystrophy die before the age of
twenty.

3. Myasthenia gravis – is characterized by extreme muscle weakness and low

endurance. There is a defective transmission of impulses at the
neuromuscular junction. Myasthenia gravis is believed to be an autoimmune
disease, and it typically affects women between the ages of twenty and forty.

4. Poliomyelitis- (polio) is actually a viral disease of the nervous system that

causes paralysis of muscles. The viruses are usually localized in the ventral
(anterior) horn of the spinal cord where they affect the motor nerve impulses
to the skeletal muscles.

5. Rhabdomyosarcoma – is a malignant tumor of skeletal muscle. It can arise in

any skeletal muscle, and most often afflicts young children and elderly
persons.

45
 CHAPTER 8

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

We need food to fuel our bodies for energy, growth and repair. The digestive
system converts the foods we eat into their simplest forms, like glucose (sugars), amino
acids (that make up protein) or fatty acids (that make up fats). The broken down food is
then absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine and the nutrients carried to
each cell in the body. The digestive tract begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. It can
be thought of as a long, muscular tube – over 10 meters long – with digestive organs
attached along the way.

Animals are able to sustain their lives by taking in food obtained by eating plants
or other animals. This food contains complex organic substances such as proteins, fats,
carbohydrates, vitamins, and inorganic compounds such as water and mineral salts. The
organic substances must be broken down into simpler form to be absorbed by the body
and be utilized as energy. These organic substances must be subjected to physical and
chemical changes before they can be used by the body. The physical and chemical
conversions of complex substances into molecules capable of being absorbed into the
blood are accomplished by a continuous series of interconnecting cavities and tubes
called the digestive system.

The digestive system performs manifold of functions which include ingestion of

food, chewing, grinding and churning of food to facilitate its breakdown to simpler
molecules, addition of enzymes to initiate chemical digestion, egestion of waste
substances and reabsorption of water from the digestive residue.

The main part of the digestive system is the digestive tract. This is like a long
tube, some nine metres in total, through the middle of the body. It starts at the mouth,
where food and drink enter the body, and finishes at the anus, where leftover food and
waste leave the body. Bleeding in the digestive tract is a symptom of a disease rather
than a disease itself. Bleeding can occur as the result of a number of different conditions,
some of which are life threatening. Most causes of bleeding are related to conditions that
can be occurred or controlled, such as ulcers or hemorrhoids. The cause of bleeding may
not be serious, but location the source of bleeding is important.

The digestive or gastrointestinal (FI) tract includes the esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine or colon, rectum, and anus. Bleeding can come from one or
more of these areas, that is, from a small area such as an ulcer on the lining of the
stomach or from a large surface such as an inflammation of the colon. Bleeding can
sometimes occur without the person noticing it. This type of bleeding is called occult or
hidden. Fortunately, simple tests can detect occult blood in the stool.

46
 Animals differ widely in their food habits. Some insects feed on the tissues or
juices of a single species of plant or the blood of one kind of animal, but most animals
take several or many kinds of food. Carabaos, cows, goat, deer and insects eats only
plants as such they are called herbivores while cats, sharks, and other marine animals
whose food consists mainly of other animals are considered as carnivores. Animals
which feed on plants and animals such as human and bears are known as omnivores.
Some birds, lizards, and others whose food consist mainly of insects are insectivores.
While organisms which feed on dead animals such as vultures and some species of flies
are termed as scavengers. Some like mosquitoes, ticks and mites that suck blood are
fluid feeders.

Invertebrates

Many protozoans have no permanent structures for taking or digesting food. An

amoeba pushes out lobes (pseudopodia) at any part of its one called body to surround an
item of food; the latter is taken into a fluid – filled food vacuole in the cytoplasm for
digestion. In paramecia and other ciliate protozoans a permanent external oral groove
lined by beating cilia carries food particles to definite “cell mouth,” where they pass into
food vacuoles and are digested. The microscopic food of sponges is captured by the
digested in flagellated collar that line certain interior canals of the animals; digestion is
thus intracellular, as in protozoans. In intracellular digestions, small food particles that
are engulfed by phagocytosis at the cell surface become surrounded by fluid-filled
vacuoles into which digestive enzymes, probably carried chiefly by the lysosomes, are
released. In the coelenterates and flatworms, food that has entered the digestive tract is
acted upon by enzymes secreted from gland cells in the interior lining. This is
extracellular digestion, in a digestive cavity, such as occurs in all higher animals; some
partly digested food, however, is taken into cells lining the cavity for intracellular
digestion.

The most other invertebrates the digestive tract is essentially a tube within the
body, it opens to the outside ( mouth, anus) and is separated from the interior body spaces
by selectively permeable membranes. It is termed enteronic (complete) because food
enters mouth and passes through various organs for storage, digestion, or absorption and
any residues pass out the anus at the opposite end of the system.

Vertebrates

The digestive system of almost every vertebrate has the following essential parts:
the mouth and mouth cavity commonly have teeth to grasp, tear, or chew food and a
tongue (fishes excepted) that may help in capturing or manipulating it; the pharynx
contains gill slits in fishes and some aquatic amphibians but has no direct digestive
function. The esophagus (gullet) is a flexible tube carrying food past the region of the
heart and lungs. The stomach is a large pouch where food is store and some digestion
occurs. The small intestine, a long, slender, coiled tube, is the principal region for
digestion and absorption. The large intestine (colon) is the portion where water and salt

47
absorption occurs, some cellulose is partly digested by bacteria, and undigested residues
are formed into relatively dry masses (feces) for expulsion through the cloaca, which end
with the anus or vent.

The mouth and esophagus

Digestion begins in the mouth. The food is grouped up by the teeth and
moistened with saliva to make it easy to swallow. Saliva also has a special chemical,
called an enzyme, which starts breaking down carbohydrates into sugars. Once
swallowed, muscular contractions of the esophagus massage the ball of food down into
the stomach.

The stomach

The food passes through a sphincter – or small muscle ring – into the stomach,
where it is mixed with gastric juices. The stomach is a muscular bag and it churns the
food to help break it down mechanically. The food is then squeezed through a second
sphincter into the first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum.

The small intestine

Once the duodenum (small intestine), the food is mixed with more digestive
enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver

Pancreas

The pancreas is one of the largest glands in the human body. As well as digestive
juices, it secretes a hormone called insulin. Insulin helps to regulate the amount of sugar
in the blood. Diabetes is a condition caused by problems with insulin production.

Liver

The liver has a number of different roles in the body, including:

 Breaking down fats, using bile stored in the gall bladder.

 Processing proteins and carbohydrates
 Filtering impurities and toxins
 Absorption happens in the small intestine
 The food is squeezed into the lower parts of the small intestine, called the
jejunum and the ileum. Nutrients are absorbed from the ileum, which is lined

48
 with millions of finger-like projections called villi. Each villus is connected to
a mesh of capillaries. This is how nutrients pass into the bloodstream.

The large intestine

Once all the nutrients have been absorbed, the waste is moved into the large
intestine, or bowel. Water is removed and the waste (feces) is stored in the rectum. It can
then be passed out of the body through the anus.

Common problems

Some common problems of the digestive system include:

 Colitis – inflammation of the bowel.

 Diverticulitis – inflammation of pouches lining the small intestine.
 Gastroenteritis – an infection that causes vomiting and diarrhea.
 Heartburn – when the contents of the stomach back up the esophagus.
 Ulcer – a hole in the mucous membrane lining the stomach or duodenum.

Digestive Enzymes

The chemical aspects of digestion involve the reduction of complex organic

substances in the food into simpler molecules that can be passed through the cells of the
digestive epithelium to enter the fluids and cells of the body. These changes are
performed by the digestive enzymes. These enzymes are produced by all animals from
protozoans to mammals, but not the same number or kinds of enzymes are present in
every sort of animal, the food in a vacuole within a protozoan changes gradually in form
and size as it is acted upon by enzymes. The reaction of the vacuole changes from acid to
alkaline during the process, as can be shown by indicator dyes. The cytoplasm therefore
has the ability to secrete enzymes and also substances to change the acidity (pH) of fluid
in the vacuole.

Metabolism

Metabolism refers to the countless chemical processes going on continuously

inside the body that allow life and normal functioning. These processes require energy
from food. The amount of kilojoules your body burns at any given time is regulated by
your metabolism.

49
The two complementary processes of metabolism are:

 Catabolism – the breakdown of food components (such as carbohydrates,

proteins, and fats) into their simpler forms, which can then be used to create
energy. This immediate form of energy can be converted into heat or burned
by cells (cellular respiration).

 Anabolism – energy is stored in fat cells or used to help build repair structures
of the body.

The body’s metabolism is governed by hormones (chemical messages secreted by

the glands of the endocrine system) and the nervous system.

The rates of catabolism and anabolism are carefully monitored to make sure they
remain in balance. Metabolism can be upset by a variety of events, including
genetic disorders and hormonal problems.

SOME MAJOR DISORDERS

 Peptic Ulcers

Erosions in the lining of the stomach and adjacent areas of the

gastrointestinal tract are called peptic ulcers. Ulcer patients present with a
predictable description or gnawing, burning pain, often occurring a few hours
after meals. For many years it was believed that ulcers were caused by excessive
acid production, and treatment was aimed to neutralizing acid or blocking
parasympathetic system to decrease normal gastrointestinal activity and
secretions. Acute ulcers or “stress ulcers” are often seen in situations that involve
acute stress-trauma, burns, or prolonged illness. The activity of the sympathetic
nervous system during stress decreases blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract,
leading to weakening of the mucosal layers of the stomach and erosion from acid
in the stomach.

 Digestive Enzyme Dysfunction

Some patients may require a supplement to the production of digestive

enzymes. Patients with strokes, salivary gland disorders, or extreme surgery of
the head and neck may not be able to produce saliva. Saliva is important in
beginning the digestion of sugars and proteins and is essential in initializing the
swallowing reflex. Patients with common dust problem, pancreatic disease, or
cystic fibrosis may not be able to produce or secretes pancreatic enzymes. These
enzymes many need to be administered to allow digestion and absorption of
nutrients.

50
 CHAPTER 9

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiration is a life process common to both plants and animals. In this process,
there is an exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. In our body, oxygen is continuously
supplied to the body cells and is transported through the blood stream. One of the places
in the body where this interplay between blood flow, capillary exchange, and surface area
can be readily appreciated is in the lungs. The lungs are organs of the body that allows
gas exchange that take place between the air and blood. A lung are sponge like organs
filling most of the thoracic cavity and is divided into sections called lobes, the left are
smaller than the right. The nose, mouth, throat are also important parts of the air-
transport pathway because they modify the humidity and temperature of the air and clean
the air as it passes.

Respiration

Includes the passages that transport air to and from the lungs, and the air sacs in
which gas exchange occur. It is the entire process by which gases are exchanged between
the atmosphere and the body cells. Law of gases which states that a gas moves from
region of greater pressure to a region of lesser pressure, it is termed as diffusion pressure
governs respiration. It is used to designate three closely related processes. These are in
their proper order:

1. External respiration – is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and

the blood. It is also termed as pulmonary ventilation . This involves the
lungs.
2. Internal respiration – it occurs in every living cell and it is exchange of gases
between the blood and the body tissues.
3. Cellular respiration – is the process by which cells get energy from the
oxidation of glucose.

