PTC Electronic Fundamentals Module

PIA
Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

Category – A/B1

MODULE 4: ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
Sub Module 4.1–SEMICONDUCTORS
Sub Module 4.2 –PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
Sub Module 4.3 –SERVOMECHANISM

ISO: 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M04/01 Rev. 00
Mar 2014
PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
Category – A/B1

List of Amendments

Sub-Module &
Amendment No. Issue Date: Date Inserted: Inserted By: Date Removed: Removed By:
Pages:
Issue 01, Rev-00 All 31 March 2014

Mar 2014
Category – A/B1
MODULE 4
Sub Module 4.1
SEMICONDUCTORS

Mar 2014
Category – A/B1
DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 19
Contents DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 20
SERIES‐CONNECTED DIODES ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 20
INTRODUCTION‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 3
PARALLEL CONNECTED DIODES ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 22
ELECTRONICS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 3
FOR INCREASING CURRENT CARRYING CAPABILITY ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 22
IMPORTANCE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 3
Rectification ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 3 DIODE TESTING ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 23
Amplification ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 4 Diode Checking Function ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 23
Control ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 4
Oscillators ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 4 RECTIFIER DIODES ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 24
DIODES ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 5 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 24
PROPERTIES OF SEMI –CONDUCTORS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 5 RECTIFICATION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 25
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 5 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 25
DOPING ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 6 EFFECT OF CENTER TAPPED SECONDARY ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 25
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 6
N‐type Semiconductor ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 6 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 26
N‐type Conductivity ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 7 INTRODUCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 26
P‐type Semiconductor ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 8 WORKING OF SCR ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 27
P‐type Conductivity ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 10
Conclusion ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 28
HOLE CURRENT ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 10
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 30
ENERGY BAND DESCRIPTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 11
MULTI SEGMENT LED ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 30
MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 12
PHOTO DIODES ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 31
P‐N JUNCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 12
INTRODUCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 31
FORMATION OF PN‐JUNCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 13
Properties of PN‐Junction ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 14 VARISTORS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 34
BIASING A PN‐JUNCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 15 What varistors do not do ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 35
Hazards ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 35
1. Forward biasing. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 16
2. Reverse biasing. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 17 TRANSISTORS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 37
Conclusion ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 18
INTRODUCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 37
DIODE SYMBOL ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 19 CONSTRUCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 37

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only
4.1 - i Mar 2014
Category – A/B1

UNBIASED TRANSISTOR: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 37 DISADVANTAGES: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 46
BIASED TRANSISTOR ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 39 OPERATION OF LOGIC CIRCUITS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 47
Transistor Circuit notations: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 39 INVERTER ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 47
TRANSISTOR REGIONS OF OPERATION: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 40 NAND GATE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 48
TRANSISTOR CURRENTS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 40 AND GATE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 49
IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 41 NOR GATE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 50
OR GATE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 51
IDENTIFYING A TRANSISTOR ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 42
FLIP FLOP CIRCUITS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Error! Bookmark not defined. THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 55
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 45 INTRODUCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 55
INTRODUCTION ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 45 THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 55

Integrated Circuit ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 45 SLEW RATE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 57
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 46 MAXIMUM FREQUENCY FOR FULL OUTPUT VOLTAGE ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 57
MAXIMUM OUTPUT VOLTAGE OBTAINABLE AT A GIVEN FREQUENCY: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 58
ADVANTAGES: ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 46 RESPONSE AND BANDWIDTH ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ 58


4.1 - ii Mar 2014
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 4.1 – Diodes
INTRODUCTION
In this fast developing society, electronics has come to stay as Importance
the most important branch of engineering. Electronic devices Electronics has gained much importance due to its numerous
are being used in almost all the industries for quality control and applications in industry. The electronic devices are capable of
automation and they are fast replacing the present vast army of performing (yet not limited to) the following functions:
workers engaged in processing and assembling in the factories.
Great strides taken in the industrial applications of electronics Rectification
during the recent years have demonstrated that this versatile
The conversion of A.C. into D.C. is called rectification.
tool can be of great importance in increasing production,
Electronic devices can convert A.C. power into D.C. power
efficiency and control.
(See Fig 4.1) with very high efficiency. This D.C. supply can
The rapid growth of electronic technology offers a formidable be used for charging storage batteries, field supply of D.C.
challenge to the beginner, who may be almost paralyzed by the generators, electroplating etc.
mass of details. However, the mastery of fundamentals can
simplify the learning process to a great extent. The purpose of
this chapter is to present the elementary knowledge in order to
enable the readers to follow the subsequent chapters.
ELECTRONICS
The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction

through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor is known as
*electronics. Electronics essentially deals with electronic
devices and their utilization. Fig 4.1.1
An electronic device is that in which current flows through a

vacuum or gas or semiconductor. Such devices have valuable
properties which enable them to function and behave as the
friend of man today.

4.1 - 3 Mar 2014
Amplification Oscillators
The process of raising the strength of a weak signal is Electronic devices can convert D.C. power into A.C. power
known as amplification. Electronic devices can accomplish of any frequency and vice versa. When performing the
the job of amplification and thus act as amplifiers (See Fig conversion from D.C to A.C, they are known as oscillators.
4.2). The amplifiers are used in a wide variety of ways. For The oscillators are used in a wide variety of ways. For
example, an amplifier is used in a radio set where the weak example, electronic high frequency heating is used for
signal is amplified so that it can be heard loudly. annealing and hardening.
Similarly, amplifiers are used in public address system,

television etc.
Fig 4.1.2
Control
Electronic devices find wide applications in automatic
control. For example, speed of a motor, voltage across a
refrigerator etc. can be automatically controlled with the
help of such devices.

4.1 - 4 Mar 2014
DIODES current flows composing of free electrons& holes, due to

breaking up of some covalent bonds by thermal energy and
electric field as shown in Fig. 4.13.
Properties Of Semi –Conductors
The materials which electrical conduction properties lies

between good conductors and insulators are called
semiconductors. Semiconductors are basically the elements
which have valency of 4 or they have four electrons in their
outermost shell. The two most frequently used semiconductor
materials in electronics are germanium and silicon. Both the
elements have the similar crystal structure and similar
characteristics. The importance of semiconductor materials has
evolved from the fact that their resistance value can greatly be
altered by the application of voltage across them.
In electronics only the outer most electron shell of an atom is of

interest, since it contains the loosely held "valence" electrons,
which are easily dislodged to become electric current carriers.
Fig. 4.1.3
Intrinsic Semiconductor As the holes reach the negative terminal B, electrons enter the
A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is known as an semiconductor crystal near the terminal and combine with
intrinsic semiconductor and it behaves more like an insulator. In holes, thus cancelling them. At the same time, the loosely held
an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, some electrons near the positive terminal ‘A‘ are attracted away from
hole-electron pairs are created because of thermal energy. their atoms into the positive terminal.
However, when an electric field is applied across it a small

4.1 - 5 Mar 2014
Doping Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are arsenic (Atomic
No. 33), phosphorous and antimony (Atomic. No.51). these
Doping is a process of adding impurities in to an intrinsic
pentavalent impurities are also termed as donor impurities
semiconductor material for increasing the number of free because they donate or provide free electrons.
electrons or Holes in it. and when a crystal has been doped, it is
called an extrinsic semiconductor. To explain the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a
pure germanium crystal. We know that a germanium atom has
Extrinsic Semiconductor four valence electrons and when a pentavalent impurity like
arsenic is added in the crystal, its four valence electrons form
covalent bonds with four neighboring germanium atoms and the
In order to be useful in electronic devices, and to significantly fifth valence electron of arsenic atom finds no place in the co-
increase the conducting properties of Intrinsic semiconductor valent bond and thereby it becomes a free electron.
materials, a small controlled amount of suitable impurity is
added by the doping process and when a crystal has been
doped it is called an extrinsic semiconductor.
Generally, for 108atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is

added.
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic

semiconductors are classified into:
(i) N-type semiconductor
(ii) P-type semiconductor
N-type Semiconductor
An n-type semiconductor material is formed when a small

amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor. The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a
large number of free electrons in the semiconductor crystal.

