Teori PD

THEORY AND PROCEDURE OF PD
MEASUREMENTS
TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

Theory and procedure of
PD measurements
‫“ ם‬abc” circuit and its consequences
‫ ם‬How to measure PD according to IEC 60270
‫ ם‬Applying IEC 60270 to distributed parameters
networks
‫ ם‬Techimp Technology
‫ ם‬Sensors for PD detection
‫ ם‬Measurement circuits
‫ ם‬Sensors for synchronization
‫ ם‬How TechImp software handle phase shift

“abc” circuit - consequences
EUT
▪ Every EUT (Equipment Under Test) or its
defected part can be drawn as a simple S
circuit reported below.
b
▪ Reference is generally made to the so- D a
called “abc” circuit:
c d
▪ c=capacitance of the cavity
▪ b=capacitance of the dielectric in series with s
the cavity
▪ a=capacitance of the remaining part of the
insulation system
S s
b
S s s
a  ε0 ε r  ε0 ε r b  ε0 ε r  ε0 ε r
D D Dd D
s a
c  ε0
d c
a  b c  b

▪ Analysis method:
1. Assume the EUT (Equipment Under Test) equivalent to an “abc”
circuit charged by a (DC) voltage generator with very large internal
impedance.
2. An electrostatic equilibrium exists prior PD
3. Since the current from the generator flows at a very low rate (if
compared with pulses with 100-200 ns time length) we consider
the generator branch as an open circuit
4. Assuming the generator branch as an open circuit, a new

electrostatic equilibrium needs be established after PD occurrence
5. The current from the generator, slowly, re-establish the former

electrostatic equilibrium

Prior PD PD occurs
The series of c and b is subjected A voltage imbalance in the a-b loop is
to applied voltage V. The abc created. Assuming voltages on a and b
loop voltage is balanced. unchanged and c short circuited (by
the PD):
S
b Vb=V-Vc
V b Vb=V-Vc V
a a
c PD
c Vc
Vc
Charge on b and c
Qb=QcbVb Vb=V-Vc V (Vc is small, but not 0)
Total charge in S
The generator branch as an open
Q=aV+ b(V-Vc)
circuit (during PD transient).
The total charge on a and b must
redistribute to eliminate imbalance.
Extinction of PD
The Kirchoff’s voltage law is (temporarily) re-established reaching a

new electrostatic equilibrium
The voltage at EUT terminals drops of an amount DV, but the charge Q
prior and after PD remains unchanged:
Q = a × V +b ×(V - Vc) = a ×(V -DV ) + b ×( V - DV )

Prior PD After PD
If we manipulate slightly this last

V-DV Q
b V-DV equation we get
a
b Vc  a  b  DV

▪ As a consequence of last equation the voltage drop DV at EUT due

to the PD can be achieved by removing from the EUT terminals
(total capacitance  a+b) the amount of charge:
qapp  a  b   DV  bVc  cVc  q PD
▪ This amount of charge is termed “apparent charge”, and is much

lower than the true PD charge (b<<c).
▪ By measuring at EUT terminal, we can only achieve the apparent

charge.
▪ Thus, we (generally) underestimate true PD charges
▪ NOTE: It is practically impossible to measure VC (is inside the

EUT, so in not accessible)

One more device, the coupling capacitor (Ck)
is needed to force PD current outside the
EUT.
Ck acts as the main EUT
EUT
capacitance, a, in the previous
but it is an external physical b
component (it is possible to

a
measure the current flowing Ck c
through it)
qapp  bVc  a  Ck  b   DV
We repeat the previous analysis,

results are formally equivalent:
The apparent charge (bVc) is not affected
Unless a capacitor with

1
capacitance much larger than the
0.9
EUT is connected in parallel with 0.8
the EUT itself, the Signal-to- 0.7
Noise Ratio can be low enough
qk/qapp
0.6
to prevent detection: LOWER 0.5
SENSITIVITY. 0.4
0.3
0.2
When a=Ck we get 50% of qapp 0.1
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Ck/a
Capacitances (typical values):
HV cable: hundreds of nF/km
Rotating machine: hundreds of nF – some uF
HV/MV transformer: hundreds of pF

▪ We do not measure the true PD charge, we measure the

apparent charge, instead.
▪ Apparent charge is much lower than PD charge

▪ Underestimation increases as the thickness of the insulation
increases
▪ Sensitivity can be low if Ck is not sufficiently large
▪ Propagation issues may further reduce the recorded

charge!