Respiratory Organs and Respiratory Mechanism

A good respiratory organ must meet the following requirements:

1. It must have a rich supply of capillaries through which blood may exchange
gases with air or water as the case may be.
2. It must have walls sufficiently permeable to allow osmosis of gases.
3. It must be always moist to permit permeability of gases.
4. It must have a total wall surface, which insures an adequate supply of oxygen
for the animal concerned.
5. It must have a continuous access to fresh air.

51
 All animals have morphologically different respiratory organ. Basically, this
organ has the same respiratory functions. The different respiratory organs are
body covering gills, trachea and lungs. Animals obtain oxygen from either air or
water:

1. Amoeba and flatworm get oxygen from water or air, it passes through the
moist surface directly into the body.
2. Earthworms gets their oxygen from water or air, it passes through the thin
moist body wall to blood vessels.
3. Some insects obtain their oxygen from water. The oxygen passes through the
tracheal gills to a system of air ducts or trachea to the tissues or from air, the
oxygen passes through the spiracles. In grasshopper, the spiracles are found at
the lateral parts of the abdomen on each segment.
4. In fishes and some amphibians, oxygen is obtained from water through moist
blood gills surface and passed to blood vessels. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
exchange occurs between surrounding water and the blood within the gills.
5. In land snail and land vertebrates, oxygen is obtained from air through the
moist lung surfaces and passed to blood vessels.

The Human Pulmonary System

The human pulmonary system is composed of nose that opens that externally by a
pair of nostrils. These openings lead to nasal cavity to the pharynx. At the floor or the
pharynx is the opening called glottis. The glottis is protected by fibrous, cartilaginous lid
at the base of the tongue and above the larynx called the epiglottis. The cartilages called
larynx or voice box, found at the anterior portion of the trachea, support the epiglottis.
The trachea extends into the thorax and divides into two branches called bronchi;

Each bronchus is further subdivided into smaller branches called alveoli. The
walls of alveoli are supplied with capillaries, nerves and lymphatics. Alveoli are
approximately 150 million in on lung. In the larynx, there are two stretched membranes
called vocal cords that vibrate when air is forced into the voice box this producing
sounds. Over the glottis is a leaf-shaped lid of cartilage that protects this opening from
the entrance of anything other than air. Lungs are located in the thoracic cavity that in
mammals is called pleural cavity. This separated from the abdominal cavity by a dome-
shaped muscular partition called diaphragm. A fine membrane covering the lungs is
termed as visceral pleura., while the membrane covering the chest cavity or pleura is
called parietal pleura or intrapleural fluid is found between the pleural membranes. This
pleural fluid serves as a lubricating substance. The pressure exist in the intrapeural
membrane is called intrapleural pressure. This pressure is lower than that of the
atmospheric pressure; the alveoli keep the lungs expanded against the thoracic wall.

52
Mechanism of Breathing

Breathing, which is also called pulmonary ventilation, is the movement of air

from outside the body into the bronchial tree and alveoli, followed by a reversal of this
air movement. The actions responsible for these air movements are termed inspiration
(inhalation) and expiration (exhalation).

Inspiration is accomplished with the aid of various movements that increase the
size of the thoracic cavity:

1. The ribs are raised

2. The diaphragm is flattened
3. The thoracic space is enlarged
4. Pressure in the lungs, intrapleural pressure, is reduced where upon the air
brought about by atmospheric pressure moves down the trachea and into the
lungs.
5. The elastic framework of the lungs is stretched.

Expiration, the relaxed muscles are controlling the ribs and diaphragm, the
following events occur:

1. The lungs are compressed

2. The elastic tissue contracts
3. The air is forced outward

Breathing mechanisms are under the control of a respiratory center in the medulla
oblongata of the brain. The center contains inspiratory neurons and expiratory neurons.
An ordinary breath moves about 500 milliliters of air in and out of the lungs. A deep
breath increases the lung capacity to about 4000 milliliters.

Respiratory Volumes

Movement of air in and out of the lungs for each quiet breathing is termed as
maximal respiration or vital capacity. The amount of air enters the lungs during this quiet
inspiration is about 500 cubic centimeters. Approximately, the same amount leaves
during normal expiration. The residual air is necessary as it makes possible a continuous
exchange of gases between the blood and the air in the lungs during the entire respiratory
cycle.

53
Factors Affecting the Rate of Breathing

Stimulation of the respiratory center is controlled by three chemical conditions of

the blood that influenced the rate of breathing, these are:

1. Changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide.

2. Amount of oxygen dissolved in the blood
3. Deviation of H+ ion concentration

In addition to the controls exerted, these include the presence of certain chemicals
in the body fluids, the degree to which the lung tissues are stretched, and the person’s
emotional state.

Respiratory Functions of the Blood

Almost all the oxygen, 98% of it carried in the blood in combined with the
compound hemoglobin that occurs within the red blood cells. Hemoglobin is responsible
for the color of these blood cells. The remainder of the oxygen is dissolved in the blood
plasma.

Hemoglobin is respiratory pigment composed of:

1. Heme – a red pigment containing iron.

2. Globin – a colorless protein that contains amino acids arranged in four

polypeptide chains.

Oxygen transport is facilitated by tension of gases in the blood different factors

that unite it with hemoglobin. The processes of diffusion of oxygen in the system from
lungs into the cells are as follows:

1. Oxygen diffused into the alveolar capillaries.

2. Then, oxygen unites with the hemoglobin; the tension of gas is lower in the
blood than in the alveoli.
3. The oxyhemoglobin, the union of oxygen and hemoglobin, travels in
circulation to the tissues; oxygen tension is lower in the tissues than in the
blood.
4. There, oxygen is freed to diffuse to the cells.
5. The deoxygenated hemoglobin returns to the lungs through the venous blood.

54
The factors that unite oxygen with hemoglobin are as follows:

1. H+ ion concentration – is when concentration is higher, the binding of oxygen

to hemoglobin is less and the opposite when H+ ion concentration is low.

2. Temperature – oxygen affinity to hemoglobin is less when the temperature is

higher and the reverse Is true when the temperature is low.

3. DPG (2, 3 – diphosphoglycerate) – enhances unloading of oxygen by

hemoglobin. The total oxygen capacity of human blood is 1200ml, only 100
to 350 ml of oxygen pass into the tissues at each circulation. It is estimated
that the human body consumes around 15 liters (4 grams) of oxygen in an
hour, but in rigid exercise the consumption jumps to 280 liters.

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Blood flowing through the capillaries of the body tissues gains carbon dioxide
because the tissues have a relatively high concentration of carbon dioxide. This carbon
dioxide is transported to the lungs in one of three forms: as carbon dioxide dissolved in
the blood, as part of a bicarbonate ion. The carbon dioxide transported in the blood are
three forms approximately 8% goes in physical solution in the plasma, an estimated of
27% is carried by RBC in the form of cabamino compounds (basically carbhemoglobin)
and the remainder is present in the plasma bicarbonate.

Respiratory Disorder

Emphysema – a progressive, degenerative disease characterized by the

destruction of many alveolar walls. As a result, clusters of small air sacs merge to form
larger chamber so that total surface area of the alveolar walls decreases. At the same time
the alveolar walls tend to lose their elasticity, and the capillary networks associated with
the alveoli becomes less abundant. The cause of emphysema is not well understood but
some believe it develops in response to prolonged exposure to respiratory irritant, such as
those tobacco smokes and polluted smoke.

Lung Cancer – involves an uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. These cells

develop in and around the normal tissues, and deprive them of nutrients. Some cancerous
growth in lungs result from cancer cells that spread from other parts of the body, such as
the breast, alimentary tract, liver or kidney. Typical symptoms include coughing, and
blockage of the airways. Treatments include removal of part or all of the lung,
chemotherapy and radiation.

55
 Bronchitis – is an inflammation of the bronchi caused by irritants, such as
cigarette smoke, air pollution, or infections. The inflammation results in swelling of the
mucous membrane lining the bronchi, increased mucus production, and decreased
movement of mucus by cilia. Consequently, the diameter of the bronchi is decreased and
ventilation is impaired. Bronchitis can progress to emphysema.

Disorder Involving Gas Exchange

Pneumonia – when alveoli become filled with fluids and blood cells. Pneumonia
is most commonly due to an acute infection by bacteria called Streptococcus pneumonia
or to the presence of certain viruses.

Tuberculosis – is a disease caused by the bacteria called Mycabacterium

Tuberculosis that usually infects the lungs tissue but may spread to other organs as well.

Exercise and Breathing

When a person engages in moderate to heavy physical exercise, the amount of

oxygen used by the skeletal muscle increase greatly. While oxygen utilization is
increasing the volume of carbon dioxide produced increased also. Since decreased blood
oxygen and increased blood carbon dioxide concentration are stimulating to the
respiratory center it is not surprising that exercise is accompanied by an increased
breathing rate. Whenever an increase in the breathing rate occurs during exercise, and
increase in blood flow is also needed to meet the needs of the skeletal muscles. If either
of the respiratory and circulatory systems fails to keep up with cellular demands, the
person will begin to feel out of breath. This feeling is usually to the inability of the heart
and circulatory system to move enough blood between the lungs and the body cells.

56
 CHAPTER 10

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Perhaps, the most important thing to remember about the circulatory system is its
variability. This is because of the way the circulatory system develops; the early embryo
is essentially a blood filled sponge – intricate network. Most of this is removed during
development, leaving remnants governed by highest flow and pressure. Its plasticity is
also shown by migratory organs: if an organ moves during development e.g. the kidney, it
will take its nerve supply with it, but acquire a new local blood supply – successive
segmental arteries of the kidney as it rises may persist as ‘abnormal’ renal arteries.
Sensible place to start is the heart, complicated at first glance so let’s reduce it to a
diagram: four chambered, atria and ventricles in one way communication. Right half
circulates blood from body to lungs left half circulates blood from lungs around the body.
This has implication: the pulmonary circulation is rather small, little peripheral
resistance, so low pressures needed and the walls of the right ventricle are rather thinner.
The left side pumps the same volume against peripheral resistance, so the left ventricular
walls are more muscular.

The circulatory system is responsible for transporting materials throughout the

entire body. It transports nutrients, water, and oxygen to billions of body cells and carries
away wastes such as carbon dioxide that body cells produce. It is an amazing highway
that travels through entire body connecting all body cells.

Parts of circulatory system:

1. the heart
2. the blood
3. the blood vessels

THE HEART

The heart is an amazing organ. The heart beats about 3 billion times during an
average lifetime. It is a muscle about the size of your fist. The heart is located in the
center of your chest slightly to the left. It’s job Is to pump your blood and keep the blood
moving throughout the body.

Heart Sounds

Heart sounds are due to electrical waves which originate from the sinoatrial node.
In the course of a beat, the heart produces characteristic sounds which can be heard best
on chest, however, only the first and second sounds can be heard emits four hearts clearly

57
using the stethoscope. The first heart sound is referred to as the lub dub which is lower
in pitch and longer than the second sound. It is produce due to te concentration of the
ventricles which forces the blood to flow against the AV valves causing them to bulge
backward toward the atria until such time continuous.

Bulging is prevented by chordae tendinae. The valves are elastic enough to bounce back
toward the ventricle, causing the blood to flow forward into the ventricles. As a result,
the blood, ventricular walls and valves vibrate producing the first sound. If the vibrations
on the heart wall, arteries, and valves contrast with the chest wall this creates the second
heart sound.

The Blood

The blood is an amazing substance that is constantly flowing through our bodies.

 The blood is pumped by the heart.