4.1 - 6 Mar 2014
The energy band description of n-type semi-conductor is shown
in fig 4.1.5.
FIGURE 4.1.4
The following points may be noted carefully: Fig. 4.1.5
(i) Many new free electrons called Majority Carriers are N-type Conductivity
produced by the addition of pentavalent impurity.
The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is
predominantly by the Majority Carriers free electrons i.e.
(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generates
negative charges and is called n-type or electron type
a few hole-electron pairs. However, the number of
conductivity. To understand n-type conductivity, refer to Fig.
free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity
4.1.6. When p.d. is applied across the n-type semiconductor,
far exceeds the number of holes. It is due to this
the free electrons (donated by impurity) in the crystal will be
predominance of electrons over holes due to which
directed towards the positive terminal, constituting electric
current. As the current flow through the crystal is by free
holes are called Minority carriers.
electrons which are carriers of negative charge, therefore, this
type of conductivity is called negative or n-type conductivity. It
may be noted that conduction is similar as in ordinary metals
like copper.

4.1 - 7 Mar 2014
three co-valet bonds can be formed and the fourth bond is

incomplete, being short of one electron. This missing electron is
called a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole
is created. A small amount of gallium provides millions of holes.
Fig. 4.1.8 shows the energy band description of the p-type
semiconductor. The addition of trivalent impurity has produced a
large number of holes in the valence band. However, there are
a few conduction band electrons due to thermal energy
associated with room temperature. It is due to the
Fig. 4.1.6 predominance of holes over free electrons that Holes are called
Majority Carriers and the material is called p-type
semiconductor (p stands for positive).
P-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor. The addition
of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes in the
semiconductor. Typical examples of trivalent impurities are
Gallium (Atomic No. 31), Bismuth and indium (Atomic No. 49).
Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductor are known
as acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept
the electrons.
To explain the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a

pure germanium crystal. When a small amount of trivalent
impurity like gallium is added to germanium crystal then each
atom of gallium fits into the germanium crystal but now only Fig. 4.1.7

4.1 - 8 Mar 2014
Fig. 4.1.8

4.1 - 9 Mar 2014
P-type Conductivity bond to another unlike the n-type where current conduction is
The current conduction in p-type semiconductor is by free electrons.
predominantly by Majority carriers holes or. Positive charges
HOLE CURRENT
and is called p-type or hole-type conductivity. To understand p-
At room temperature, some of the co-valet bonds in pure
type conductivity, refer to Fig. 4.1.9.
semiconductor break, setting up free electrons. Under the
influence of electric field, these free electrons constitute electric
current. At the same time, another current – the hole current –
also flows in the semiconductor. When a covalent bond is
broken due to thermal energy, the removal of one electron
leaves a vacancy i.e. a missing electron in the covalent bond.
This missing electron is called a hole or virtual charge which
acts as a positive charge. For one electron set free, one hole is
created. Therefore, thermal energy creates hole-electron pairs;
there being as many holes as the free electrons. The current
conduction by holes can be explained as follows:
The hole shows a missing electron. Suppose the valence

electron at L (See Fig. 4.21.) has become free electron due to
thermal energy. This creates a hole in the co-valet bond at L.
Fig. 4.1.9 The hole is a strong center of attraction for the electron. A
valence electron (say at M) from nearby co-valet bond comes to
fill in the hole at L. This results in the creation of hole at M.
Another valence electron (say at N) in turn may leave its bond
When p.d.is applied to the p-type semiconductor, the holes to fill the hole at M, thus creating a hole at N. Thus the hole
(donated by the impurity) are shifted from one co-valet bond to having a positive charge has moved from L to N i.e. towards the
another. As the holes are positively charged, therefore, they are negative terminal of supply. This constitutes hole current.
directed towards the negative terminal, constituting what is
known as hole current. It may be noted that in p-type
conductivity, the valence electrons move from one co-valet

4.1 - 10 Mar 2014
It may be noted that hole current is due to the movement of Energy Band Description
valence electrons from one covalent bond to another bond. The hole current can be beautifully explained in terms of energy
bands. Suppose due to thermal energy, an electron leaves the
The reader may wonder why to call it a hole current when the
valence band to enter into the conduction band as shown in Fig.
conduction is again by electrons (of course valence electrons!).
4.22.This leaves a vacancy at L. Now the valence electron at M
The answer is that the basic reason for current flow is the
comes to fill the hole at L. The result is that hole disappears at
presence of holes in the co-valet bonds. Therefore, it is more
Land appears at M. Next, the valence electron at N moves into
appropriate to consider the current as the movement of holes. the hole at M. Consequently, hole is created at N. It is clear that
valence electrons move along the path PNML whereas holes
move in the opposite direction i.e. along the path LMNP.
Fig. 4.1.10
Fig. 4.1.11

4.1 - 11 Mar 2014

Majority and Minority Carriers
It has already been discussed that due to the effect of impurity,
n-type material has a large number of free electrons whereas p-
type material has a large number of holes. However, it may be
recalled that even at room temperature, some of the co-valet
bonds break, thus releasing an equal number of free electrons
and holes. An n-type material has its share of electron-hole
Fig. 4.1.12
pairs (released due to breaking of bonds at room temperature)
but in addition has a much larger quantity of free electrons due
to the effect of impurity. These impurity-caused free electrons
are not associated with holes. Consequently, an n-type material
has a large number of free electrons and a small number of

holes as shown in Fig. 4.23. The free electrons in this case are
considered majority carriers—since the majority portion of Fig. 4.1.13
current in n-type material is by the flow of free electrons — and
the holes are the minority carriers. Similarly, in a p-type
material, holes outnumber the free electrons as shown in Fig.
4.24. Therefore, holes are the majority carriers and free
P-N JUNCTION
electrons are the minority carriers.
When a p-type semiconductor is physically joined to n-type
semiconductor, the contact surface is called pn-junction. Most
semiconductor devices contain one or more pn-junctions. The
pn-junction is of great importance because it is in effect, the
control element for semiconductor devices. A thorough
knowledge of the formation and properties of pn-junction can
enable the reader to understand the semiconductor devices.

4.1 - 12 Mar 2014
Formation of PN-Junction
In actual practice, the characteristic properties of pn-junction will
not be apparent if a p-type block is just brought in contact with
n-type block. In fact, pn-junction is fabricated by special
techniques. One common method of making pn-junction is
called ALLOYING. In this method, a small block of indium
(trivalent impurity) is placed on an n-type germanium slab as
shown in Fig. 41.14 (i). The system is then heated to a
temperature of about 500ºC. The indium and some of the
germanium melt to form a small puddle of molten germanium-
indium mixture as shown in Fig. 4.1.14 (ii). The temperature is
then lowered and puddle begins to solidify. Under proper
conditions, the atoms of indium impurity will be suitably adjusted
in the germanium slab to form a single crystal. The addition of

indium overcomes the excess of electrons in the n-type
germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type region. AS
the process goes on, the remaining molten mixture becomes
Fig. 4.1.14
increasingly rich in indium. When all germanium has-been re-
deposited, the remaining material appears as indium button
which is frozen on to the outer surface of the crystallized portion
as shown in Fig. 4.25 (iii). This button serves as a suitable base

for soldering on leads.

