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DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
Proponents of ASL/English bilingualism suggest that Deaf learners who have a well-
established first language in ASL find that this first language base supports access to
English as a second language or additional language.
Global Understanding
“Pettito concludes from her childhood bilingual research and other studies that it is
advantageous for the developing child to learn two languages because there are cognitive,
social, and developmental benefits of bilingualism” (Andrews, Leigh & Weiner, 2004,
p.80). Mahshie (1995) demonstrated the benefits of deaf and hard of hearing children if
they acquire American Sign Language (ASL) as their first language. The benefits include:
skills
languages: ASL and English. Furthermore, when the students demonstrate a well-
established foundation in their first language, which is ASL, how can the educators,
Research published before the year of 1960 revealed how bilingualism impairs
deaf and hard of hearing children’s ability to acquire ASL and English, “The assumption
that bilingualism was a handicap led to unfortunate practices such as punishing children
for using languages other than English in school, even when the children were at play”
(Lessow-Hurley, 2013, p.48). The stigma of bilingualism has lingered on over the years.
However, the current research shows otherwise, “Quite simply, children can be enriched
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
by knowing more than one language as long as they are additive rather than subtractive
child’s first language foundation thus the child will be able to acquire a second language.
The educators need to understand the natural context of the language and to use the
language as a tool; “Our job as teachers is to take the best from each theory and to use
this in our interactions with children who are learning language” (Easterbrooks & Baker,
2002, p.39). First language acquisition varies among children based on the contexts the
children were raised in, “Beyond these basic visual interactions, infants with hearing
losses need to have early visual experiences that form the basis of later language
acquisition” (Owens, 2001, p.41). As Ginsburg (2007) mentions, during play, the children
will be exploring and innovating the world, mastering their skills and conquering their
fears. During play, the children will be developing new capabilities, which builds their
confidence. The children will be confident in solving problems, making decisions and
The knowledge and understanding of first language (L1) impacts the process of
acquiring a second language (L2); when bilingual children are proficient in second
language, hence the ability of linguistic interference. “Lado (1957) also stressed the
learning” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.118). As explained by Polio and Shea (2014), Mu and
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
develop L2 skills including: context/ schemas, executive function and Basic Interpersonal
Context/ Schemas
assessing and teaching bilingual children” (Stefankis, 1998, p.20). Owens (1988) in
Christen and Delgado (1993) believed that language competency occurs when the child is
able to acquire the dynamic social interactions within the family, “…a hearing child will
become a native speaker of at least one language through the natural supports that
facilitate language growth intuitively, not by direct instruction” (Easterbrooks & Baker,
2002, p.33). Owens (2004) stated that the environment shapes children’s brains thus the
Deaf and/ or hard of hearing children benefit from Deaf and/or hard of hearing role
models and peer interactions. Lessow-Hurley (2013) justified Owens’ theory of children
before the emergence of the child’s speech, these interactions between mother and infant
2013, p.59). Additionally, Owens (2001) believes that conversations play a major role in
Many [deaf and hard of hearing children] could achieve success if adults at school
and home valued the visual culture of people who are Deaf and if home and
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
Executive Function
Christensen and Delgado (1993) believed that most of children’s early language
developed through observations of daily routines, “For many Deaf children of hearing
1995, p.75). Piaget shares his theory regarding play; children will be able to create
connections to the world via play. 94% of parents in France, Germany, Great Britain,
Japan, and the United States emphasized their belief that when their children are playing,
they are learning (Singer, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2007). Bergen (2002) explains how
pretend play does not only impact children’s ability to develop social skills and strategies
but academic readiness as well. “Children’s cognitive and social skills affect their
language acquisition” (Andrews, Leigh & Weiner, 2004, p.70). Moreover, as stated by
Vygotsky, the interactions between children and adults stimulate children’s cognitive
development. Through the interactions with adults, children will comprehend the way the
world works and how to use the tools of their culture (Andrews, Leigh & Weiner, 2004).