 The blood travels through thousands of miles of blood vessels right within the
body.
 The blood carries nutrients, water, oxygen, and waste products to and from
body cells.
 A young person has about a gallon of blood. An adult has about 5 quarts.
 The blood is not just a red liquid but rather made up of liquids, solids and
small amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Erythrocytes by far the commonest blood cells (4-6m/mm 3 ) erythrocytes are

classically biconcave enucleate discs 7-8 in diameter. They are red because the
cytoplasm is packed with hemoglobin which transports oxygen. They also transport
carbon dioxide.

Leukocytes less common than rbcs (5-10,000/mm3 ) two main types distinguished
according to the presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules.

Granulocytes the nuclei of granulocytes are multilobed and cells also called
polymorphonuclear leucocytes or polymorphs. The cytoplasm contains two sorts of
granules: primary granules – lysosomes – present in all polymorphs and polymorphs and
associated with their phagocytic nature secondary or specific granules; which allow
identification because they take up specific stains.

Neutrophils – commonest (50-70%) 10-12 diameter, lobed nucleus, secondary

granules unstained. Phagocytic against micro-organisms in blood

Eosinophils – (1-4%), 10-12 diameter, lobed nucleus, secondary granules stained

by pink by eosin. Eat antigen/antibody complexes

58
 Basophils – (1%) 9-10 diameter, lobed nucleus usually hidden by blue staining
secondary granules. Not so actively phagocytic – blue granules are herapin and
histamine which are released in inflammation and immune responses.

Agranulocytes. Lack granules, and have a rounded nucleus all but obscuring the
cytoplasm. Monocytes (4-8%) larger, 12-16 diameter, with a relatively smaller nucleus.

Platelets – small (2-3m) purple staining cell components, non-nucleated (in

background, monocyte side). They tend to aggregate in clumps. Involved in wound
repair and blood clotting. Formed by the disintegration of huge (150m) megakaryocytes
in the bone marrow.

BLOOD CELLS

1. Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. Red
blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs and transport it to all the body cells. After
delivering the oxygen to the cells it gathers up the carbon dioxide (a waste gas produced
as our cells are working) and transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is
removed from the body when we exhale (breath out). There are about 5,000,000 red
blood cells in one drop of blood.

2. White Blood Cells

White blood cells help the body fight off germs. White blood cells attack and
destroy germs when they enter the body. When you have an infection, your body will
produce more white blood cells to help fight an infection. Sometimes our white blood
cells need a little help and the doctor will prescribe an antibiotic to help our white blood
cells fight a large scale of infection.

3. Platelets

Platelets are blood cells that help stop bleeding. When we cut ourselves we have
broken a blood vessel and the blood leaks out. In order to plug up the holes where the
blood is leaking from the platelets start to stick to the opening of damaged blood vessel
they attract more platelets, fibers and other blood cells to help from a plug to seal the
broken blood vessel. When the platelet plug is completely formed the wound stops
bleeding. We call our platelet plug scabs.

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Plasma

Is the liquid part of the blood, approximately half of your blood is made of
plasma. The plasma carries the blood cells and other components throughout the body.
Plasma is made in the liver.

Where are the blood cells made?

The Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells and Platelets are made by the bone
marrow. Bone marrow is a soft tissue inside of our bones that produces blood cells.

THE BLOOD VESSELS

Three Types of Blood Vessels:

1. Arteries

Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood away from the heart

2. Capillaries

Capillaries are tiny blood vessels as thin or thinner than the hairs on your head.
Capillaries connect arteries to veins. Food substances (nutrients), oxygen and wastes
pass in and out of your blood through the capillary walls.

3. Veins

Veins carry blood back toward your heart.

The Types of Circulatory System

The circulation of blood serves to move blood to a site where it can be

oxygenated, and where wastes can be disposed. Circulation then serves to bring newly
oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body. Oxygen and other chemicals diffuse out of
the blood cells to be carried away. Blood circulates through organs such as the liver and
kidneys where wastes are removed, and back to the lungs for a fresh dose of oxygen.
And then the process repeats itself. This process of circulation is necessary for continued
life of the cells, tissues and even of the whole organisms.

Many invertebrates do not have a circulatory system at all. Their cells are close
enough to their environment for oxygen, other gases, nutrients and wastes products to

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simply diffuse out of and into their cells. In animals with multiple layers of cells,
especially land animals, this will not work, as their cells are too far from the external
environment for simple osmosis and diffusion to function quickly enough in exchanging
cellular wastes and needed material with the environment.

In higher animals, there are two primary types of circulatory systems- open and
closed. Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system. In this type of
system, there is a true heart or capillaries as are found in humans. Instead of capillaries,
blood vessels join directly with open sinuses.

The closed circulatory system of some mollusks and all higher invertebrates and
the vertebrates is a much more efficient system, here blood is pumped through a closed
system of arteries, veins and capillaries. However, even closed circulatory system differs
as we moved further up the evolutionary tree.

Lymphatic circulation as well as blood vessels we can also find a system of

lymphatic capillaries and larger vessels. Lymph capillaries coexist with blood capillaries
in capillary beds, have fenestrated walls and can thus exchange anything from liquids to
cells. Most of the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries into tissues returns, but 10-
20% doesn’t, and would therefore gradually flood the tissues if left (oedema). This is
mopped up by the lymphatics which shadow the veins and eventually dump lymph,
usually via one more lymph nodes into the blood stream, via the thoracic duct and right
lymphatic duct which open into veins in the neck.

Humans all other mammals, as well as birds, have four-chambered heart with two
atria and two ventricles. Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood are not mixed. The four
chambers ensure efficient and rapid movement of the body. This has helped in thermal
regulation and in rapid, sustained muscle movements.

Blood Types and Transfusions

A Viennese pathologist Karl Landsteiner, proved the differences in blood among

individuals. He was able to isolate two glycoproteins or antigens which coat the red
blood cells. These antigens when combined with incompatible blood will cause the
clumping of red blood cells. The clumping of the blood cells in general is termed as
agglutination while the clumping of red blood cells is referred to as hemagglutination.
The two proteins are called antigens A and B or agglutinogens.

There are four blood types which have been identified based on the combination
of these two antigens. The individual with antigen A is blood type A; the person with
antigen B has type B blood type while those with both antigens A and B is type AB and
the individuals who do not possess neither antigen A or B have type O blood. These
blood types are inherited traits passed by parents to children.

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ABO Blood Grouping

Blood Types Antigens Antibodies Capable of Can receive

Donating Blood blood from

A A anti-B A, AB A,O
B B anti-A B, AB B,O
AB A,B AB A,B,AB,O
O anti-A, anti-B A,B,AB,O O

Inheritance of Blood Types

Blood typing is sometimes employed in paternity suits. The table shows the
possible blood types of children resulting from the combination of the blood types of
parents.

Parent’ s Blood Type Possible Blood Type of Children

A + A
A+O
A+B A, B, AB, O
A + AB A, B, AB
A+O A, O
B+B B, O
B + AB A, B, AB
B+O B, O
AB + AB A, B, AB
AB + O A, B
O+O O

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 Chapter 11

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

What were dealing here are the organs in the body that have a role in removing
metabolic waste. Metabolic wastes are by-product of metabolism – the sum total of the
chemical reaction that keep an organism alive.

Human must get rid of two types of wastes; waste from the digestive system
(feces) and wastes from metabolic activities (sweat & urine). Removing digestive waste
(pooping) is called egestion. Removing metabolic waste is called excretion.

INVERTEBRATE EXCRETION

Protozoans or known as one-celled organisms excrete their waste products

directly into their surrounding environment. Ex. Euglena and amoeba eliminate most of
their excretory matter, including urea and CO2 through the cell membrane.

VERTEBRATES EXCRETORY

Components and Function

1. urinary bladder – which conveys the urine from the kidney

2. urethra – conveys the urine to the exterior.

Kidney is the main organ of the excretion of the vertebrates. The chief regulator
of the internal environment because it primarily concerned with the maintenance of the
composition of the blood. Also, it regulates the volume pH and the components of the
blood and body fluids.

The regulatory functions of the normal kidney are enumerated as follows:

1. The excretion of waste products of metabolism

2. The regulation of acid-base alkaline substances
3. The regulation of the composition of blood and body fluids.
4. The regulation of water balance of the tissues by elimination of excess H20
5. The secretion of certain hormones, rennin and erythropoietin that help in the
maintenance and in controlling the production of red blood cells.

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HUMAN KIDNEY

We have 3 types of kidney, pronephros, mesonephros and metanephros.

Pronephros the first type of kidney to develop segmentally also, called head kidney.
Mesonophros – second type of kidney which develops segmentally in the part of the body
cavity also, called mid-kidney. Metanephros develops in the posterior part of the cavity
or the hind kidney.

Kidneys are located in the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. They are bean
shaped and brown in color, and each containing a medial concave boarder, superior and
inferior poles, and anterior and posterior surfaces. Hilus is an area where blood vessels,
nerves and the ureter and leave the kidney and lie behind the parietal peritoneum of the
abdomen and are considered as retropertoneal structures.

INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY

A sagittal section of a kidney reveals three distinct regions, the renal pelvis, renal
medulla and renal cortex. The renal pelvis is a collecting chamber which connects the
part of the kidney of the medulla with the ureter. Renal medulla is the middle pyramids.
These pyramids contain tubules and collecting ducts of the nephrons involved in the
reabsorption of filtered substances. The renal cortex lies peripheral to the medulla but
sends strands of the cortial tissue, the renal columns are between the pyramids to the
medulla.

BLOOD SUPPLY

Kidneys are richly supplied with the blood by a pair of renal arteries. Once inside
the kidney, the renal artery branches into the interlobular arteries, this passes radially
through the reanal medulla. Then branch into a number of arcuate arteries which ascend
into the cortex to supply the renal corpuscles. Each interlobular artery in turned branched
into small afferent arterioles which carry blood to small tuft of capillaries called
glomerular capillaries. (glomerulus – site of filtration)

Efferent arterioles break up into second capillary network called peritubular

capillaries which reabsorb some of the water and solutes that where filtered from the
blood in the glomerulus. Then unite to form interlobular veins (which carry blood out of
the cortex).

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PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY

Approximately, kidney is composed of one million functional units called

nephrons and responsible for the initial filtration of blood, reabsorption of the filtered
substance back in the blood and the secretion of unwanted substances.
Composed of two major parts, tubules and glomerulus, a microscopic mass of
coiled capillaries surrounded by a capsule together constitute a renal corpuscles called
Bowman’s capsule together constitute a renal corpuscle.

GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

The membrane of capillaries in the glomerulus known as glomerular membrane.

This membrane is permeable to water and smaller solutes. It is almost completely
impermeable to plasma protein and also to the blood cells. Filtration is the first step in
the urine formation takes place in the glomerulus. When blood flows from the afferent
arteriole into the glomerulus under the high pressure about 75mm Hg.

Glomerular filtration is brought about passive forces, forcing of a fluid and the
substances to dissolve in it. Filtration is dependent on the existence of pressure. In the
capillary bed, Starling force’s exists composed of the hydrostatic and oncotic pressure.
These forces exist on both sides of the limiting membrane operating against each other.
Hydrostatic pressure is the result of the activity of the heart, and the heart is the
responsible for this pressure within the glomerulus of the kidney. Oncotic pressures
operates within the glomerulus results when protein molecules. Permeability is
dependent of the characteristics of the membrane. The presence of the pores would speak
permeability. Two types of cell which separate the blood in the glomerular capillarity
from the fluid inside the Browman’s capsule found in the foot process adherent to the
basement membrane.