4.1 - 13 Mar 2014
upon several factors including the type of semiconductor
material, the amount of doping and temperature. The typical
Properties of PN-Junction
At the instant of pn-junction formation, the free electrons near
the junction in the n-region begin to diffuse across the junction barrier potential is approximately:
into the p-region where they combine with holes near the
junction. The result is that n-region near the junction loses free For silicon, V0= 0.7 V; For germanium, V0= 0.3 V
electrons as they diffuse into the junction. This creates a layer
of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction. As the
electrons move across the junction, the p-region loses holes as
the electrons and holes combine. The result is that there is a
layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) and positive ions in the
p-type and n-type materials near the junction hindering further
diffusion of electrons from both the regions. These two layers of
positive and negative charges form the depletion region (or
depletion layer). The term depletion is due to the fact that near
the junction, the region is depleted (i.e. emptied) of charge
carries (free electrons and holes). It may be noted that depletion
layer is formed very quickly and is very thin compared to the n-
region and the p-region. For clarity, the width of the depletion
layer is shown exaggerated.
Once pn-junction is formed and depletion layer created, the

diffusion of free electrons stops. In other words, the depletion
region acts as a barrier to the further movement of free
electrons across the junction. The positive and negative
charges set up an electric field. This is shown by a black arrow
in Fig. 4.1.15 (ii). The electric field is a barrier to the free
majority carriers movement, due to development of a potential Fig. 4.1.15
difference across the depletion layer and is called barrier
potential(V0). The barrier potential of a pn-junction depends

4.1 - 14 Mar 2014
Fig. 4.1.16
The potential (V0) distribution curve
BIASING A PN-JUNCTION
In electronics, the term bias refers to the use of d.c. voltage to
establish certain operating conditions for an electronic device. In
relation to a pn junction, there are two bias conditions:
1. Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing

4.1 - 15 Mar 2014
1. Forward biasing.
When external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a
direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting high
current flow, it is called forward biasing. To apply forward bias,
we connect positive terminal of the battery to p-type and
negative terminal to n-type as shown in Fig. 4.28.
With forward bias to pn junction, the following points are worth

noting:
(i) Applied forward potential establishes an electric field

against the field due to barrier potentialresulting in
the weakness and reduction of the resultant field and
consequently the barrier height.
(ii) The potential barrier voltage is reduced and at some

forward voltage ( 0.3 V Ge and 0.7 V Si), it is
eliminated altogether.
(iii) The junction offers very low resistance almost zero

called forward resistance, Rf, enabling forward
current to flow.
(iv) The magnitude of forward current depends upon the

applied forward voltage.

4.1 - 16 Mar 2014
(iv) The electrons travel through p-region as valence

electrons i.e. Current in the p-region is by holes.
(v) When these valence electrons reach the left end of

crystal, they flow into the positive terminal of the
battery.
From the above discussion, it is concluded that in n-type region,

current is carried by free electrons whereas in p-type region, it is
carried by holes. However, in the external connecting wires, the
current is carried by free electrons.
2. Reverse biasing.
When the external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such
a direction that potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse
Fig. 4.1.17
biasing. To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the
battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type as shown in Fig.
The mechanism of current flow in a forward biased pn-junction 4.1.18. It is clear that applied reverse voltage establishes an
can be summed up as under:
(i) The free electrons from the negative terminal electric field which acts in the same direction as the field due to
continue to pour into the n-region while the free potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is
electrons in the n-region move towards the junction. strengthened and the barrier height is increased as shown in
Fig. 4.1.18.the increased potential barrier prevents the flow of
(ii) The electrons travel through the n-region as free- charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high resistance path
electrons i.e. current in n-region is by free electrons is established for the entire circuit and hence the current does
not flow. With reverse bias to pn junction, the following points
(iii) When these electrons reach the junction, they are worth noting.
combine with holes and become valence electrons.

4.1 - 17 Mar 2014
The potential barrier is increased. Conclusion

From the above discussion, it follows that with reverse bias to
(i) The junction offers very high resistance almost an
the junction, a high resistance path is established and hence no
open circuit called reverse resistance, Rr to current
current flow occurs. On the other hand, with forward bias to the
flow.
junction, a low resistance path is set up and hence current flows
(ii) No current flows in the circuit due to the
in the circuit.
establishment of high resistance path.
Note. The forward current through a pn-junction is due to the

majority carriers produced by the impurity. However, reverse
current is due to the minority carriers produced due to breaking
of some co-valent bonds at room temperature.
FIGURE 4.1.18

4.1 - 18 Mar 2014
DIODE SYMBOL
A pn junction is known as a semi-conductor or *crystal diode.
The outstanding property of a semiconductor diode to conduct
current in one direction only permits it to be used as a rectifier.
A diode is usually represented by the schematic symbol shown
below.
The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of easier

conventional current flow. A diode has two terminals an anode
and a cathode. For understanding biasing of a semiconductor FIG. 4.1.21
diode we can say that:
(i) If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of

the symbol, the diode is forward biased.

(ii) If the arrowhead of diode symbol is negative w.r.t.
bar, the diode is reverse biased.
Diode Equivalent Circuits
Following table depicts the modeling of Rectifier Diodes for
ease of understanding.

4.1 - 19 Mar 2014
Diodes In Series And Parallel

Series-Connected Diodes
For increasing reverse blocking voltage capabilities of a
circuit the diodes are connected in series.
In high-voltage applications one commercially available diode is

unable to meet the required voltage ratings of a circuit.
Connecting diodes in series increases the reverse blocking
capabilities of the diodes. Each diode must carry the same
leakage current, and have the same blocking voltage. However,
in reality even two diodes of the same part number will not have
the same characteristics due to tolerances in the production
process. This is shown for two diodes of the same part number
connected in series in Figure 4.1.26, along with their V-I
characteristics. This gives rise to problems when diodes are Figure 4.1.26 : Two Series Connected Diodes in Reverse Bias
connected in series, since the blocking voltages will differ
slightly.
From the graphs it can be seen that in the forward-biased This problem is solved by forcing equal voltage sharing by
condition, both diodes conduct the same amount of current and connecting a resistor across each diode as shown in figure
the forward voltage drop for each diode would be almost equal. 4.1.27.The values of R1 & R2 are selected in accordance with
In the reversed-biased condition, however, where each diode the reverse breakdown voltages so that it maintains constant
has to carry the same leakage current, the blocking voltage and same potential drop across both the diodes. Due to the
would differ significantly as shown in figure 4.1.26-b. equal voltage sharing the leakage current of each diode would
be different as shown in figure 2-b.
For same IS the BV differs
For same BV the IS differs.

4.1 - 20 Mar 2014
then IB flows throughD2 & R1.
But we need to get,
VD1 = VD2 ------------------------------------ (2)
We know that if VD1 = VD2 then I1 = I2 and no current flows

through the shorting path.
By this design VD1 & VD2 remains same by providing reverse

current alternate paths, thereby reverse block voltage of the
circuit does not decreases as it was in the case of figure 4.1.26,
however the leakage current value for each diode is changed.
Now we know that,
Figure 4.1.27: Series-Connected Diodes with Steady-State IR1 = and IR2 =
The relationship between the resistors for equal voltage sharing Hence using equation (1) under conditions of equal voltage
is developed below sharing yields
In this arrangement, the total leakage current must be shared by

a diode and a resistor. Hence
IS = IS1 + IR1 = IS2 + IR2 ------------------- (1)

IS1 + = IS2 + --------------------- (3)
Where IS1=IS + ISL is the reverse leakage or saturation current of
D1 and IR1 is the current flow through R1. Hence the relationship between the two resistors for equal
If reverse resistance of D1 decreases then IA flows through D1 Voltage sharing is given by equation (3)
& R2 and similarly when reverse resistance of D2 decreases