How to measure PD-IEC 60270
Operative procedure
▪ Target of this procedure is to provide an estimate of the

PD apparent charge it is possible by the following steps
1. Estimate (reconstruct) PD pulse DC component, normally

removed by
▪ Filters aimed at suppressing harmonics from the HV source
▪ High-pass characteristics of some couplers (e.g., HFCT)
2. Calibration, to correlate mV to pC
3. Choose the right detector

1. Estimate PD pulse DC component
▪ PD pulse DC component not available due to

characteristic or AC mains suppression filters and
couplers.
Response of QI filter:
▪ We need to reconstruct it! affected by PD pulse
waveform

1. Estimate PD pulse DC component
QI filter frequency range

PD pulse at the source
Kfactor
Wide or Narrow
band systems
PD pulse at
detector input
Frequency
▪ The QI filter operates in a region where PD spectrum has a magnitude

comparable to the DC component (Wide or Narrow band systems)
▪ We reconstruct (approximately) the DC component
▪ We lose information on high frequency components (hardware filter)

2. Calibration
QCAL Calibrator
EUT
Peak Quasi
VCAL detector integrator
HV source
HV
EUT
Peak Quasi
VPD detector integrator
kfactor= QCAL /VCAL  qAPP=kfactor x VPD

3. Choose the right detector
We do have three basic types of systems

(depending on filter characteristics):
▪ Wide band systems

▪ 30 kHz  lower limit frequency  100 kHz
▪ upper limit frequency  500 kHz
▪ 100 kHz  bandwidth  400 kHz
▪ Narrow band systems
▪ 9 kHz  bandwidth  30 kHz
▪ 100 kHz  midband frequency  400 kHz
▪ Ultra Wide Band (UWB)
▪ No recommendations given in IEC 60270

PD measurement innovation
Digital approach using UWB instruments
▪ With new technologies, ultra-wide band (UWB) systems

can be used
▪ The procedure is:
▪ Record and sample PD pulses with a sufficient bandwidth and an

adequate sampling rate.
▪ Perform apparent charge measurement by simulating via

software tools the quasi-integrator transfer function.

Two different 10pC pulses, from two different calibrators.
A
0.020 11
10
0.015 8
0.010 Hardware/software 6
0.005 filter 4
0.000 0
-2
-0.005
-4
-0.010 -6
-0.015 -8
-10
Pulse shape
information is not
-0.020 -11
0.0 100.0n 300.0n 500.0n 700.0n 900.0n 1.0u 0.0 2.0u 4.0u 6.0u 8.0u 10.0u
lost ONLY using

B
0.010 11
software filter
10
0.008
8
0.006
6
0.004 Hardware/software 4
0.002
0.000
filter 2
-0.002 -2
-4
-0.004
-6
-0.006
-8
-0.008
-10
-0.010 -11
0.0 100.0n 300.0n 500.0n 700.0n 900.0n 1.0u 0.0 2.0u 4.0u 6.0u 8.0u 10.0u

▪ UWB detection allows separation of different activities to be

achieved (including noise rejection)
▪ UWB are more affected by attenuation and dispersion (high

frequency components are attenuated and distorted by distributed
parameter systems)
▪ In high sensitivity systems (e.g. capacitive coupling and taps) UWB

can detect signals that are covered by broadcasting noise if
detected in the IEC band (UWB larger sensitivity).
▪ In practical systems:
Max PD Pulse spectral density: 1 - 5 MHz

Applying IEC 60270 to Distributed Parameters Networks ?
▪ In distributed parameter networks PD pulse can occur far away from the sensor,
where the calibrator pulse is normally injected
▪ Attenuation reduces PD pulse energy
▪ At the sensor, a large PD pulse can be mistaken for a PD pulse of much
lower amplitude
▪ Thus, its charge can be remarkably underestimated
▪ Apparent charge is not important (and has no physical meaning) in several
apparatus (cables, rotating machines, transformers)
▪ Sometimes harmful phenomena have lower magnitude than less important ones
(e.g. internal PD in an accessory vs surface PD on the terminal)
PD pulse Calibration pulse
Calibrator
Cable or winding PD signal

Applying 60270 to distrib. param.
networks? That is wrong!
▪ In distributed parameter networks:

– calibration
No physical meaning
– apparent charge in pC
should be replaced by
– sensitivity check Customer/manufacturer
– mV agreement
▪ Sensitivity check has the purpose of demonstrating the

sensitivity of the detection apparatus.