When transfusion react in occur secondary to a blood transfusion, excessive

hemolysis occurs too which lead to hemoglobinurria. All particles are dissolve in the
water of plasma and has a molecular weight very near 68,000, if there is a disease the
permeability of filtering membrane, the first protein will pass through is albumin.
Presence of albumin in the urine is called albuminuria-a disease caused by destruction of
the filtering membrane.

TUBULAR REABSORPTION

When filtrate leaves the glomerulus, it passes through a network of peritubular

capillaries where each day all but slightly greater than one liter of the 180 liters of
glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed into the blood. The remaining one liter passes into the

65
renal pelvis as urine. In the peritubular capillaries, many of the useful substances such as
water, salts, ions, sugar (glucose) urea and amino acids which where initially lost from
the blood during filtration are reabsorbed back in the blood, this process known as
tubular reabsorption.

From the proximal convoluted tubule, nutritional substances, amino acids and
vitamins are completely absorbed. Reabsorption is one of the two processes occurring in
the renal tubules. Active transport, a mechanism dependent on the existence of carriers
such as enzymes, located in the plasma membrane – through the tubular epithelial cells
by means of special chemical transport carrier. Passive Transport, a transport mechanism
involving diffusion process that operate across one or more membrane barriers. If no
carrier molecule is involved, the process is called simple diffusion.

TUBULAR SECRETION

Takes place in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct involving active
and passive mechanism. It occur by the same mechanism as active reabsorption but in
the diverse direction. It permits the kidney to increase their efficiency in clearing certain
substances from the plasma and helps in the maintenance of the normal pH of the blood
between 7.35 and 7.45. The terms “plasma clearance” is used to express the ability of
kidney to clean or clear the plasma of various substance from the extra cellular fluid.

ACCESSORY EXCRETORY STRUCTURES

Ureter, a muscular tube that receives the urine from the renal pelvis and transports
it to the urinary bladder. Each ureter passes caudally and lies behind the parietal
peritoneum of the posterior abdominal wall. This tube made of layers of tissue; the
tunica muscularis-middle layer made of smooth layer muscles, tunica adventitia- the
outermost layer made out of connective tissue that hold the ureter in place.

URINARY BLADDER

It is a muscular structure that varies in sizes according to the amount of urine

contains. It can hold 500ml of urine in an adult without over digestion. Collects the
urine from the two ureters and stores it temporarily until it is secreted through the urethra.
In female, vesicouterine pouch is found where the peritoneum is reflected onto the uretus.
It has 4 layers:

1. Tunica serosa – outermost layer which cover the upper and lateral surfaces of
the bladder
2. Tunica muscularis – middle and muscular layer containing of three layer of
smooth muscles.

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 3. Tela submucosa – third coat consisting of connective tissue
4. Tunica mucosa – innermost coat composed of transitional epithelium which
allows the bladder to stretch and contract.

Urethra, a tube that leads from the urinary bladder to the exterior. In female,
urethra is short and lies anterior to the vaginal opening longer in male, and consists of
three regions, the prostratic which passes through the prostrate gland, the
membranous portion pierces the pelvic diaphragm and the penile portion passes
through a mass of erectile tissue, the corpus spongiousum of the penis.

MICTURiTION

The act of voiding urine, called micturition (urination). Is a reflex act generally
initiated voluntarily and also voluntarily inhibited.

Urine is stored temporarily up to such time the bladder becomes heavier and the
sphincter muscles the reflex and the smooth muscles of the bladder contact expelling the
urine from the bladder through the urethra. This reflex action is called micturation.

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 CHAPTER 12

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The various that occur in the body are triggered by chemicals called hormones
secreted by endocrine that is they circulate throughout the organism by way of the blood
stream from the endocrine glands that produce them. They have a regulatory effect on
other cells and bring about any cell tissues which are referred to as their “targets”.
Hormones may increase or decrease the activity of their target cells activities. They vary
greatly in chemical composition. Some are special protein substances present in small
qualities in the body, a few are amino acids and the rest are various simple or complex
compounds. In general hormones are classified into two types, the local hormones
affecting those cells surrounding the organ such as histamine, acetycholine and
gastrointestinal hormones the general and the hormones affecting those and organs in far
distant of the body secreted by the endocrine gland and released into the bloodstream to
be circulated throughout the body. Examples of general hormones secrete by the thyroid
gland and pituitary gland, respectively. The glands that secrete the general hormones are
called endocrine glands. The endocrine glands are ductless glands which produce internal
secretions directly into the blood stream and their products or secretions are called
hormones. Their products are absorbed and carried of the body remote from the sister of
origin of the secretion. Glands such as the thyroid, pituitary and adrenals are called
ductless glands. They are also called endocrine glands or glands which produce external
secretions through tubes to the site why they take effect. Also called exocrine glands or
glands of external secretions. Some glands such as the pancreas, testis and ovaries
produce both exocrine and endocrine products. They study of hormones their functions is
collect endocrinology.

INVERTEBRATE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

In insects, crustaceans, mollusks and other lower forms of animals, hormones has
been found to regulate the growth and development from egg, larva, pupa and adult stage.
They play significant roles in the metamorphosis of insects. Insects, during their larval
stage, undergo several molting a stage. For instance the caterpillar during molting, casts
of its exoskeleton (external skeleton) and eventually grows rapidly for the formation of
the new skeleton. This process of molting has been found controlled by hormones from
larval stage to adult stage. In some animals, all endocrine are transport of insulin is to
control glucose metabolism in the body by increasing the rate of glucose transport
neurosecretory cells considered as modified nerve cells secreting a great variety of
hormones with a variety of functions outside the nervous system.
In other instances, endocrine cells are not part of the nervous system and are often
components of elaborate endocrine organs. Cells of the neurosecretory type occur in
certain forms of animals such as mollusks, arthropods and segmented worms, but non-

68
nervous certain forms of animals such as mollusks, arthropods and segmented worms, but
non nervous endocrine cells are prominent only in arthropods and vertebrates.
Neurosecretory hormones in squids control the expansion and contraction of pigments
cells in the skin. In certain worms, hormones greatly contribute to their growth and
regeneration. In insects, the hormone ecdysone controls molting and metamorphosis. By
dissemination through the bloodstream, a hormone can reach every body and coordinate
simultaneously the responses of all cells susceptible to its action.

VERTEBRATE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

The major vertebrate endocrine glands and their hormones are shown in Table 1.
The different endocrine glands that are scattered throughout the body and depend on the
circulatory system for the transport of the hormones that they produce. Many hormones
have specific functions, such as the role of insulin in carbohydrate metabolism. In
addition, the importance of this secretion is to stimulate the pancreas in order to secrete
its digestive enzymes. Many hormones play an important part in the regulation of growth
and metabolism. The part played by the sex hormones in the maintenance and
development of the reproductive system is well known. Among the glands to be
discussed are the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, and
other accessory gland secretion hormones. The pituitary gland is located below the
forebrain; the thyroid and parathyroid glands are neck glands; and the adrenal glands are
located on top of the kidneys.

HYPOPHYSIS (PITUITARY GLAND)

The hypophysis also kn0wn as the pituitary gland, is an exceedingly small gland
about the size of the tip of the little finger. This gland lies at the base of the rain divided
into three (2) completely separate parts; the anterior pituitary gland, also known as
adenopophysis, the intermediate lobe and the posterior pituitary gland, also known as
neuronpophysis. These three (3) loves of the pituitary gland, also known as endocrine
organs that secrete at least 10 hormones. The seven hormones secreted by the
adenopophysis are somatotoprin (growth hormone), TSH, ACTH, ATH, LH, FSH, and
prolactin. All of these except somatotropin and proclactin regulate the function of other
endocrine organs. The intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland secretes MSH
(Melanocyte Stimulating Hormones, a hormone which causes pigment granules in some
chromotophores of fishes, amphibians and reptiles to disperse, thus darkening the skin.
The hormones secreted by the neurohypophysis in mammals are vasopressin and
oxytocin produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.

Anterior Lobe, or Adenohypophysis secretes at least six (6) different hormones,

all of which are small or large polypeptides. These six (6) hormones are the following:
Growth Hormone, thyrotropin, corticotrophin, prolactin, follicle stimulating hormone and

69
luteinizing hormone. The last two (2) are called gonadotropic hormones because they
regulate the functions of the sex glands. The Adenohypophysis secretes these hormones
which affect the activities of other endocrine glands and are thus termed tropic hormones.
The release of these tropic hormones depends on substances called “releasing factors”
produced by cells in the hypothalamus whose axons terminate in the nerohypophysis.

Growth Hormone (Somatotrophin)

Somatotrophin is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland which stimulates the

synthesis of proteins from amino acids and is therefore a growth hormone. Throughout
life, this hormone is secreted in large quantities even through most growth in the body
ceases at adolescence. During the growing state of the animal, growth hormone promotes
the development of body tissues, the enlargement of bones and the thickening of the skin.
It also increase the size of internal organs such as the heart, liver, kidney and other
organs. In other words, this hormone causes a person to grow and develop.

The secretion of growth hormone by the adenopophysis is controlled by the

hypothalamus, which secretes a growth hormone releasing factor which then stimulates
the Adenohypophysis to secrete growth hormone. The secretion of growth hormone from
day to day varies depending on the metabolic needs of the body. Growth hormone
deficiency cause dwarfism in young individuals and may be responsible for some loss of
protein in adults. Dwarfism is characterized by the failure of a person to grow due to the
failure of the anterior pituitary gland to secrete growth hormone, the person remains
childlike in all physical aspects. His organs as facial features called acromegalic facies.
The nose and lips thicken, the face loses its intelligent expression, and there is mental
regression.

Thyrotropin

Another hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland is thyrotropin, also

known as thyrotrophic hormone (TSH). The principal function of this hormone is to
regulate the secretion of the thyroid gland. Excessive amounts of TSH may affect other
tissues especially those surrounding the eyeball.
It controls the amount of hormone secreted by the thyroid gland by increasing the number
and size of thyroid cells and also their rate of thyroxine production. In other words, the
thyroid gland is almost completely controlled by the thyrotrophin.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A secretion of the anterior pituitary gland, also corticotrophin which controls the
secretion of adrenocortial hormones by the adrenal cortices in much the same manner as
thyrotropin control secretion by the thyroid gland. This hormone increases both the

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number of cells in the adrenal cortex and their degree of activity, resulting in increased
output of adrenocortical hormones.

Prolactin

Prolactin, also known as latogenic hormone or lutetrophic hormone (LTH), is

another hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland during the last few days of
pregnancy and during the entire period of milk production after the birth of the baby. The
development of the mammary glands (breast glands of the female) is stimulated by the
female sex hormones, but their secretion, once they are developed, is controlled by this
lactogenic hormone. In short, prolactin acts specifically on the female breast during
pregnancy and is responsible for the production of milk (lactation). In addition to the
luteinizing hormone, it stimulates the corpus lutetium to secrete progesterone.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

One of the gonadotrophic hormones which causes the growth of the ovarian
follicles in female and the production of sperm in male. In female, FSH initiates the
growth of follicles in the ovaries and that, in each of these, a single ovum develops in
preparation for fertilization. It also causes the ovaries to secrete estrogens, one of the
female sex hormones. In the male, it stimulates the development of the somniferous
tubules in the testes, which produce the male sex cells, or sperm and thus promoting the
development sperm which an fertilized the female ovum

The secretion of the follicle stimulating hormone appears to be under the control
of releasing factors in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus produces FSHRF, follicle
hormone releasing factor, that stimulates the adenohypohysis to release FSH.