4.1 - 21 Mar 2014
PARALLEL CONNECTED DIODES

If the current I1through diode D1 rises, then the voltage across
For increasing current carrying capability inductor VL1 (Recall VL = L di/dt) increases, causing a voltage of
In high power applications, diodes are connected in parallel to opposite polarity to be induced across inductor L2. This causes
increase the current carrying capability in order to meet circuit a low impedance path for current flow through diode D2, hence
requirements. In parallel operation of diodes, current sharing more current is shifted through this diode.
depends on the magnitude of their forward voltage drops.
Uniform current sharing can be achieved either by the use of
equal inductances or by connecting current sharing resistors,
the latter option may not be practical due to power losses
incurred by the resistive components. Selecting diodes with
equal forward voltage drops would minimize the unequal
sharing of current.
For steady state current sharing, the circuit of figure 3a, with
series resistors is used. The values of R1 & R2 are selected
according to the difference in characteristics of the two diodes in
respect of their reverse breakdown voltages and the resistances
are selected in manner to make their reverse breakdown
voltages equal so that both the diodes share equal amount of
reverse current. If somehow current in any branch increases Figure 4.1.28
than a specific value, the drop across branch Resistance also
The dynamic current sharing circuit has an advantage over
increases causing an increase of the branch temperature. As
steady state current sharing circuit in the sense that due to
diode is of negative temperature coefficient thereby cumulative
some fault if current I1 increases than unlike steady state, this
increase of current takes place until the diode is burnt, therefore
induces an emf in L2 in a direction as to decrease Z2 thereby
only steady state stability is possible.
causing I2 to increase, as a result the load on D1 decreases and
Dynamic current sharing is achieved with the use of coupled the circuit continues to work without the burning of D1; which
inductors as indicated by figure 3b. otherwise if not fitted with L1 & L2 in the circuit would have
burnt with regenerative increase of current in D1 coz of increase
in temperature

4.1 - 22 Mar 2014
DIODE TESTING
The condition of a semiconductor diode can be determined
quickly using
(1) A digital display meter (DDM) with a diode checking function,
(2) The ohmmeter section of a multimeter, or
(3) A curve tracer.
Diode Checking Function

A digital display meter with a diode checking capability appears
in Fig. 1.42. Note the small diode symbol as the bottom option
of the rotating dial. When set in this position and hooked up as
shown in Fig. 1.43a, the diode should be in the “on” state and
the display will provide an indication of the forward-bias voltage
such as 0.67 V(for Si). The meter has an internal constant
current source (about 2 mA) that will define the voltage level as
indicated in Fig. 1.43b. An OL indication with the hookup of Fig.
1.43a reveals an open (defective) diode. If the leads are
reversed, an OL indication should result due to the expected
open-circuit equivalence for the diode. In general, therefore, an
OL indication in both directions is an indication of an open or
defective diode.
Fig. 4.1.28

4.1 - 23 Mar 2014

Fig. 4.1.29 Fig 4.1.33: Half wave rectifier
RECTIFIER DIODES
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Figure 1a shows a circuit known as a half wave rectifier. On the

positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the diode is forward-
biased for all instantaneous voltages greater than the offset
voltage (approximately 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for
germanium diodes). This produces approximately a half sine
wave of voltage across the load resistor. To simplify our
discussions, we will use the ideal-diode approximation because
the peak source voltage is usually much larger than the offset Fig 4.1.34: Rectified output
voltage of the diode. With this in mind, the peak of rectified
voltage is equal to the peak secondary voltage, as shown in Fig.
1b. On the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse-biased.
Ignoring leakage current (the same as reverse current), the load
current drops to zero; this is why the load voltage drops to zero
between 180° and 360°.
Numerically for a half wave

4.1 - 24 Mar 2014
For o0 ≤ wt ≤ 1800 i = Im Sin wt
Full Wave Rectifier
Figure 3a shows a full wave rectifier. During the positive half cycle
For 1800 ≤ wt ≤ 3600 i = 0 where Im is the peak value
of secondary voltage, the upper diode is forward-biased and the
lower diode is reverse-biased; therefore, the current is through
Mathematically, the average value =
the upper diode, the load resistor, and the upper half winding
(Fig. 3c). During the negative half cycle, current is through the
Iav = lower diode, the load resistor, and the lower half winding (Fig.
3d). Notice that the load voltage has the same polarity in Fig. 3c
and d because the current through the load resistor is in the
Iav =
same direction no matter which diode is conducting. This is why
the load voltage is the full-wave rectified signal shown in Fig.
= as no current flows for half cycle 3b.
Effect of Center Tapped Secondary

A full-wave rectifier is like two back-to-back half-wave rectifiers
= +0
with one rectifier handling the first half cycle and the other
handling the alternate half cycle. Because of the center-tapped
= Im cos 0 secondary winding, each diode circuit receives only half the
secondary voltage. Assuming ideal diodes, this means the peak
= Im 1 1 = Im = Im rectified output voltage is
= 0.318 Im Vout(peak) = 0.5 V2(Peak)
Rectification VRL = 0.5 V2M
The important thing to notice about the half-wave rectifier is this: The current through each diode is half the dc load current.
It has converted the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
In other words, the load voltage is always positive or zero, IL = I1 + I2
depending on which half cycle it's in. Stated another way, the
ES= E1 + E2 for center tap E1 = E2 thereby
load current is always in the same direction. This conversion
from ac to dc is known as rectification.

4.1 - 25 Mar 2014
ES = 2 E1 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
However for positive half cycle the D1 conducts & D2 is open, Introduction
the potential Drop across D2 is such that polarity of pd across The silicon controlled rectifier (abbreviated as SCR) is a three-
RL and E2 adds up across D2. Thus by KVL terminal semiconductor switching device which is probably the
most important circuit element after the diode and the transistor.
E1 + E2 – PIV = 0
Invented in 1957, an SCR can be used as a controlled switch to
PIV = 2 E1 = ES i.e twice the E1 or E2 value. perform various functions such as rectification, inversion and
regulation of power flow. The SCR has assumed paramount
importance in electronics because it can be produced in
versions to handle currents up to several thousand amperes
and voltages up to more than 1 kV.
The SCR has appeared in the market under different names
such as thyristor, thyrode transistor. It is a unidirectional power
switch and is being extensively used in switching D.c. and ac.,
rectifying a.c. to give controlled d.c. output, converting d.c. into
a.c. etc. the various characteristics of silicon controlled rectifiers
and their increasing applications in power electronics are
discussed below.
A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts
as a true electronic switch. It can change alternating current into
direct current and at the same time can control the amount of
power fed to the load. Thus SCR combines the features of a
rectifier and a transistor.
 Why not germanium controlled rectifier? The device is

made of silicon because leakage current in silicon is
very small as compared to germanium. Since the device
is used as a switch, it will carry leakage current in the off
Fig 4.1.35: (a) Full wave rectifier (b) Rectified output (c) Positive
half cycle (d) Negative half cycle (e) Peak Inverse voltage 

4.1 - 26 Mar 2014
condition which should be as small as possible.
(i) When gate is open. Fig. 20.2 shows the SCR circuit with
 It got this name because it is a silicon device and is used
gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate. Under this
as a rectifier and that rectification can be controlled.
condition, junction J 2 is reverse biased while junctions
J1 and J3 are forward biased. Hence, the situation in the
junctions J1and J3 is just as in a npn transistor with
base open. Consequently, no current flows through the
load RL and the SCR is cut off. However, if the applied
voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when
*reverse biased junction J2breaks down. The SCR now
conducts **heavily and is said to be in the ON state. The
applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without
gate voltage is called Break over voltage.
(ii) When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode. The SCR can be
Working of SCR made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by
In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with applying a small positive potential to the gate as shown
anode. The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t in Fig. 20.3. Now junctionJ3is forward biased and
cathode. The working of SCR can be studied under the junction J2is reverse biased. The electrons from n-type
following two heads: material start moving across junction J3towards left
whereas holes from p-type towards the right.
Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are
attracted across junction J2and gate current starts
flowing. As soon as the gate current flows, anode
current increases. The increased anode current in turn
makes more electrons available at junction J2 . This
process continues and in an extremely small time,
junction J2 breaks down and the SCR starts conducting
heavily. Once SCR starts conducting, the gate (the
reason for this name is obvious) loses all control. Even if
gate voltage is removed, the anode current does not

4.1 - 27 Mar 2014
decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction (i.e.
bring SCR in off condition) is to reduce the applied
voltage to zero.
Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR:
(i) An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or
it conducts heavily. There is no state in between.
Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch.
(ii) There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method
is to keep the gate open and make the supply voltage
equal to the break over voltage. The second method is
to operate SCR with supply voltage less than break over
voltage and then turn it on by means of a small voltage
(typically 1.5 V,30 mA) applied to the gate.
(iii) Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal
way to close an SCR because the break over voltage is
usually much greater than supply voltage.
(iv) To open the SCR(i.e. to make it non-conducting), reduce
the supply voltage to zero.