development is parallel to their parents’ language, “Children’s vocabulary size and use,
on the other hand, is very closely related to how much their caregivers read to them”
(King & MacKey, 2007, p. 302). Furthermore, as Runesson (1999) explains, as a part of
cognitive development, children will need to use the stimuli to process the experience
encountering the specific object multiple times in order to proceed the code through the
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
students have transferred the code through the executive function, the students have
developed and built semantics within their context. With the opportunities the parents
provide for their children to explore the world, the children will build their schemas
linking to the language scaffold. Thus, when the time comes, the children will be able to
use their coding, in Wernicke and Broca areas, to create connections from their prior
knowledge and experience to the semantics and language used at school, “…researchers
argued that L2 learning takes place mainly through what they called a ‘creative
reconstruct rules of the language as they are exposed to it in the course of acquisition”
(Polio & Shea, 2014, p.119). The model exhibited below, called Second Language
Acquisition model, is an adapted version from Krashen’s (1982) The Input Hypothesis
Model of L2 learning and production. The model presents how the student uses their
prior coding in the comprehensible input, the affective filter affects the students’ ability
and motivation to acquire the information and when the students have acquired a new
code of the context, hence the new code will be decoded as a new memory (output).
(Laird, 2008)
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
BICS/ CALP
As Owens (2001) stated the progression of developing the meaning of words and
creating word combinations, “With more experience, knowledge becomes less dependent
(p.21). The quote justifies Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and
However deaf and hard of hearing children need to experience ASL acquisition using
BICS before transferring to ASL CALP. “Students’ success in using the strategies
effectively will also be possible if they are aware of writing strategies in both L1 [ASL]
and L2 [English]” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.130). When deaf and hard of hearing children
are equipped with schemas in both areas, ASL BICS and CALP, the children with a
strong L1 will be able to transfer the context and strategies to L2, which is English. “It
was found that, while some L1 strategies were transferred to the L2 writing processes, the
learners struggled in utilizing all strategies that could have helped them in their writing
process in the L2” (Polio & Shea, 2014, p.128). While acquiring English, it is noteworthy
considered part of BICS development (King & MacKey, 2004). The fluency in BICS
English will promote the deaf and hard of hearing children children to acquire CALP
English. As shown below, an adapted model, from Lessow-Hurley’s (2013) Context and
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
According to Freeman and Freeman (2009), there are students who struggled with
academic English through the university and graduate level. Why do students struggle?
To answer the question, Christen and Delgado (1993) explained, most of the bilingual
environment does not clearly exhibit the definition and balance of ASL and English.
Thus, how can educators diminish deaf and hard of hearing children’s struggle with
second language should be much the same” (King & MacKey, 2007, p. 219).
Unfortunately, as Lessow-Hurley (2013) pointed out the cognitive demands from the
classroom are focusing on written and verbal explanations rather than focusing on
students with normal intellectual abilities are seldom provided with early access to
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
explain the reason why these children often do not reach their potential in English
to develop their CALP skills. However before developing CALP skills, the students need
to have strong cognitive base in order to be able to transition their first language
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
(Pananaki, 2015)
“Once again, [researchers] are led to the conclusions that additive bilingualism
had positive effects and that language minority children should be provided with
explained, for a bilingual program to be successful, schools must promote the students’
The distinction (BICS & CALP) is important and useful because it reminds us
encounter [students] in the schoolyard, but they may not have the skills necessary
The children acquire the literacy skills via their play experience with their parents and
other adults (Singer, Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2007). Nowadays children are starting
school with fewer literacy skills than in the past. “For instance, children often have many
more chances to use English outside the home—in school, in the neighborhood, and
playing with peers—than their parents” (King & MacKey, 2007, p. 58). Moreover,
Lessow-Hurley (2013) stated, children with limited English proficiency are able to
acquire BICS in English rapidly from their day-to-day experience including listening to
media or peers’ conversations. Unlike hearing children, deaf and hard of hearing are not
accustomed to using English as a social language out of the classroom. Thus, deaf and
and metapragmatics opportunities out of the classroom as the hearing children. “There is
so much structure happening in speech, writing, or signing that deaf children can get lost
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
if there are no bridging strategies that help them move from one language to the other”
(Andrews, Leigh & Weiner, 2004, p.71). What the educators can do is spark deaf and
hard of hearing children’s interest in reading and writing in parallel with their prior
context. “When [students] are ready, their natural curiosity—and the fact that they have
come to recognize that the written word holds lots of information and fun—gets them
interested in reading” (Mahshie, 1995, p.3). Numerous studies have shown when literacy
materials are incorporated within play settings, the children’s interest was sparked and the
children were motivated to engage in the literacy acts. “[Student] identified with the
experiences, the characters, and the theme of the book because it was so much like [the
student]’s own story” (Freeman & Freeman, 2009, p. 163). Freeman and Freeman (2009)
emphasized on the importance of integrating students’ context within the instructions and
lesson plans to promote students’ ability to transfer their L1 schemas and strategies to L2.