Luteinizing Hormone

Another gonadotropic hormone which in the female necessary for ovulation and
corpus lutetium growth, and in the male, stimulates the testes to produce the male
hormone testosterone.

In female, LH is responsible for the final maturation of the ovarian follicles and
estrogen secretion from them. It is also responsible for initial formation of the corpus
lutetium and secretion of progesterone.

In male, LH is also called Interstitical Cells Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) because

it stimulates the development of small interstitial cells of testes. These cells secrete the
male sex hormone called hypothalamus produces lutenizing hormone releasing factor
(LHRF) which stimulates the Adenohypophysis to release LH.

Posterior lobe or neurohypophysis arises as a down growth of the diencephalon

part of the brain from the region that will later become the floor of the third ventricle.

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The neural stalk and pars nevosa of the neurohypophysis contain nerve endings and fibers
extending downward from the nerve cell bodies in the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic
nerve cell bodies produce hormones oxytocin and vasopressin (antiduretic hormone,
ADH). Oxytocin has a stimulatory effect during lactation. The sucking stimulus initiates
nerve impulses directed to the hypothalamus cause the nerophypophysis to release
oxytocin into the bloodstream. Myoepithelia cells of the mammary glands contract upon
the secretion of oxytocin to cause milk to ejected into the mammary ducts. The synthesis
and secretion mik controlled by various hormones, among them, prolactin. Antidiurectic
hormone ADH), Vasopressin) acts on the kidney to regulate water balance. It promotes
water retention by increasing the permeability of the distal convoluted and collecting
tubules to water. ADH like oxytocin are secreted by neuronal cells in the anterior
hypothalamus and then are conducted through nerve axons to the posterior pituitary gland
where both hormones are stored. Once these two hormones have reached the
neurohypophysis, they remain there until nerve impulses are transmitted from either the
supraoptic nucleus to cause release of ADH or from the paraventricular nucleus to cause
release of oxytocin. The kidneys, in the absence of ADH, excrete extremely dilute urine
while retaining electrolytes. In the presence of ADH, kidneys excrete concentrated urine
and conserve water.

THYROID GLAND

The thyroids are a pair of gland located anterior and lateral to the upper part of the
trachea and lower part of the larynxes. A soft, brownish red organ shaped like a butterfly
consisting of two lateral lobes connected by a narrow bridge to tissue, the isthmus. This
gland grows during childhood and reaches its normal adult size of puberty. It is bigger in
the female than in the male. However, it’s size also affected by some factors. Its
available iodine is not enough, it enlarges greatly. Abnormal conditions of the thyroids
are usually observed in the female than in male.

The thyroid can become enlarged due to some factors, and this enlargement is
known as goiter . Lack of iodine in the diet can cause goiter since it is vital in the
production of thyroxine. Deficiency in iodine could be overcome by the more general use
of iodized table salt. Goiter is more observed in women than in men and thus, pregnant
women should see to it that they have an adequate supply of iodine in their food and
drinks.

Under the control of the hypothalamic – hypophyseal portal system, the thyroid
produces and liberates hormone containing iodine, which are then carried by circulating
proteins to the tissues, where they alter the rate of intracellular store it. A combination of
iodine and amino acids forms of thyroid hormone called thyroxine. This hormone has a
generalized effect on the body of accelerating metabolism and increasing heat production.
Thyrotrophic hormone of the pituitary gland controls the production of thyroxine by the
thyroid hypothyroidism occurs in the individual. The individual is extremely lethargic,
constipated, his mental reactions are sluggish, sensitive to cold because of a low rate of

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metabolism resulting in decrease heat production and often becomes fat due to tissue
fluid accumulation referred to as Myxedema. This results when there is increased
deposition of gelatinous mixture of mucoprotein and extracellura fluid in the spaces
between cells, giving the individual and edernatous appearance.

Hypothyroidism may also results from failure of the thyroid to develop in

intrauterine life. Thyroxine is also important during pre-natal development and
childhood. The developing fetus may suffer from thyroxine deficiency. In such cases,
the child’s development is retarded and his growth, both physical and mental, is slowed
down. Such disease is called cretinism and the child then is called a cretin. A cretin is
mentally retarded with short strature, a dwarf, his tongue thickens and often protrudes,
the nose bridge fails to develop, and the limbs are short. Cretinism can be treated if the
child is given thyroxine extract at an early age for him to grow normally.

The overproduction of thyroxine constitute hyperthyroidism. This is due to

failure of the anterior pituitary thyroid regulatory system to function properly resulting to
greatly increased production of thyroxine. An individual suffering from hyperthyroidism
has a high metabolic rate, his heart rate is greatly increased, the heart beats fast, highly
nervous and irritable. If treated, if the child is given thyroxine extract at an early age for
him to grow normally.

The overproduction of thyroxine constitutes hyperthyroidism. This is due to

failure of the anterior pituitary thyroid regulatory system to function properly resulting to
greatly increase production of thyroxine. An individual suffering from hyperthyroidism
has a high metabolic rate, his heart rate is greatly increased, the heart beats fast, highly
nervous and irritable.

If hyperthyroidism in a person becomes severe and prolonged, it often results to

the burning out of tissues leading to degenerative production of thyroxine is also
accompanied by the bulging of eyeballs. This is a care of Exopthalamic goiter. It is
believed that to the large quantities in place of metabolic rate and protrusion of the
eyeballs. The individual with such disease is said to be nervous and have a high pulse
rate. Treatment is needed to suppress the activity of the thyroid gland. Either by the use
of drugs or by surgical removal of the gland (thyroidectomy) can reduce the activity of
the thyroid.

In addition to thyroxine, the thyroid gland also produces a second hormone called
thyrocalcitonin which prevents the release of calcium from bones thus lowering the levels
of phosphate and calcium in the blood. The action of this hormone is different from the
parathormone secreted by the parathyroid gland. It reacts immediately whereas the effect
of parathyroid hormone is hardly observable for several hours after its injection. The
thyroid secretes calcitonin when concentration of calcium in the blood is increased
beyond the normal amount. It causes some of the blood calcium to be deposited in the
bones, thereby returning the calcium level toward normal.

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PARATHYROID GLAND

The parathyroid are four small yellowish or brown bodies, which are embedded
on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. In terms of embryonic origin, they are
closely related to the thyroids for they arise in the embryo from the endoderm of the third
and fourth pharyngeal pouches. They are considered as the smallest known endocrine
glands, being only about the size of a small pea. The parathyroid secrete parathyroid
hormone (parathormone) which raises the level of calcium in the blood by mobilizing
from the bones. This hormone is primarily concerned with the metabolism of calcium
and phosphate in the blood. It’s action is antagonistic to that of the thyrocalcitonin from
the thyroid gland, and the two hormones regulate the level of calcium and phosphorus in
the circulating blood. An increased production of this hormone causes an excessive
demineralization of the bones. This is case of hyperparathyroidism commonly of results
in loss of muscle tone and disturbance in the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus.
Extreme parthormone cause tremendous overgrowth of the osteoclasts. This often results
of the weakening of bones and that most people with hyperprathyroidism only become
aware of their disease through a broken bone.

Hyposecretion of parthormone lowers the calcium level in the blood thereby

affecting muscle contraction that cause muscle (tetanty). The most common cause of
deficient care must be taken to avoid damage in removing the thyroid gland during
surgery since these two (2) glands are in close proximity.

ADRENAL GLAND

The supernal or adrenal glands are two small glands located near the upper poles
of the kidneys. Each gland consists of an outer part, and an inner part, the cortex and the
medulla, respectively.

The adrenal secretes adrenocortical hormones which are all chemically similar,
that is, they are steroids but can divided into three different categories based on their
functions: glucorricoids, mineral corticoids, and sex hormones androgens, estrogens, and
progesterone. These hormones also help lessen inflammatory responses and therefore
result to a tendency toward healing.

The most significant function of glucocorticoids is to enhance resistance to

physical stress and injury. The mienralocorticoids produced by the adrenal cortex include
the hormone aldosterone which is concerned primarily is regulating electrolytes,
especially toward and sodium in the estracelluari fluids. Deficiency of aldosterone and
other mineralocorticoids cause excessive renal secretion of sodium and with it an
osomotically equivalent amount of water and excessive renal potassium. Small amounts
of male and female sex hormones are also produced by the cortex in both sexes. They are

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only produced in trace amount and that their visible effects appear to be main produced
by androgens.

The adrenal medulla of the supernal gland produces the well known hormone
adrenaline and related hormone nonadrenalin. These hormones are released in response
to stressful circumstances. The action if adrenaline and noradrenalin is almost identical
with effects produced by stimulating by artieriola constriction, pupillary hormones
because they are release during emergency situations, like a fire of instance. As a result,
a person becomes unusually strong during an emergency.

A well known manifestation of adrenocotica insufficiency is called Addison’s

disease. An excessive overstimulation of the adrenal gland by stress to a serious disease
now as Addins disease. This is characterized by the unusual increase in skin
pigmentation caused by an increase in MSH production. this disease can be treated to
some extent by letting the person earth large quantities of slat and the use of cortical
steroids.

Hypersecretion of adrenocortical hormones results either directly from a tumor in

one part of the adrenal gland, or indirectly from increase production corticotrophin by the
adenophypohysis. Hyperfunction of the cortex can cause Cushing’s disease;
characterized by virilism or masculination in the female after puberty due to increase
production of androgens. There is the development of facial hair particularly on the chin
and the voice is deeper than the normal female. Pubic and uterus remain undeveloped.
In the male, this disease in characterize by enlargement of their penis but not fully
develop testes.

PANCREAS

The pancreas is classified as an accessory gland of the digestive system having an

exocrine and endocrine portions. Its exocrine and endocrine are carried from the gland
by way of a system of ducts. This endocrine portion of the gland consists of cell clusters
called Islets of Langerhans. The Islets of Langerhans are composed of two(2) different
types of cells, the alpha and beta cells. The alpha secret3e the hormone glucagon and the
beta cells secrete the hormone insulin. Both hormones regulate the level of glucose in the
blood. The main function of insulin is to control glucose metabolism in the body by
increasing the rate of glucose transport of insulin is to control glucose metabolism in the
body by or through the cellular membrane. Insulin controls the transformation of simple
sugar glucose into glycogen to be stored in the liver and muscles. This process is called
glycognesis.

It lowers the amount of sugar in the blood. Insufficient amount of insulin in the
circulating blood results in diabetes mellitus. With the hyposecretion of insulin, the body
can transform excess glucose into glycogen resulting t high level of blood sugar, and thus
glucose appears in the urine. Whenever there is enough insulin available, the blood sugar

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glucose becomes very low so that the nerve cells can no longer receive the amounts of
glucose needed to maintain their metabolism. The nerve cells become excessively
excitable and later depressed leading to convulsions.

Another hormone secreted by the pancreas is glucagon. Many of its functions are
opposite to those of insulin. th raises the amount of sugar in the blood by changing liver
glycogen into glucose. This process is called glycogenlolysis (breakdown of glycogen
into glucose). Glucagon also increases the body and then promoting amino acids uptake
into the liver and converting these amino acids into glucose. An essential function of
glucagon is to keep the glucose concentration high enough to prevent hypolygcemic
convultions or hypoglycemic coma.

THYMUS GLAND

The thymus gland is a bilobed structure located at the upper part of the chest,
below the neck and above the heart. It consists of two (2) lymphoid tissues. This gland
performs an important function in early life but degenerates at the time puberty and
replaced by fibrous or fatty tissues. The effect of these two (2) substances upon growth
of tissues, including cancer cells, may be great importance.