4.1 - 28 Mar 2014
NOTES

4.1 - 29 Mar 2014
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

segment indicators. A sample of the letters or figures which
may also be produced by some of the possible combinations of
illuminated diodes is also illustrated.
Fig 1: Operation and Construction of LED

Multi Segment LED Fig 2: Multi Segment Layout
A further development of the standard LED package is the Because these displays are composed of linear segments (that
seven segment numerical indicator and the sixteen segment is, there are no curls or twists which can be produced), some
alpha-numeric indicator. In these devices, the PN junctions are anomalies could exist between similarly formed letters or
elongated into a rectangular format and the light is emitted in a numbers. Any combination which may introduce a
bar shape. The letter or number which a multi-segment display misinterpretation is usually not specified in the equipment
is required to produce is formed from a combination of manual which covers the interpretation of the display. As an
illuminated segments. Fig 2a shows the layout of the example, the number 1 and the letter I could easily be read one
constituent light emitting diodes which are used in seven for the other, and the distinction will be shown in the display
segment displays and Fig 2b shows the layout for sixteen dictionary.

4.1 - 30 Mar 2014
The diode junctions which form the segments of the display junction. When photons enter this region to create electron-hole
require both an anode and a cathode connection. For a sixteen pairs, the separated electrons and holes are pulled in opposite
segment display this would result in thirty two connectors. directions because of the influence of the charges that exist on
each side of the junction and the applied reverse bias. The
electrons are drawn toward the positive side of the bias source
(the N-type region) and the holes are attracted toward the
Fortunately, most situations allow for a common connection to negative side of the bias voltage (the P-type region). The
all the cathodes (or, alternatively, all the anodes). The displays separated electrons and holes therefore support a small current
are then referred to as common anode connected or common flow in the reverse direction through the photodiode. As the
cathode connected and the number of leads reduces to eight or light intensity increases, more photons produce more electron-
seventeen for the two types of display. hole pairs which further increase the conductivity of the
photodiode resulting in a proportionally higher current. When a
PHOTO DIODES photodiode is used in this manner it is said to be operating in
the photoconductive or photocurrent mode.
Introduction
When the input radiant power is reduced to zero or when the
The photodiode is another light-sensitive device which utilises a photodiode is in complete darkness, the diode’s photocurrent
PN junction. It is constructed in a manner similar to the will drop to an extremely low value but not quite to zero. This
photovoltaic cell, but it is used in basically the same way as the very low current is simply a reverse leakage current which
photoconductive cell. In other words it is used essentially as a occurs in any type of PN junction device. This very low leakage
light-variable resistor. current is referred to as the photodiode’s dark current. The dark
The PN junction photodiode shown in Fig 4 operates on the current is too small to be plotted since it will generally be in the
same basic principles as the photovoltaic cell. In fact, the nanoampere range for most photodiodes. Dark current
photodiode may be used in basically the same manner as a increases only slightly with an increase in reverse voltage.
photovoltaic cell. When used as a photovoltaic cell, the device Photodiodes have an important advantage over the
is said to be operating in the photovoltaic mode and it will photoconductive devices described earlier. A photodiode can
generate an output voltage (across its electrodes) that varies respond much faster to changes in light intensity. In fact, the
with the intensity of the light striking its P-type layer. However, photodiode operates faster than any other type of
the photodiode is most commonly subjected to a reverse bias photosensitive device. It is therefore useful in those
voltage as shown in Fig 4A. In other words its P-type region is applications where light fluctuates or changes intensity at a
made negative with respect to its N-type region. Under these rapid rate. The major disadvantage with the photodiode is that
conditions a wide depletion region forms around the PN

4.1 - 31 Mar 2014
its output photocurrent is relatively low when compared to other
photoconductive devices.
Photodiodes and PIN photodiodes are both commonly

represented by the same schematic symbol and several
symbols have been used to represent these devices. A
commonly used symbol is shown in Fig 6A. Notice that a
conventional diode symbol is used with two arrows. The arrows
point toward the diode to show that it responds to light. Fig 6B

shows a properly biased photodiode. A load resistor simply
represents any resistive load which might be controlled by the
photodiodes as it varies its conductivity in accordance with input
light intensity. The changes in the diode’s conduction will cause
the photocurrent () in the circuit to vary.
Fig 6: A Photodiode Symbol (A) and a Properly Biased

Photodiode (B)

4.1 - 32 Mar 2014
NOTES:


4.1 - 33 Mar 2014
VARISTORS
The name is a portmanteau of variable resistor. A varistor is
also known as voltage-dependent resistor (VDR).
Varistors provide reliable and economical protection against

high voltage transients and surges which may be produced, for
example, by lightning, switching or electrical noise on AC or DC
power lines. They have the advantage over transient
suppressor diodes in as much as they can absorb much higher
transient energies and can suppress positive and negative
transients. When transient occurs the varistor resistance

changes from a very high stand-by value to a very low
conducting value. The transient is thus absorbed and clamped
to a safe level, protecting sensitive circuit components. Varistors
are manufactured from a non-homogeneous material, giving a
rectifying action at the contact points of two particles. Many
series and parallel connections determine the voltage rating and
the current capability of the varistor.
 Under normal operating conditions, the overvoltage

device appears as a high impedance device
 Under overvoltage operating conditions, the overvoltage

device appears as a low impedance device

4.1 - 34 Mar 2014
What varistors do not do

A varistor inside a device does not provide equipment with
of faults on the utility power grid can result in sustained over-
complete power protection. In particular, this device provides no
voltage conditions. Examples include a loss of a neutral
protection for the connected equipment from sustained over-
conductor or shorted lines on the high voltage system.
voltages that may result in damage to that equipment as well as
Application of sustained over-voltage to a varistor can cause
to the protector device. Other sustained and harmful over
high dissipation, potentially resulting in the varistor device
voltages may be lower and therefore ignored by a varistor
catching fire.
device.

A varistor provides no equipment protection from inrush current
surges (during equipment startup), from overcurrent (created by
a short circuit), or from voltage sags (also known as a
brownout); it neither senses nor affects such events.
Susceptibility of electronic equipment to these
other power disturbances is defined by other aspects of the
system design, either inside the equipment itself or externally by
means such as a UPS, a voltage regulator or a surge
protector with built-in overvoltage protection (which typically
consists of a voltage-sensing circuit and a relay for
disconnecting the AC input when the voltage reaches a danger
threshold).
Hazards
While an varistor is designed to conduct significant power for
very short durations (about 8 to 20 microseconds), such as
caused by lightning strikes, it typically does not have the
capacity to conduct sustained energy. Under normal utility
voltage conditions, this is not a problem. However, certain types

4.1 - 35 Mar 2014
NOTES:

4.1 - 36 Mar 2014
TRANSISTORS
the transistor. The circuit representation of the PNP and NPN
Introduction transistors are shown in the figure.
In 1951 William Shockley invented the first Bipolar Junction
Transistor. The term is a derivative of Transfer & Resistance,
implying that it transfers resistance from output to input.
A transistor is a solid state device formed by doping three

regions on a pure semiconductor lattice. It is classified into two
categories namely Bi-Polar Junction Transistor & Uni-Junction
Transistors.
The semiconductor material usually used in transistor

construction is either Silicon or Germanium. Transistors can
perform most of the functions carried out by vacuum tubes. It is
advantageous to use transistors due to their lightweight and
small size. Also, it does not require heater power, as is a
vacuum tube. Therefore in most applications transistors can UNBIASED TRANSISTOR:
replace vacuum tubes. Nevertheless, there are instances where The highest level of doping of the Emitter region causes a
vacuum tubes have to be used and that is in high power smaller in width Depletion region formation at the Emitter-Base
applications. This is because tubes are capable of handling region; coz of the short travel of Base region low concentration
more power and have higher voltage ratings than transistors. majority carriers for recombining with the abundantly available
majority carriers of the emitter region. Thus a barrier potential of
Construction
0.7V for Silicon & 0.3V for Germanium is formed and then
A transistor consists of three semiconductor layers with either a further recombination or diffusion ceases. Thus for overcoming
P layer between two N layers or an N layer between two P the barrier a pd of just greater than 0.7V is required.
layers. The former is referred to as a NPN transistor and the
latter is a PNP transistor. In both cases, the middle lightly doped Similarly the depletion Region formation at the Collector-Base
layer is called the base and is extremely thin, when compared to junction will be of comparatively larger in width, as now the
the two outer layers. The two layers on either side are called the small number of majority charge carriers from the Base region
highly doped emitter and the intermediately doped largest size would have to comparatively travel more into the intermediately
collector. So you can see that there will be three terminals for doped Collector region for recombination until the formation of