TECHIMP TECHNOLOGY

Techimp technology
Issues related to PD measurements
▪ Rejection of:
– Noise (background noise)
– External disturbance or PD (corona, PD on external surface of
insulators, PD in HV connections, PD in other systems nearby)
▪ Separation of:
– Noise
– Disturbance
– Multiple PD activities (different activities within the equipment
under test, e.g. slot discharges + end winding discharges in
rotating machines)
▪ Identification of PD phenomena (identify nature and
characteristics of PD activities)
▪ Risk assessment (evaluate the danger related to a given PD
phenomenon)

Techimp technology
Diagnostic procedure
PD recognition is the prerequisite for correct

diagnosis
Separation Identification Diagnosis
S I D
• Noise rejection • Potential defect • Risk assessment
..harmfulness
• Source separation • Maintenance program
..(one source at a ..
.. time) • Life extension

Techimp technology
Separation
Innovative diagnostics by means of PD measurements: System Layout
Hardware
Real Signal
UWB Digitizer
A
Sensor Electric to Optic signal
P
Output
Input
T Media
converter
W
Ti
Software
Fibre Optic link
Data Storage

Techimp technology
Separation
Innovative diagnostics by means of PD measurements: Data Flow
Entire Pattern
#1
T T
Pulse
#2
Class.
Feature
extraction
Data storage
(file)
F F
sub-pattern #1
T
Noise Rejection sub-pattern #2
PD Identification
F
Techimp technology
Classification by T-F mapping
Each acquired pulse is represented with 2 parameters
T Normalization of the pulse

Slow pulses L
~s t   s(t ) /
 s  d
2
Fast pulses
 L
 t 0   t~s t 2 dt
 0
 L

T   t  t 0  s t  dt
2~ 2
 0
 
 2 ~
 
2
 F   f S f df
 0
S(f) is the Fourier transform of s

L = time length of the pulse
F
Techimp technology
▪ Classification and Separation
Entire PD pattern T-F Map
A B
Sub-pattern A Sub-pattern B
Waveform A Waveform B

Techimp technology
▪ Sensitivity increase
• PD acquisition on a 220kV cable joint
• Apparently no PD are detected
• There are 2 cluster in the T-F map…
Red Cluster, characterized by high frequency pulses

Sub-Pattern Waveform
There is something below the noise!!
PD discovered below the noise level

Techimp technology
Tree-like identification of PD
(based on fuzzy logic)
3rd level (leaves):

apparatus specific defects
2nd level (branches):

characteristics of PD in internal voids (HV/LV)
1st level (root):

basic PD categories (internal, surface, corona)

Sensors for PD detection
Sensors for PD detection (wide/narrow bandwidth)
- Coupling Capacitor
- Quadrupole (PQ)
- Inductive sensors: High Frequency Current Transformer
- Antenna sensor

Capacitive coupler
▪ Epoxy-mica capacitor (1000 pF capacitance)
▪ Explicitly designed for on/off line PD tests on rotating machines, for
both spot measurements and monitoring applications (it can be
permanently installed).
▪ Can withstand AC and DC hipot tests
▪ From the coupler, both PD and synchronization signals can be derived
through a TechImp PQ sensor (described in the following).

Capacitive coupler
▪ Techimp coupler is provided by a BNC termination
to connect to the PDBase through a coaxial cable.
▪ The BNC pin outer pole needs to be earthed
through a proper impedance in order to:
▪ avoid that Vout is higher than the maximum
allowable output voltage
▪ achieve the desired ratio Vout/Vin at industrial
frequency (RMS voltage measurement and
synchronization)
▪ Possible impedances:
▪ Low voltage 1 k resistor
▪ Low voltage 1 µF capacitor (Vout/Vin=1/1000
if CC= 1 nF),.

Coupler: PQ accessory
Coupling
Capacitor (CC)
LPF Synchro Signal
(V out synchro )
Test Voltage
(V in )
HPF PD Signal
(V out PD )
TechImp PQ is a quadrupole suitable for tests on site and in factory.

It provides
▪ Synchronization
▪ PD signal
when connected to the HV circuit through an external HV coupling capacitor (Cc), e.g.:
▪ joint capacitive tap
▪ condenser bushing capacitive tap
▪ capacitive coupler
The signal coming from the sensor is filtered through

▪ a low pass filter, providing the synchronization signal;
▪ a high pass filter providing the PD signal (test voltage rejection).
Note: test voltage attenuation may vary according to the test voltage frequency.