TESTES

Testes are chief male reproductive organs located inside a sac called scrotum. At
the time of puberty, the testes producing sperm cells under the influence of the pituitary,
the hypothalamus begins to secrete gonadotrophic hormone releasing factors causing the
adenophypophysis to secrete of the germinal epithelium in the male testes, promoting
spermatorgenesis (development of sperm cells). LH causes the production testosterone
by the intersitial cells located in the male, such as development of pubic and axially hair,
deep voice, growth a big muscular body and growth of mustache.

OVARY

Ovaries are the female reproductive organs that produce egg cell and have an
endocrine function which secretes female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
These two (2) hormones are secreted like testerone at the time of puberty. At that time,
the anterior pituitary gland begins to secrete two (2) gonadotrophic hormones, FSH &
LH. Follicle stimulating it secreted first which initiates the beginning of sexual life in the
growing female child and later on it secretes luteinizing hormone which helps to control
menstrual cycle of the female. FSH causes the growth of the primary ovaries follicles
and promotes the rapid proliferation of the epithelodi cells surrounding the ovum.

Eventually, these cells begin to called Lutein cells that eventually form an
enlarged growth on the ovary called corpus lutetium. The corpus lutetium then secretes

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estrogen as well as large quantities of progesterone. Estrogen causes smooth of pubic
hairs, growth of breaths, broadening of hips and other second female sexual implantation
of the fertilized ovum and secretion of milk by the breasts.

DIGESTIVE AND PRODUCING HORMONES

The pyloric portion of the stomach produces a hormone, gastric which is released
into the bloodstream and then acts on the gastric glands, particularly the parietal cells,
stimulate the secretion of digestive juices. A small number of hormone producing cells in
the stomach (like small intestine) are called collectively as Enterchromaffin cells. The
small intestine also produces a number of hormones including secretion, Secretion is an
intestinal hormone that stimulates the pancreas to secrete bicarbonate that neutralize the
acidity of food making the intestinal contents midly alkaline. Pacreozymin promotes
secretion of the three (3) major digestive enzymes by the pancreas, one for each one and
lipase (for fats). Cholecystokinin stimulates the gall bladder to release its stored bile into
the duodenum of the small intestine bile into the duodenum of the small intestine.

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 CHAPTER 13

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

How living things become many? To become many is to reproduce. Reproduction

is the process by which an organism produces more organisms like itself. It is one of the
characteristics of living things that makes them difference from non-living things.

Reproduction is an important activity of the boy. Simpler forms of living things

can reproduce on their own but human beings and higher forms of plants and animals
cannot reproduce with only one parent. There are two types of reproduction asexual and
sexual. In asexual reproduction, a new organism develops from structures produced by
one parent. In sexual reproduction, a new organism develops from two gametes (sex
cells) that have joined together.

Reproduction in human beings involves a male and a female. The male

reproductive system differs from that of the female in structure and function. The male
reproductive system is used for the production and transport of sperm cells while the
female reproductive system is designed to produce eggs, care for the unborn baby until
birth and nourish the unborn baby.

There is another unique thing about the reproductive process. Your body cannot
perform this function until you reach a certain age. All of the organ systems start
functioning at the time the baby was born. Some of the organs system were already
doing their job even while the baby was still inside the mother’s womb. At younger age,
the reproductive system was still underdeveloped, it is just starting to develop and
prepare for the task until reaching the reproductive maturity.

Reproduction is essential to the survival of a species. Without reproduction,

humans and other living things would not continue to exist.

Reproduction in people involves a male and a female. The female has the male
reproductive organs. The female has the female reproductive organ.

The reproductive system of boys is different from the girls. The male
reproductive system is designed for the transport of sperm cells. The female reproductive
system is designed for childbearing.

The Male Reproductive Physiology

The male reproductive structures may be grouped into two: external and internal.
The external structures are those located outside the body.

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 External parts:
Penis
Scrotum

Internal parts:
Epididymis Ejaculatory ducts bladder
Vas deferens Prostate Glands Testicles
Seminal vesicle Urethra

The function of the male reproductive system is to produce sperm cells and
deliver them to the female’s reproductive tract. These functions require four different
types of structures

1. the testicles – which produce the sperm cells and primary sex hormone,
testosterone; it cause the development and maintenance of the male secondary
sex characteristics.

2. accessory glands – which provides fluid medium for conveying sperm cells to
the penis;

3. accessory ducts – which store and carry secretions from the testes and
accessory glands to the penis

4. the penis – the copulatory organ, which deposits the seminal fluid containing
the sperm cells into the vagina during sexual contact.

The primary sex organs of the male are the testes. The testes are the two egg-
shaped organs inside the tiny pouch of skin called scrotum. The testes have two
important functions: 1. They produce the male sex hormones known as testosterone; 2.
They produce the gametes called sperm.

The sperm cells are so tiny that they can only be seen under a microscope. The
sperm has a head and a tail. The tail makes the sperm move fast. Whitish fluid called
semen carries sperms. The testes produce sperms when boys reach the age of puberty.

Sperm leaves the body through a duct system consisting of the epididymis. Vas
deferens and the urethra. The epididymis is a long coiled tube which serves as a
temporary storage tube a passage for the transport of sperm cells. The vas deferens
extends from the epididymis upward and joins the urethra. It is a hollow tube where the
sperm passes. The urethra is found at the center of the penis. It serves as the passageway
of the urine and the semen. The semen Is a whitish fluid secreted by the prostate gland.

The seminal vesicles and the prostate gland are the accessory glands. The seminal
vesicles are located at the back of the urinary bladder. The prostate surrounds the site

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where the vas deferens joins the urethra. Both the seminal vesicles and prostate produce
whitish fluids. These fluids serves as lubrication for the duct. The fluids and the sperm
form semen.

The penis is an elongated muscular organ which is full of blood vessels and
nerves: It hangs in front of the scrotum. It is covered by a fold of skin called the foreskin.
The foreskin is removed either soon after birth or before the age of puberty. This process
is called circumcision. Boys are circumcise to keep the penis clean.

Female reproductive Physiology

The female reproductive system is also classified into the external and internal
parts

External Parts:

Mons Veneris Clitoris

Vagina Hymen
Labia Minora Labia Majora

Internal Parts:

Uterus Fallopian tubes

Ovaries

A female has two ovaries, one on the right and another on the left of the uterus.
They produce the female hormone estrogen that is produced by follicle before ovulation
and progesterone which is secreted by the corpus luteum after ovulation. Ovaries contain
about half a million cavity like follicles. Each of these contain an ocyte. Follicles
develop as they mature until they break open and expel the ocyte as an ovum or egg cell.
The release of the ovum is known as ovulation. Ovaries also produce testosterone, the
male hormones produced in the testes. Testosterone is responsible for the secondary male
sex characteristics of females. These include beard and mustache growth, as well as
voice deepening.

These male characteristics will show in women if the amount of testosterone is

out of control. Ovaries solve this problem by converting testosterone to estrogen.
Near each ovary, though not connected to it, is the fallopian tube. This is also
known as the oviduct. A mature egg cell released from an ovary goes to one of the
fallopian tubes where fertilization takes place.

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 At the end of the fallopian tube is the uterus or womb . It is a hollow muscular
organ which is about the size of a fist. It has thick muscular walls, which can contract
and expand. It is where the fetus or unborn baby develops.

The narrow lower end of the uterus is known as the cervix, which connects to the
vagina. During childbirth, the cervix and the vagina expand to let the baby out.

Accessory Organs of the Female Reproductive System

Breasts are the two organs on the chest made up of fatty tissue with a network of
ducts. The breast is a source of food for infants and is sensitive to sexual stimulation. It
is composed of a nipple, aureola and breast. During pregnancy, lactation (milk
production) occurs.

Masturbation

Masturbation is the manipulation of the genitals which may or may not lead to
climax or orgasms. It is a very common practice to relieve sexual tension, particularly
among young people who are unmarried or who have no regular sex partners. That is
why it is also called self-gratification. It plays a big role in the sexual lives of most
people. It is not bad to masturbate. Men produce 2.5 ml of semen daily. This is not all
absorbed by the body and has to be released.

Erection and Ejaculation

The movement of the penis in the vagina stimulates the glands of male and causes
passage of sensory impulses from the glands into the sacral portion of the spinal cord, and
if the person simultaneously also has appropriate psychic stimulation to perform sexual
act, reflex impulses return to the genitals organs through parasympathetic nerve fibers.
Because of these impulses, the arteries are dilated supply blood to the erectile tissue of
the penis and probably also constrict the veins. With this, a greater amount of blood gets
into the erectile tissue under high pressure and blows it up like a balloon. Eventually, the
penis becomes greatly enlarged and hard it extends forward, which is the act of erection.
This act is under the control of the parasympathetic pathways of the autonomic nervous
system.

In contrast to erection, ejaculation is under the control of the sympathetic pathway

of the autonomic nervous system. This act is brought about by the contraction of smooth
muscle fibers in the walls of the genital ducts aided by the skeletal fibers on the bulbos-
spongiosus muscles at the root of the penis. This result when sexual excitement has
reached its critical level, through the sympathetic nerves, the neuronal centers in the tip of
the spinal cord send impulses to the male genital organs to initiate rhythmic peristalsis in
the genital ducts. This rhythmic muscular action commences in the testes and then
upward through the epididymis, theprostate gland, and eventually the penis itself. In this

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way, the semen containing the sperm and secretions from the seminal vesicles and
prostate gland flows all the way from the testes out the tip of the penis into the vagina.
This process is called ejaculation.

The Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation is a monthly discharge of blood fluid from the uterus when an egg is
not fertilized and the lining of the uterus breaks down. Menstrual flow is sometimes
referred to as monthly period.

A girl has thousands of eggs in her ovaries. These eggs are not yet ripe or mature.
As a girl reaches puberty, one egg ripens or matures every 28 days. Each time an egg
matures, the wall of the womb or uterus, becomes thick with many blood vessels.

If the egg is not fertilized because there are no sperms, the egg dies. The
thickening of the uterus becomes useless. Soon it breaks up and comes our with blood
through birth canal. This is called menstrual flow. Menstrual flow stops after three to
five days, it takes about 28 days for it to appear again. This is what we call Menstrual
Cycle. This cycle continues until the female reaches the age between 45 to 50. The time
of life when a female stops menstruating is called menopause. After menopause, a
female can no longer bear children.

The Start of a New Life

When a girl reaches the age of puberty, one egg matures in the ovary. This
happens once a month. Every month, an egg matures and escapes from the ovary of the
girl. This egg goes into the fallopian tube and stays there for a while. A sperm coming
from the testes of a male enter the fallopian tube where the egg is and the sperm will
unite with the egg. Then the sperm and the egg unite, fertilization takes place resulting
into fertilized egg.

After fertilization the fertilized egg gets implanted in the wall of the uterus.
During its first two months it is called an embryo. The embryo consists of several layers
of cells. The cells continue dividing to form the muscles, bones, heart, brain and other
organs. The outer layer of cells forms a special organ called the placenta; which
surrounds the embryo. The placenta absorbs food nutrients as well as oxygen from the
mother and passes them through the umbilical cord into the mother’s blood stream. After
four weeks, the tiny heart begins to beat. By the seventh week the eyes, ears and mouth
are developed. Eventually, the limbs begin to grow. From the third month until birth, the
embryo is called a fetus. Its growth continues until the bone starts to replace the cartilage
in its skeleton. In the final three months, the skin becomes thicken and tougher.