4.1 - 37 Mar 2014
the similar barrier potential but this barrier potential requires

much more potential difference >> 0.7 V to apply for allowing
the current to flow through it due to less doping. Numerically
VcB is greater than even VcE i.e. more pd is required to
overcome it .
During the diffusion process, the depletion region penetrates

more deeply into the lightly doped side in order to include an
equal number of impurity atoms in the each side of the junction.
Thus, the Emitter-Base depletion region would be shorter in
width into the Emitter region in comparison to the Base-region
and similarly for Collector- Base Junction the Depletion region
would be shorter in width inside the collector region.

4.1 - 38 Mar 2014
BIASED TRANSISTOR
Transistor Circuit notations:
A Double Subscript notation is used to identify Potential Drops
and EMF sources with the transistor circuits. The details are as
under:
1- When the subscripts are same the Voltage represents a

Source like VCC, VBB and VEE.
2- When the subscripts are different the Voltages represent
the voltage between two points like VCE or VBE.
3- Single subscripts are used for Node Voltages like VB is
the voltage between the base and ground.
4- We can conclude a double subscript voltage of different
subscripts by subtracting its single subscript voltage.
E.g. VCE = VC - VE
And vcb = vc - vb

As in Common Emitter Configuration VE is grounded
thereby:
VCE = VC
VBE = VB.

4.1 - 39 Mar 2014
extremely thin & lightly doped allows diffusion of the most of the
carriers in to the collector-base junction J2.
TRANSISTOR REGIONS OF OPERATION:
A transistor can be operated in any of the following regions
depending upon the supply of voltage to its two junctions.
When both the junctions are Forward or Reverse biased a

transistor could only be operated in the Saturation or Cut off
region and such operation is called Switching Mode.
In this mode no gain or amplification of the signal is sought.
J1 ( VEB) J2 ( VCB ) Operating Features

Region
Forward Bias Forward Bias Saturation VCE = 0V
Reverse Bias Reverse Bias Cutoff VCE = VCC
Forward Bias Reverse Bias Active Amplification
Transistor Currents Therefore a reverse biased collector base junction does not
prevent the diffusion of these carriers in the base. These
The arrow on the emitter specifies the conventional direction of
majority carriers injected from the emitter into the base travel
current when the emitter base junction is forward biased.
towards the collector and get collected on it thus forming the
For PNP transistor, the emitter base junction J1 is forward collector current IC. However, a very few of these carriers
biased, i.e. the (+) ve terminal of the battery is connected to the injected into the base recombine with the majority carriers of the
emitter (P side) and the (-) ve terminal to the base (N side). lightly doped base region. That is, holes injected from the
Holes on the emitter cross in to the base while electrons on the emitter of a PNP will combine with the electrons in its base and
base cross in to the emitter. r. electrons injected from the emitter of a NPN will combine with
the holes in its base. This gives rise to another small current in
In the active mode of operation of the transistor, the emitter the base terminal. This base current IB is very small compared
base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction to the collector current Ic. Sometimes the collector current can
is reverse biased. Thereby the majority carriers in J1 for PNP be taken as nearly equal in magnitude to the emitter current IE.
will be holes and for NPN are electrons. The base layer being

4.1 - 40 Mar 2014
Since the base current IB is small it can be neglected. these emitter electrons INEare pulled up, by the positive potential
of the collector voltage Vcc through the base region to the
Therefore, IE is really equal to the sum of the base current IB and
collector current IC, and we can write, collector region, without meeting up with base holes and hence
forming the collector current IC or INC1As we know that P-type
materials contain more holes but they are neutral in charge and
as some of the electrons from emitter unite with holes to form
IE = IB + IC……………………… (1)
negatively charged atoms, the number of holes is reduced. The
Thus, the actual directions of IB and Ic also can be determined by flow of IB thereby requires persistently formation of new holes to
the direction of the arrow on the emitter. replace the ones lost due to recombination process at the base.
As IB<< IE thereby for practical reasons IE ≈ IC. As an idea, if 100
If IB is made zero by making the base lead open circuit, the
charge carriers compose emitter current then 98 charge carriers
number of holes quickly reduce to the point where the overall
will flow as Collector Current and only 02 charge carriers as the
charge of the base is highly negative. Then –ve charge carriers
Base current.
in the emitter region will no longer move towards the base,
because the negative charge of the base region would repel
them. Hence the collector current IC becomes zero.
IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS
In an IDEAL Transistor, the leakage currents ICEO& ICBO are By varying the value of IB we vary the value of the IC, because
considered zero. the strength of IB determines how fast new holes can form.
When the J1 is forward biased by VBB in CE configuration, then Negative charge carriers will move from emitter to base at such
a rate that holes are neutralized as fast as new holes are
the majority carriers electrons ( INE )from the emitter region will formed.
move toward and into the base region & the +ve charge carriers
holes in the base region move toward and into the emitter
region. Near J1 some of the free electrons meet and combine

with the base holes to form –ve charge atoms which flow as the
base current IBor (INE – INC1), however, Since holes are relatively
few in number and the base region is very thin, thereby most of

4.1 - 41 Mar 2014
 Note the polarity of the connection of the ohmmeter to
IDENTIFYING A TRANSISTOR the emitter lead
Sometimes you may find it necessary to determine if a given  Refer to the table below which will identify the transistor
transistor is an NPN or PNP device. This identification can also
be performed with an ohmmeter. As in testing a transistor with
an ohmmeter, you must know the polarity of the voltage at the
Ohmmeter lead to +Ohmmeter lead
ohmmeter leads. Normally, the internal ohmmeter battery will
be connected so that a positive potential will appear at the red Resistance emitter
to emitter
or plus lead of the ohmmeter and a negative potential appears
high PNP NPN
at the black or minus lead. In some ohmmeters this is not true,
however. Check your unit by referring to the ohmmeter circuit. low NPN PNP
In order to forward bias a PN junction, you must apply a bias
As an example of how to use the table, consider the case of a
voltage to it so that the cathode (N) is negative and the anode
high resistance reading when the ohmmeter negative (-) lead is
(P) is positive. You must reverse the polarity to reverse bias the
connected to the emitter. The high resistance indicates reverse
junction. With this information and the knowledge of your
bias on the emitter-base junction. Therefore the negative (-)
ohmmeter operation, you can identify a transistor as being PNP
lead must be on the P section of the junction (the emitter) and
or NPN. The procedure below tells you how:
the + lead on an N section (the base). Therefore, we have a
PNP transistor.
 Identify the transistor leads. Locate the emitter and
base connections NOTE: When using an analogue Multimeter switched to ‘ohms’
 Set your ohmmeter to the RX 10 or R X 100 range the red lead becomes the negative and vice versa. When using
an electronic multimeter the ‘diode’ range must be used.
 Connect the ohmmeter to the emitter and base leads of Polarity of the input leads is normal i.e. red is positive, black is
negative
the transistor. It doesn’t matter which polarity you use.
 Note the resistance reading. If it is low, the junction is

forward biased. If it is high the junction is reversed
biased.