their pragmatics knowledge and ability. “Much as we may try to mediate our lessons with
hands-on activities, objects, and illustrations, we are often several steps removed from
real-life experience” (p.91). Since there are a variety of theories and methods, it is
intelligences] can help in understanding your child’s strength, style, and preference for
learning” (King & MacKey, 2007, pp. 207-208). As the students’ learning style varies, the
table chart presented below is generated from the tips shared by Lessow-Hurley (2013).
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
“One way of doing this is to focus on second language topics and areas that your child is
enthusiastic about in his or her first language...” (King & MacKey, 2007, p.192). As there
are numerous of objects and experience, Easterbrooks and Baker (2002) explain how
children put the information into meaningful chunks of categories in their brain. “In
effect, children who come to school speaking more than one language, or who learn a
second language in school, benefit academically as long as both languages are nurtured
and developed to the fullest extent” (Lessow-Hurley, 2013, p.48). With that said, the
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
educators need to collaborate with deaf and hearing families in order to support families’
ability to facilitate the deaf and/or hard of hearing children’s language learning at home;
“In general, the more [children] know about the word and the more [they] use it, the
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
References
Andrews, J., Leigh, I., & Weiner, M. (2004). Deaf people: Evolving perspectives from
psychology, education, and sociology. Boston: Pearson.
Easterbrooks, S. & Baker, S. (2002). Language learning in children who are deaf and
hard of hearing: Multiple pathways. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Freeman, Y. & Freeman, D. (2009). Academic language for English language learners
and struggling readers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Retrieved
from https://bb.mcdaniel.edu/bbcswebdav/courses/2018GSP_ASL_535_OL/Mod
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%20SubjectArea%20Content%20%28Freeman%20%26%20Freeman%2C
%202009%29/Freeman%20%26%20Freeman%202009%20Chapter%207.pdf
King, K. & MacKey, A. (2007). The bilingual edge: Why, when, and how to teach your
child a second language. New York: HarperCollins.
Laird, E. (2008). Language Learning and Language Acquisition for Deaf and Hard of
Hearing Children: Foundational Issues [PPT].
Owens, R. (2001). Language development: An introduction (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Final (Capstone) Project Rachel Steingieser
DED 541: First and Second Language Learning McDaniel College: E. Laird
Bacon.
Pananaki, M. (2015). Bilingual Theories and the Swedish Bilingual Profile Reflected in
the Classroom: A Comparative Case-Study in two Swedish Bilingual Schools. 15-
18. Retrieved July 3, 2018, from https://www.diva-
portal.org/smash/get/diva2:855126/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
Polio, C., & Shea, M. C. (2014). An investigation into current measures of linguistic
accuracy in second language writing research. Journal of Second Language
Writing, 26, 10-27. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2014.09.003
Samuelsson, I. P., & Carlsson, M. A. (2008). The playing learning child: Towards a
pedagogy of early childhood. Scandinavian Journal of Educational
Research, 52(6), 623-641. doi:10.1080/00313830802497265
Singer, D., Golinkoff, R., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2007). Play = learning: How play motivates
and enhances childrens cognitive and social-emotional growth. Choice Reviews
Online, 44(07), 3-10. doi:10.5860/choice.44-4152