About 40 weeks after fertilization, the baby is slowly pushed out of the mother’s
womb until it finally comes out into the world.

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 CHAPTER 14

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system have a simple protozoans like amoeba, the irritability of the
protoplasm represents the most primitive from of responsiveness. These unicellular
organisms have very minute fibrils in the cytoplasm called Neurofibrils, such as Cilia and
Flagella. These neuromotor system are believed to coordinate the various parts of the
cells. Among lower invertebrates like the sponges and the jelly fishes, a network of
neuro like structures called proneurons, transmit impulses in all directions throughout the
network the nervous system of flat segmented worms is composed of structures called
ganglia a group of nerve cells. In insects and other arthropods, an anterior brain with
single nerve cord branching off on the side, make up the nervous system, the nervous
system of the invertebrates is found on the ventral instead of the dorsal side of the body
the nervous system of the human has reached its highest degree of development. Human
have highly developed brain that make it possible for them to learn, to remember what
have been learned and most to reason. In the brain is just part of the complex nervous
system which controls and coordinates essential body functions. The brain receives
signals and transmits impulses to and from the different parts of the body. Although the
nervous system is a single unified communication network, it is divided into two main
division, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system and outside
the body and then coordinates the body responses while the peripheral nervous system
provides the pathway to and from the central nervous system for electrochemical
impulses.

The Nervous System of Invertebrates

The Sponges

These invertebrates are not provided with a definite nervous system but a simple
sensory organs that provide information about the environment.

The Coelenterates

The hydra, like other coelenterates, have no brain network of nerve net permit
some coordination of responses and other simple movements. They have control in their
responses to stimuli. Hydras also have sensory cell that respond to chemical and
mechanical and stimuli.

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The Flatworms

The planarians have simple nervous system. They move away from light a move
toward food. They have eyespots that contain pigments which are very sensitive to light.
Electrical impulses are picked up be the photo receptor cells when light strikes the
pigments.

The head area have cells that are sensitive to touch and chemicals. Messages are
then sent to a group of nerve cells called ganglion (plural: ganglia). A ganglion is
provided with two nerve cords that run to the length of the planarian body.

The Nervous Control in Round-Segmented- The Earthworms

The earthworms is provided with cerebral ganglion, found near the anterior end of
the animal, with this receptor the earthworm can respond rapidly to changes it its
environment. Earth worms are nocturnal and move away from bright light. They have
light sensitive cells, but they do not respond to red-light.

Mollusks and Arthropods.

Mollusk have well-developed nervous system composed of several large ganglia.

At the edge of the mantle are sensory cells that are sensitive to light and touch.

The Arthropods like crayfish have nervous system similar to that of the annelids
but it is more specialized. Nerve impulses from the eyes are curried to the antennules.
To the brain for instance crayfish body is provided with two large nerves. That run to the
brain to the brain to the central part of the body to form a large double ganglia. In each
segment, the ventral cod enlarges to ganglion to which nerves are connected to the
appendages, muscles, and other parts of the body.

They may also react to sound waves. A sac called Statocyst found at the base of
the antennule helps the arthropods keep its balance. It is lined with hairy receptor cells.
When they crayfish is positioned upside down, sand grains stimulate the hairy receptor
cells sending signals to the brain along nerve fibers.

FSH NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system of the fish consists of the brain, the spinal cord and many
nerves that lead to all parts of the body. The brain is enclosed on a skeletal structure
called the Cranion. The brain consists of five different part: the cerebellum, cerebrum,
optic lobe, medulla oblongata and spinal cord. The cerebrum of fishes consists of two
cerebral hemispheres and are smaller compared to that of the amphibians and reptiles.

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The cerebrum responds mostly to chemical changes in the environment. It receives nerve
impulses from the all factory lobes. The functions of the fish is not clear but it has
something to do with the all factory functions. Some motor responses that control certain
muscles may originate in the cerebrum. The medulla is located at the back of the brain.
This part control the activities of the internal organs.

THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is
also composed of two types of cells.

1. the cells proper and 2. Neuralgia, the connective tissue of the central nervous
system (CNS). The central nervous system (CNS).

In addition to these two types of cells, there are cells of the meninges which cover
the central system.

THE NEURON OR NERVE CELL

The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell
called neuron. Neurons are the largest cells in the body. A typical neuron is illustrated.
The cell body looks like a star or a many-legged spider with arms branching out in all
directions. These thin branches are called dendrites, which receives stimulation from
your body parts or from the environment. Another thin fiber is substances in both
direction in their cytoplasm. Axons are covered with fatty insulating substance called
myelin sheath. This sheath is formed y; a specialized cell called Shawn cell. The axon is
considered to be myelinated. If the axon has no covery it is said to be non-myelinated.
Axons are sometimes called nerve fibers. The axons form bundles while to cell bodies
and their associated dendrites from cluster of nuclei. Difference in color in the fresh
state, the tract from the white matter while the nuclei form the parameter.

THE BRAIN

One of the most important parts and specialized organs of the human body is the
brain. The brain, is the part of the nervous system which lies within the cranial cavity.
The brain control system of the body. With its one hundred billion nerve cells. Brain
enables man to regulate and coordinate activities. It also helps man to think. Its weight is
about 100 kl or 2 lbs but it is considered as the most complex and delicate organ the brain
is covered and protected by their membranes called meninges. The three meninges use to
protect the spinal cord. They act as cushion to protect the brain from bumps and bruises.
If a bump is too hard thus damaging the brain, it is called concussion. The piameter, is
the inner membrane with blood vessels that carry food and oxygen to the brain cells. It is

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a delicate structure that is closely attached to the surface of the brain. It is found under
the gray meter. The middle membrane is the Arachnoid. It is made up of fibrous and
elastic tissues. The main blood vessels of the brain and their principal branches lie in the
sub-arachnid and piameter.

FORE BRAIN

The largest part of the human forebrain is the cerebrum, made up of a large
hemispheres, each composing the frontal parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. The outer
most surface of the brain is the cortex . it is deeply folded with furrows and irregular
wrinkles called convolutions. The cortex is the body and coordinate motor responses. It
has an are called motor cortex that controls the movement of the specific cerebrum. On
each side of the brain, is a sense organ that acts as a relay center for impulses. It is called
the thalamus. It separates and combines before relaying them to the specific part of the
brain. The hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. The hypothalamus controls the body
temperature, tears, hunger, water balance, and emotional behavior. A system called
lymphatic system found near the corpus coliseum is a network of neurons that translates a
person’s drives and emotion into actions.

The Function of the Cerebrum

Structure of the cerebrum perform specific functions the motor areas control
voluntary movement. The motor areas of the cerebrum control the movements of the
less, arms, neck and tongue. Various senses such as sleeping, smelling, hearing, touching
and tasting are interpreted in the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex. The occipital lobes
interpret what our eyes can see. The frontal loves are the center of emotion. Judgement,
will power, and self-control. Functions are shared by other areas of the brain of the
cerebral cortex

MIDBRAIN

The midbrain is responsible for carrying messages to and from the Spinal cord.
The combination between the spinal cord and the brain, the brain stem, is the base of the
brain. It is responsible for checking all incoming messages and filtering unimportant
ones. It also controls waking sleeping cycles, all consciousness and all atomic functions.

HIND BRAIN

The hindbrain or the brainstorm is composed of the cerebellum. The pons and the
medulla oblongata. The Cerebellum is the second largest mass of nervous tissue

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consisting of two hemispheres and cranial nerves, divide into lobules by transverse
fissures.

The Cerebellum is located between the brain stem and the hind part of the
cerebrum. Attached directly above pons, the cerebrum appears like the cerebrum. It
consists of the hemispheres, with convolutions shallower and more regular than that of
the cerebrum, the medulla oblongata also called the spinal bulb, extends down from the
central part of the brain and connects to the spinal cord. It is very small but it performs
basic life functions, like regulating heartbeat rate and breathing it also make possible the
contraction on explosion of your blood vessel. Your medulla oblongata can keep you
alive even with damage cerebrum.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The peripheral nervous system is composed of the spinal cord and the cranial
nerves, there are two pairs of nervous system. The cranial nerves connect the brain
primarily with sense organs, the heart and the other internal organs. The spinal cord is a
column of nerve tissues extending from the brain through the spinal cord, the spinal
nerves carry impulses to the spinal cord and skeletal muscle. The spinal cord is as thick
as a pencil and it is 43 cm. Long, 47 inches it serves as a link to all nerves to the different
parts of the body. The spinal cord is the center of involuntary movements called reflexes
of motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the striated or voluntary
muscles. The automatic nervous system connects the central nervous system to the
glands, the smooth muscles of the visceral organs and the cardiac muscles.

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is involuntary and autonomic. It is made

up of two parts, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic system. The sympathetic
nervous system becomes dominant in times of fear nerve impulses make your heart beats
faster and cause you blood pressure to rise. An opposite effect is done by your
parasympathetic nervous system. This system returns your body to its normal slate. It
slow down your heartbeat and brings your blood pressure to normal. It is the dominant
system under normal conditions. The vague nerve or vagus nerve which is found in the
cronium, serves as the principal nerve of this system.

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 CHAPTER 15

SPECIAL SENSES

People are responsive creatures. Hold freshly baked bread before us, and our
mouths water. A sudden clap of thunder makes us jump. These “irritants” (the bread and
the thunderclap) and many others are the stimuli that greet us and are interpreted by our
nervous system.

We are usually told that we have five senses that keep us in touch with what is
going on in the external world: touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing. Actually touch is
mixture of the general senses that we considered in Chapter 15- the temperature, pressure
and pain receptors of the skin and the proprioceptors of muscles and joints. The other
four “traditional” senses – smell, taste, sight and hearing are called special senses.
Receptors for a fifth special sense, equilibrium, are housed in the ear, along with the
organ of hearing. In contrast to the small and widely distributed general receptors, the
special sense receptor are either large, complex sensory organs (eyes and ears) or
localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and olfactory epithelium).

This chapter focuses on the functional anatomy of each of the special sense organs
individually, but keep in mind that sensory inputs are overlapping. What we finally
experience – our “feel” of the world- is a blending of stimulus effects.

The Eye and Vision

1. External accessory structures of the eye

a) Extrinsic eye muscles aim the eyes for the following moving
objects and for convergence.
b) Lacrimal apparatus includes a series of ducts and the lacrimal
glands that produce a saline solution, which washes and lubricates
the eyeball.
c) Eyelids protect the eyes. Associated with the eyelashes are the
ciliary glands, modified sweat glands, and the meibomian glands,
which produce oily secretion that helps keep the eye lubricated.
d) The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane that covers the anterior
eyeball and lines the eyelids. It produces a lubricating mucus.

2. Three tunics from the eyeball

a) The sclera is the outer, tough, protective tunic. Its anterior portion is
the cornea, which is transparent to allow light to enter the eye.

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 b) The choroid is the middle coat, which provides nutrition to the
internal eye structures and prevents light’s scattering in the eye.
Anterior modifications include two smooth muscle structures, the
ciliary body, and the iris (which controls the size of the pupil).
c) The retina is the innermost (sensory) coat, which contains the
photoreceptors. Rods are dim light receptors. Cones are receptors that
provide for color vision and high visual acuity. The fovea centralis, on
which acute focusing occurs, contains only cones.