4.1 - 42 Mar 2014

4.1 - 43 Mar 2014
NOTES

4.1 - 44 Mar 2014
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Integrated Circuit
INTRODUCTION
An integrated circuit is one in which circuit components such as
The circuits discussed so far in the text consisted of separately transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors etc. are automatically
manufactured components (e.g. resistors, capacitors, diodes, part of a small semiconductor chip. An integrated circuit
transistors etc.) joined by wires or plated conductors on printed consists of a number of circuit components (e.g. transistors,
boards. Such circuits are known as discrete circuits because diodes, resistors etc.) and their inter connections in a single
each component added to the circuit is discrete (i.e. distinct or small package to perform a complete electronic function. These
separate) from the others. Discrete circuits have two main components are formed and connected within a small chip of
disadvantages. Firstly, in a large circuit (e.g. TV circuit, semiconductor material. The following points are worth noting
computer circuit) there may be hundreds of components and about integrated circuits:
consequently discrete assembly would occupy a large space.
Secondly, there will be hundreds of soldered points posing a (i) In an IC, the various components are automatically part
considerable problem of reliability. To meet these problems of of a small semi-conductor chip and the individual
space conservation and reliability, engineers started a drive for components cannot be removed or replaced. This is in
miniaturized circuits. This led to the development of contrast to discrete assembly in which individual
microelectronics in the late 1950s.Microelectronics is the branch components can be removed or replaced if necessary.
of electronics engineering which deals with micro-circuits. A
micro-circuit is simply a miniature assembly of electronic (iii) The size of an IC is extremely small. In fact, ICs are so
components. One type of such circuit is the integrated circuit, small that you normally need a microscope to see the
generally abbreviated as IC. An integrated circuit has various connections between the components. Fig. 23.1 shows
components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors a typical semi-conductor chip having dimensions 0.2 mm
etc. fabricated on a small semiconductor chip. How circuits ×0.2 mm ×0.001 mm. It is possible to produce circuits
containing hundreds of components are fabricated on a small containing many transistors, diodes, resistors etc. on the
semiconductor chip to produce an IC is a fascinating feat of surface of this small chip.
microelectronics. This has not only fulfilled the ever-increasing
demand of industries for electronic equipment of smaller size, (ii) No components of an IC are seen to project above the
lighter weight and low power requirements, but it has also surface of the chip. This is because all the components
resulted in high degree of reliability. In this chapter, we shall are formed within the chip.
focus our attention on the various aspects of integrated circuits.

4.1 - 45 Mar 2014
(v) Low cost because of simultaneous production of
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED hundreds of alike circuits on a small semiconductor
CIRCUITS: wafer.
(VI) The circuit lay out is greatly simplified because

Integrated circuits free the equipment designer from the need to integrated circuits are constrained to use minimum
construct circuits with individual discrete components such as number of external connections.
transistors, diodes and resistors. With the exception of a few
very simple circuits, the availability of a large number of low cost DISADVANTAGES:
integrated circuits have largely rendered discrete circuitry
The disadvantages of integrated circuits are:
obsolete. It is, therefore, desirable to mention the significant
(i) If any component in an IC goes out of order, the
advantages of integrated circuits over discrete circuits.
whole IC has to be replaced by the new one.
However, integrated circuits have some disadvantages and
continuous efforts are on to overcome them. (ii) In an IC, it is neither convenient nor economical to
fabricate capacitances exceeding 30 pF. Therefore,
ADVANTAGES: for high values of capacitance, discrete components
Integrated circuits possess the following advantages over exterior to IC chip are connected.
discrete circuits:
(iii) It is not possible to fabricate inductors and
(i) Increased reliability due to lesser number of transformers on the surface of semi-conductor chip.
connections. Therefore, these components are connected exterior
to the semi-conductor chip.
(ii) Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various
(iv) It is not possible to produce high power ICs (greater
circuit elements in a single chip of semi-conductor
than 10 W).
material.
(v) There is a lack of flexibility in an IC i.e., it is generally
(iii) Lesser weight and space requirement due to
not possible to modify the parameters within which
miniaturized circuit.
an integrated circuit will operate.
(iv) Low power requirements. Greater ability to operate

at extreme values of temperature.

4.1 - 46 Mar 2014
OPERATION OF LOGIC CIRCUITS

Logic gates or gates are fundamental functions performed by
computers and related equipment. A single integrated circuit
(IC) within a computer contains several gate circuits. Each gate
may have several inputs and must have only one output. There
are six commonly used logic gates: the AND, the OR, the
INVERT, the NOR, and the NAND. The name of each gate
represents the function it performs.
Truth tables illustrate the relationship between logic gate’s Figure 1

inputs and output. This type of data display can be used to
describe the operation of a gate or an IC. For trouble shooting Complete the truth table for the inverters shown in figure 2.
purposes, the truth table data for a specific IC is often reviewed
in order to determine the correct output signal for a given set of
inputs.
Since logic gates operate using digital data, all input and output
signals will be composed of 1s or 0s. Typically, the symbol 1
represents “ON” or voltage positive. The symbol0 represents
“OFF” or voltage negative. Voltage negative is often referred to
as zero voltage or the circuit’s ground.
Inverter
Inverters provide the complement function by utilizing the
switching characteristics of a transistor. Referring to figure 1, a
high (1) on input A biases the transistor into conduction,
reflecting a low (0) onto output Z. A low (0) at A cuts off the
transistor and Vcc is the potential at Z.

4.1 - 47 Mar 2014
Figure 2
NAND Gate Figure 3

The output of a NAND gate is low only when all inputs are high. Complete the truth table for the NAND gate illustrated in figure
Referring to figure 3, all transistors will be conducting when 4.
inputs A. B. and C are high switching Z to ground. Should any
one or all inputs go low, the path for the ground return is broken
and Z will go to Vcc potential.

4.1 - 48 Mar 2014
Vcc is now applied at output Z. If anyone, or all inputs, goes
low, Q1 conducts reflecting a low to the output.
A B C Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
Figure 4
Figure 5
AND Gate
Complete the truth table for the AND gate shown in figure 6.
An AND gate utilizes the same circuitry as a NAND gate with an
additional stage for inversion. As illustrated in figure 5, the
output of an AND gate is high only when all inputs are high.
With inputs A and B high, transistors Ql and Q2 conduct,
biasing Q3 at cut-off.

4.1 - 49 Mar 2014
A B C Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
Figure 7
1 1 1
Figure 6 Complete the truth table for the NOR gate shown in figure 8.
NOR Gate
The output of a NOR gate is high only when all inputs all low. As
illustrated in figure 7, if any input A, B, or C is high, the
corresponding transistor is biased into conduction, reflecting a
low at Z. Only when all inputs are low will all transistors be cut
off, applying Vcc to Z.

4.1 - 50 Mar 2014
A B C Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
Figure 9
1 0 1
1 1 0
Complete the truth table for the OR gate in figure below.
1 1 1
Figure 8
OR Gate
The OR gate circuitry is similar to the NOR gate with the
addition of an inverter stage. Referring to figure 9, Z is high
when any input is high. If one or more of the inputs are high, Q4
is cut off and Vcc is the potential of Z. Applying a low to all
inputs biases Q4 into conduction, reflecting a low to Z.

4.1 - 51 Mar 2014
A B C Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
Figure 10

4.1 - 52 Mar 2014
NOTES:

4.1 - 53 Mar 2014

4.1 - 54 Mar 2014
THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

INTRODUCTION  Infinite voltage gain: This means that the amplifier-
operated loop (i.e. without the feedback network) should
The integrated circuit operational amplifier is one of the most have infinite voltage gain (A0L). Commercially available
useful and versatile electronic devices available today. The devices have open loop gains exceeding one million,
name ‘operational’ amplifier is not, however, new; it refers to a which makes Avery large compared to one (1) and
type of amplifier originally used in analogue computing to means that the closed loop gain when operated with
perform mathematical operations e.g. Multiplication or division feedback is equal to 1/ to a very high degree of
by a constant. The modern integrated circuit device which is a accuracy.
dual in line 8 pin IC, can be adapted (by feedback) to perform
most general purpose amplifier duties, as well as its use in  Infinite Bandwidth: This would mean equal
mathematical operations. amplification for all signals from DC (0Hz) to infinity and
is not achievable in practice. Integrated circuit
THE IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER operational amplifiers are invariably direct coupled and
Although the characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier are some will operate at frequencies up to a few megahertz
unattainable, modern integrated circuit types can provide an under small signal conditions with a closed loop gain of
extremely close approximation. These amplifiers are invariably about 100 (i.e. a gain x bandwidth product of about
used with a feedback network, the characteristics of which 1GHz).
determine the circuit function and the amplifier closed loop gain
(1/). Let us look at the ideal characteristics:  Infinite Input Impedance: Ideally, the input impedance
(Zi) across the input terminals should be infinite; in

practice, all integrated circuit types have very high input
impedance and their loading effect on the signal source
is negligible. Some FET types of integrated operational
amplifier have input impedance as high as 100 G
(1011). Infinite Zi means zero input Current i.e. no
leakage or Bias current, it does not become load for a
source.