Capacitive divider
▪ TechImp Capacitive Divider is a coupler suitable for PD
measurements during 50/60 Hz offline tests.
▪ The coupling capacitor is PD free (<1pC, 50kV, 50-60Hz).
▪ By means of an internal coupling capacitor (Cc), it provides

both synchronization and PD signal.
▪ Sync. signal: filtered through a Low Pass Filter
▪ PD signal: filtered through a High Pass Filter.

High Frequency Current Transformer
▪ TechImp Clamp High Frequency Current
Transformer is an inductive sensor for PD
measurements.
▪ Suitable for on/off line PD tests on many
electrical systems (cables, transformers,
Frequency Response
rotating machine, etc..).
▪ Main advantage: it can be clamped directly
on the ground connection of the system
▪ A BNC termination is available to connect
the Clamp the TechImp PD detection unit
through a coaxial cable.
▪ The arrow indicates the output voltage
(Vout) direction in comparison with the
input current (Iin) direction: when the
sensor is installed with the arrow directed to
ground, the detected voltage signal (Vout)
has the same phase as the input current
(Iin).
HFCT: applications
The HFCT can be applied on:
▪ HV cables:
▪ connected around the ground link in correspondence
of terminations and joints.
▪ - All the PD phenomena can be detected: corona, surface, internal.
▪ MV cables:
▪ connected around the ground link in correspondence of terminations,
▪ connected directly around the screened cable (NOT where there is no screen, i.e.
terminations).
▪ Electrical device provided with an accessible ground link (rotating machines, power
transformer, measurement transformer, …):
▪ connected around the ground link.
▪ - All the PD phenomena can be detected but the sensitivity is much lower than using
capacitive taps or capacitive divider.
▪ Bushings and cable joints provided by capacitive taps:
▪ connected in the shortcut of the capacitive tap (usually to perform monitoring or
permanent monitoring).

HFCT: advantages/disadvantages
Advantages:
▪ good sensitivity,
▪ very large bandwidth (1÷ 80 MHz), customized HFCT are now available with IEC
band included (0.1÷80 MHz),
▪ good immunity to high frequency disturbances,
▪ it can be connected directly around a MV cable,
▪ in case of breakdown of the electrical system, the induced 50/60 Hz is not
harmful for the acquisition system.
Disadvantages:
▪ It can be installed off-line in mostly cases,
▪ a ground link is required.

MV Cables
Sensors
and
forSwitchgears
PD detection
TEM ANTENNA
▪ Bandwidth: 100 MHz – 3 GHz stand alone

sensor
▪ Coupling: EM
▪ Positioning: close to the cable entrance in the
MV switchgear
▪ Applicability on MV switchgear: can detect
corona and surface discharges within the
switchgears.
▪ Accessories: Frequency shifter (Gain +20dB,
First order filter HP 100MHz)

TEV JUMPER
▪ Bandwidth: 1 – 300 MHz stand alone sensor

▪ Coupling: Capacitive
▪ Positioning: across the openings of the
cabinet
▪ Applicability on MV switchgear: can detect
corona and surface discharges inside the
switchgears
▪ Accessories: Optional Frequency shifter
(Gain +20dB, First order filter HP 100MHz)

MV Cables
Sensors
and
forSwitchgears
PD detection
HORN ANTENNA
▪ Bandwidth: 500 MHz – 3 GHz

▪ Coupling: EM
▪ Positioning: on the insulating ring of GIS
systems or HV terminations
▪ Applicability on GIS: can detect partial
discharges within the switchgears/termination
▪ Accessories: Frequency shifter (Gain +60dB,
First order filter HP 300MHz)

Measurement circuits
Types of Measurement Circuits
EUT
Coupling
Capacitor
Direct
circuit
Indirect
circuit

Direct Circuit
EUT
Coupling
Capacitor
Direct
circuit

Indirect Circuit
EUT
Coupling
Capacitor
Indirect
circuit

Sensors for synchronization
▪ Rogowsky Coils
▪ Capacitive divider (also as PD sensor)
▪ Capacitive coupler + PQ
▪ External signal coming from power grid or machine VT
Note: PDCheck / PDBaseII requirements

Min syncro voltage: 1 V
Max synchro voltage: 200 V
Frequency range: 0.1÷1000 Hz

Rogowsky Coil
The probes provide a linear voltage output that is an
exact replica of the input waveform for three user
selectable input current ranges of 20, 200 or 2000 A.
Can be installed around:
‫ם‬ Supply cable  phase shift between synchronization signal and line
voltage (current is not in phase with voltage)  usually negligible
‫ם‬ Ground lead of the cable  capacitive current  synchronization

signal is 90° anticipated with respect to line voltage

Coupling Capacitor and Capacitive Divider
Capacitive Divider and Coupling Capacitor, associated to the

Quadrupole, can be use to synchronize the TECHIMP acquisition system.
Capacitive Divider Coupling Capacitor and Quadrupole

Line Synchro 230/12 V transformer
The Line Synchro is a transformer 220/12V.