3. The blind spot (optic disk) is the point where the optic nerves leaves the back
of the eyeball.
4. The lens is the major light-blending (refractory) structure of the eye. Its
convexity is increased by the ciliary body for close focus. Anterior tot he lens
is the aqueous humor; posterior to the lens is the vitreous humor. Both
humors reinforce the eye internally. The aqueous humor also provides
nutrients to the avascular lens and cornea.
5. Errors of refraction include myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism. All are
correctable with specially ground lenses.
6. The pathway of light through the eye is cornea-aqueous humor-(through
pupil) –aqueous humor-lens-vitreous humor-retina.
7. Overlap of the visual fields and inputs from both eyes to each optic cortex
provide for depth perception.
8. The pathway of nerve impulses from the retina of the eye is optic nerve-optic
chiasma-optic tract-thalamus-optic radiation-visual cortex in occipital lobe of
brain.
9. Eye reflects include the photopupillary, accommodation pupillary, and
convergence.

The Ear, Hearing and Balance

1. The ear is divided into three major areas:

a. Outer ear structures are the pinna, external auditory canal, and tympanic
membrane. Sound entering the external auditory canal sets the eardrum
into vibration. These structures are involved with sound transmission
only.
b. Middle ear structure are the ossicles and auditory tube within the
tympanic cavity. Ossicles transmit the vibratory motion from the eardrum
to the oval window. The auditory tube allows pressure to be equalized on
both sides of the eardrum. These structure are also involved with sound
transmission only.
c. Inner ear or bony labyrinth, consists of bony chambers (cochlea,
vestibule, and semicircular canals) in the temporal bone. The bony
labyrinth contains perilymph and membranous sacs filled with endolymph.

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 Within the membranous sacs of the vestibule and semicircular canals are
equilibrium receptors. Hearing receptors are found within the membranes
of the cochlea.

2. Hair cells of the organ of Corti (the receptor for hearing within the cochlea)
are stimulated by sound vibrations transmitted through air, membranes, and
fluids.
3. Deafness is any degree of hearing loss. Conduction deafness results when the
transmission of sound vibrations through the external and middle ears is
hindered. Sensorineural deafness occurs when there is damage to the nervous
system structures involved in hearing.
4. Receptors of the semicircular canals(cristae) are dynamic equilibrium
receptors, which respond to angular or rotational body movements. Receptors
of the vestibule (maculae) are static equilibrium receptors, which respond to
the pull of gravity and report on head position. Visual and proprioceptor input
are also necessary for normal balance.

Classification of Body Membranes

1. Epithelial: Simple organs, epithelium and connective tissue
components.

a. Cutaneous (the skin) epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium)

underlain by the dermis (dense connective tissue); protects body
surface.
b. Mucous epithelial sheet underlain by a lamina propria (areolar
connective tissue); lines body cavities open to the exterior.
c. Serous simple squamous epithelium resting on a scant connective
tissue layer; lines the ventral body cavity.
2. Connective tissue: Synovial; lines joint cavities.

Integumentary System (Skin)

1. Skin functions include protection of the deeper tissue from chemicals,

bacteria, bumps, and drying; regulation of body temperature through
radiation and sweating; and synthesis of defensive proteins and
vitamin D. The cutaneous sensory receptors are located in the skin.
2. The epidermis the more superficial part of the skin, is formed of
stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium and is avascular. Moving
from its superficial to deep region, its layers are the stratum corneum,
stratum lucidum (in thick skin only), stratum granulosum, stratum
spinosum, and stratum basale. Cells at its surface are dead and
continually flake off. They are replaced by division of cells in the
basal cell layer. As the cells move away from the basal layer, they
accumulate keratin and die. Melanin, a pigment produced by

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 melanocytes, protects the nuclei of epithelial cells from the damaging
rays of the sun.
3. The dermis composed of dense connective tissue. It is the site of
blood vessels, nerves, and epidermal appendages. It has two regions,
the papillary and reticular layers. The papillary layer has ridges, which
produce fingerprints.
4. Skin appendages are formed from the epidermis but reside in the
dermis.
a. Sebaceous glands produce an oily product (sebum), usually
ducted into a hair follicle. Sebum keeps the skin and hair soft and
contains bacteria-killing chemicals.
b. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands, under the control of the nervous
system, produce sweat, which is ducted to the epithelial surface.
These glands are part of the body’s heat-regulating apparatus.
5. Symptoms of equilibrium apparatus problems include involuntary
rolling of the eyes, nausea, vertigo, and an inability to stand erect.

Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste

1. Chemical substances must be dissolved in water to excite the receptors for

smell and taste.
2. The olfactory (smell) receptors are located in the superior aspect of each nasal
cavity. Sniffing helps to bring more air (containing odors) over the olfactory
mucosa.
3. Olfactory pathways are closely linked to the limbic system; odors recall
memories and arouse emotional responses.
4. Gustatoty (taste) cells are located in the taste buds, primarily on the tongue.
The four major taste sensations are sweet, salt, sour, bitter.
5. Taste and appreciation of foods is influenced by the sense of smell and the
temperature and texture of foods.

Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses

1. Special sense organs are formed early in embryonic development. Maternal

infections during the first five or six weeks of pregnancy may cause visual
abnormalities as well as sensorineural deafness in the developing child. An
important congenital eye problem is strabismus. The most important
congenital ear problem is lack of the external auditory canal.
2. Vision requires the most learning. The infant has poor visual acuity (is
farsighted) and lacks color vision and depth perception at birth. The eye
continues to grow and mature until the eighth or ninth year of life.
3. Problems of aging associated with vision include presbyopia, glaucoma,
cataracts, and arteriosclerosis of the eye’s blood vessels.

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4. The newborn infant can hear sounds, but initial responses are reflexive. By
the toddler stage, the child is listening critically and beginning to imitate
sounds as language development begins.
5. Sensorineural deafness (presbycusis) is a normal consequence of aging.
6. Taste and smell are most acute at birth and decrease in sensitivity after the age
of 40 as the number of olfactory and gustatory receptors decreases.

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 CHAPTER 16

HEREDITY AND VARIATION

Human development – how and why we develop. We all start life as a single cell
formed by the fertilization of the female reproductive cell, the ovum or egg, by the male
reproductive cell, the spermatozoan. The fertilized cell which is known as the zygote,
contains all the heredity potentials which later develop into traits. We cannot add to, nor
subtract from, these potentials, among which are physical and mental traits.

Chromosomes and Genes

The heredity units we receive from our parent and transmit to our offspring are
cause by structures known as chromosomes, which are formed in the nucleus of each cell
in the body. Most body cells contain 46 chromosomes. The human being receives 23
chromosomes from the father and sperms and 23 chromosomes from the mother’s ovum.
Each chromosomes Is composed of many individual heredity units called genes. Genes is
a segment of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which actual carries of genetic information.
DNA molecule looks like a twisted ladder or a simple sugar. It has four bases adenine,
quinine, thymine and cytosine, (A,G,T,C). DNA is composed of phosphate and sugar. A
is always pairs with T and G always pairs with C, genes like chromosomes, exists in pairs

Dominant and Recessive Genes

Either gene of a gene pair can be a dominant gene or a recessive gene. When both
numbers of a gene pair are dominant, the individual manifests the form of the traits
specified by these dominant genes. When one gene is dominant and the other recessive,
the dominant gene again determines the form of the trait. Ex. Some are carried by
recessive genes are baldness hemophilia. Not all gene pairs follow the dominant gene.
The effects of this disease involves a degeneration of certain areas in the brain, lose their
ability to walk and to control their movements, mental ability or even death. This disease
usually strikes when a person is 30 to 40 years of age. HD victims will typically live for
10 to 15 years knowing what is happening to them.

Sex Determination

The sex of the offspring is determined at fertilization by the sex chromosomes of

his parents. Gonosomes are two kinds, an X chromosomes and Y chromosomes. All
mature ova carry X chromosomes half of the mature spermatozoa carry X chromosomes
and the other half is Y chromosomes. So the contribution of the parent is always an X
chromosomes. Male parent may neither an X or Y chromosomes. When X chromosomes
bearing ovum is fertilized by a sperm that bears and X chromosomes. The resulting

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offspring is a female (XX). If Y chromosomes bearing the sperm that fertilized the X
chromosomes bearing ovum, therefor offspring runs our a male (YY) since the mother’s
contribution is always constant, while the father contribution is either an X or a Y
chromosomes. Father’s contribution that is the determining factor is the sex of an
offspring.

Sex Linked Genes

Sex linked traits are the characteristics of an organisms related to their sex
chromosomes. The sex chromosomes, specifically the X chromosomes are not only
necessary for sex determination but they also carries some genes important for life
humans the most common example of an X chromosomes related gene is the gene for
hemophilia.

Blood Types and Transfusion

Blood Types Antigens Antibodies Capable of Can receive

Donating Blood blood from

A A anti-B A, AB A,O
B B anti-A B, AB B,O
AB A,B AB A,B,AB,O
O anti-A, anti-B A,B,AB,O O

Parent’ s Blood Type Possible Blood Type of Children

A + A
A+O
A+B A, B, AB, O
A + AB A, B, AB
A+O A, O
B+B B, O
B + AB A, B, AB
B+O B, O
AB + AB A, B, AB
AB + O A, B
O+O O

Prenatal period

The period of gestation or prenatal period takes place rise months on 280 days
during the period of the ovum, the single cell divides into millions of cells. The fertilized
egg, implants itself in the walls of the uterus. It is fail to do so, it will die from starvation.

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During the period of the embryo all the important structures and fetus starts to develop
and to function. By this time, it is possible to tell sex of the unborn child. The accessory
apparatus develop (1) the placenta which is the source of nourishment, (2) the umbilical
cord which is the only tangible connection between the unborn child and the another and
which carries the oxygen and nourishment from the mother and child and (3) the
amniotic sac which houses the fetus and protects it from the serious injury during the
prenatal period. This is the period most hazardous of the three. Most miscarriages occur
at this time. Miscarriages are caused by emotional shock, malnutrition and glandular
disturbance. Usually if a fertilized egg is defective it may be eliminated the natural way
through miscarriage during the early part of pregnancy. If the fertilized ovum is good but
the environment is defective, miscarriage occurs in the later part of pregnancy.

Period of the fetus This time up to birth, the structure that were formed during the
attains viability that is, the ability to live an independent existence outside the womb, by
the 6th or 7th months. He ahs 50-50 chance to survive it is known as pre-mature.
Premature births are associated with insufficiency of progesterone which is secreted by
the ovaries.

Sometimes, new characters that appear stable and heritable emerged in the
offspring of animals and plants. There are factors affecting mutation, these are (1)
radiation like X-rays and U.V. (2) mutagenic chemicals like mustard gas. (3) higher
temperature. Mutation in gametes maybe induced by abnormally high temperatures or by
chemical mutagens, automobile exhaust, mercury, many particles, food additives, certain
dyes, and tobacco smoke. Viruses and chemical compound foreign to a cell may also
cause mutations.

Identical Twins Accounting for about 1 in 250 births, identical twins are created when a
single egg is fertilized by one sperm. The egg splits into halves. Each develops into a
fetus with the same genetic composition.

Fraternal Twins Twice as common as identical, fraternal arise when two eggs are
released at once. If both are fertilized by separate sperm, two fetuses form. Genetically,
they are just ordinary siblings.

Half-identical Twins a rare type half-identical form when a precursor to an egg splits
evenly and is fertilized by two sperm. The fetuses have about half of their genes in
common-those from the mother half-identical arise when a precursor to a true ovum
divides into identical halves and is fertilized by two sperm, thus they are more alike than
fraternal, but less alike than identical.

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