Fig 1: The Ideal Operational Amplifier 

4.1 - 55 Mar 2014
 Zero Output Impedance: The output impedance of  Zero Phase Shift: Any circuit containing either
operational amplifiers is extremely low and they can capacitance and/or inductance will cause phase shifts.
cope with changes in load impedance by supplying more
(or less) current without any significant change in the  Zero Distortion: An ideal amplifier will give a perfect
output voltage. Acts like an Ideal voltage Source. amplified version of its input. All amplifiers will distort a
signal, however the more you pay the better the
 Zero Offset: This means ideally that the output should distortion figures.
be zero when the inputs are shorted together or
OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF AN OP AMP
grounded, but practically opamp shows a small output
voltage termed as output offset voltage. However, this
effect can be cancelled out by supplying a small ‘offset’ The output of an opamp is differential and its gain is denoted by
voltage to zero the output – often by a simple ‘Ad’.
potentiometer adjustment external to the integrated Vo (V1-V2)
circuit. Vo = Ad (V1 – V2 ) = Ad Vd
 Zero Noise: Ideally an amplifier will have no noise, Ad =

however all electronic devices generate some noise.
The output of an ideal opamp will be completely Generally the differential gain is expressed in decibel dB
independent from ripples that arrive on its power supply
inputs. Every real Opamp has Power Supply Rejection Ad = 20 log
Ratio PSRR which reflects that how well the Opamp can
reject changes in its supply voltage. Bypass capacitors When V1 = V2 then ideally Vd = 0 but practically Vd 0.
are used for improving PSRR.
The Vo also depends on the average common level of the two
 Zero Power Dissipation: In an ideal amplifier, no power inputs, which is termed as Common Mode Signal Vc and
is wasted; again all devices use some power.
Vc = therefore practically Vo = Vc & Vo = Ac Vc.


4.1 - 56 Mar 2014
Hence the total output of an op-amp can be expressed as

Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc = Ad (V1 – V2) + Ac ( )
For ideal opamp Ad must be infinite & Ac equal to zero but

practically due to mismatch in internal circuitry there is some
output available for V1 = V2 and Ac 0. The value of Ac is very
small while the value of Ad is always very high.
FIGURE SHOWING SLEW
MAXIMUM FREQUENCY FOR FULL OUTPUT VOLTAGE: This

Slew Rate
will occur when the maximum rate of change of the signal
Most integrated circuit operational amplifier specifications quote output voltage is equal to the slew rate of the amplifier – i.e.
the slew rate (SR) meaning how fast the output can follow the When SR = 2fVm volts/second. As a typical example, let us
input signal. It is the maximum rate at which the output voltage assume Vm to be 15V and the amplifier to have a slew rate of 3
can change its value per unit time. volts/microsecond. Then the maximum frequency for full output
voltage is given by:
∆
SR = expressed in the Vo signal slews on the rising &
∆
falling edge. When digital signals are being amplified, it is the SR 3000000 volts / sec ond 
slew rate which controls the rise time and fall of the pulsed f= 
signals. For sinusoidal signals, the maximum rate of change of 2V m 2    15 volts
voltage occurs at the zero volts crossover point, as shown in Fig
5b, and is equal to 2fVm volts/second. As this involves both Maximum f for  15V output =31.83 kHz
frequency and amplitude, two effects must be considered.


4.1 - 57 Mar 2014
Maximum output voltage obtainable at a given frequency: For example an audio amplifier may be required to amplify
signals within the frequency range of 20 Hz up to 20 KHz.
The amplifier can be used at higher frequencies than that Between these two frequencies the gain of the amplifier should
calculated above but only if the output amplitude is reduced so be substantially flat. The 20 Hz and 20KHz frequencies are
that the maximum slew rate of the amplifier is not exceeded. As called the lower and upper cutoff frequencies and represent the
an example, let us reconsider the above amplifier with an input frequencies at which the power output of the amplifier has fallen
signal at a frequency of 1MHz. The maximum Vm is given by: to 50% of its mid band value, in other words the output is 3dB
down. The Bandwidth is therefore the difference between the
upper and lower cutoff frequencies.
Vm 
SR

3000000 volts / sec ond 
2f 2    1000000 sec ond
Maximum output voltage at 1 MHz = ± 480 millivolts
Response and Bandwidth

The Bandwidth of an electronic system refers to the capability of
the system either to amplify, transmit or process signals of
different frequency. It is the frequency range of input signals to
which a system responds effectively.
Specifications for the gain of devices usually give the open loop
gain and apply only to DC or low frequency input signals. The
response of all devices falls off with frequency, and
specifications usually quote the frequency at which the gain has
fallen to 1 i.e. to 0dB. This frequency is typically of the order of Some manufacturers publish graphs similar to the one in Fig 6
a few megahertz. which shows how gain falls off with frequency; others quote the
frequency for unity gain and the fall-off of gain in dB/decade or
in dB/octave from which the graph may be constructed.

4.1 - 58 Mar 2014
The bandwidth of a circuit can be found by drawing a horizontal

line at the value of closed loop gain for the circuit e.g. for the
response of Fig 6 the bandwidth at 20dB gain (i.e. Vout = 10 Vin)
is approximately 100 kHz; at 60dB gain (Vout = 20,000 Vin) the
bandwidth is approximately 1 kHz. These figures are typical of
a 741 type integrated circuit.

Fig 6: Response and Bandwidth

4.1 - 59 Mar 2014

PTC Electronic Fundamentals Module

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PTC Electronic Fundamentals Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PIA

Training Centre (PTC) Module 4 – ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS

ISO: 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Issue 01, Rev-00 All 31 March 2014

ISO: 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Sub Module 4.1

ISO: 9001 - 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction

An electronic device is that in which current flows through a

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Similarly, amplifiers are used in public address system,

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

DIODES current flows composing of free electrons& holes, due to

The materials which electrical conduction properties lies

In electronics only the outer most electron shell of an atom is of

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Generally, for 108atoms of semiconductor, one impurity atom is

Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic

(i) N-type semiconductor

(ii) P-type semiconductor

An n-type semiconductor material is formed when a small

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The following points may be noted carefully: Fig. 4.1.5

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

three co-valet bonds can be formed and the fourth bond is

To explain the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The hole shows a missing electron. Suppose the valence

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

has a large number of free electrons and a small number of

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

in the germanium slab to form a single crystal. The addition of

as shown in Fig. 4.25 (iii). This button serves as a suitable base

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Once pn-junction is formed and depletion layer created, the

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The potential (V0) distribution curve

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

With forward bias to pn junction, the following points are worth

(i) Applied forward potential establishes an electric field

(ii) The potential barrier voltage is reduced and at some

(iii) The junction offers very low resistance almost zero

(iv) The magnitude of forward current depends upon the

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

(iv) The electrons travel through p-region as valence

(v) When these valence electrons reach the left end of

From the above discussion, it is concluded that in n-type region,

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The potential barrier is increased. Conclusion

Note. The forward current through a pn-junction is due to the

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of easier

(i) If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

Diodes In Series And Parallel

In high-voltage applications one commercially available diode is

ISO: 9001 – 2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only

then IB flows throughD2 & R1.

But we need to get,

VD1 = VD2 ------------------------------------ (2)