The purpose of this sensor is to pick up the
synchronization signal needed by Techimp
acquisition unit through the LV network.
It can be used for short cables where the
capacitive current is not enough to get synch
signal through the LFCT sensor

Techimp software – phase shift
Synchronization and phase shifting
Measured pattern
(V) 2.50 (V) 2.50
2.00 2.00
Positive (+90°) phase
1.00 1.00
shift in the software:
0.00 0.00
-1.00 -1.00
PD are shifted in 90° in
advance (the pattern is
-2.00 -2.00
-2.50 -2.50
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
shifted backwards)
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Phase (deg) Phase (deg)
Action: advance pattern
(V) 2.50
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00
-2.00
90°
-2.50
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Phase (deg)

Synchronization and Phase shifting
VSYNCHRONIZATION
▪ The value of Phase Shift
should match the phase
advance between the 
synchronization signal and
the voltage applied to the
VEUT
equipment under test (EUT).
Phase shift = 


Case 1: Three phase On-line PD measurement
▪ Synchronization voltage picked up

from Rogowski coil around phase R
(load current, PF ≈ negligible) VR=VSync =
sync. voltage
• Phase shift = 0 – PF
PD channel relevant to phase R 120°
VT VS
PD channel relevant to phase S 240°

PD channel relevant to phase T


Case 2: Three phase On-line PD measurement
‫ ם‬Synchronization voltage picked up from

Rogowski coil around the ground link of
phase R (capacitive current, anticipum 90°) VR
• Phase shift = 90
VSync 120°
PD channel relevant to phase R
VT VS
PD channel relevant to phase S 240°

PD channel relevant to phase T

Thanks
for
your
attention

Teori PD

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Teori PD

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THEORY AND PROCEDURE OF PD

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

4. Assuming the generator branch as an open circuit, a new

5. The current from the generator, slowly, re-establish the former

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

The Kirchoff’s voltage law is (temporarily) re-established reaching a

Q = a × V +b ×(V - Vc) = a ×(V -DV ) + b ×( V - DV )

If we manipulate slightly this last

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ As a consequence of last equation the voltage drop DV at EUT due

qapp  a  b   DV  bVc  cVc  q PD

▪ This amount of charge is termed “apparent charge”, and is much

▪ By measuring at EUT terminal, we can only achieve the apparent

▪ Thus, we (generally) underestimate true PD charges

▪ NOTE: It is practically impossible to measure VC (is inside the

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

component (it is possible to

We repeat the previous analysis,

Unless a capacitor with

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ We do not measure the true PD charge, we measure the

▪ Apparent charge is much lower than PD charge

▪ Sensitivity can be low if Ck is not sufficiently large

▪ Propagation issues may further reduce the recorded

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ Target of this procedure is to provide an estimate of the

1. Estimate (reconstruct) PD pulse DC component, normally

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ PD pulse DC component not available due to

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

QI filter frequency range

▪ The QI filter operates in a region where PD spectrum has a magnitude

▪ We lose information on high frequency components (hardware filter)

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

kfactor= QCAL /VCAL  qAPP=kfactor x VPD

We do have three basic types of systems

▪ Wide band systems

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ With new technologies, ultra-wide band (UWB) systems

▪ The procedure is:

▪ Record and sample PD pulses with a sufficient bandwidth and an

▪ Perform apparent charge measurement by simulating via

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

lost ONLY using

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ UWB detection allows separation of different activities to be

▪ UWB are more affected by attenuation and dispersion (high

▪ In high sensitivity systems (e.g. capacitive coupling and taps) UWB

Max PD Pulse spectral density: 1 - 5 MHz

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

PD pulse Calibration pulse

Cable or winding PD signal

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

▪ In distributed parameter networks:

▪ Sensitivity check has the purpose of demonstrating the

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE

PD recognition is the prerequisite for correct

Separation Identification Diagnosis

TECHIMP TRAINING COURSE