Geomorphology 39 Ž2001.

211–219
www.elsevier.nlrlocatergeomorph

Remote sensing and GIS-based regional geomorphological

mapping—a tool for land use planning in developing countries
G. Bocco a,) , M. Mendoza a , A. Velazquez
´ b

a
´ UniÕersidad Nacional Autonoma
Instituto de Ecologıa, ´ ´
de Mexico, ´ Mexico
AP 27-3, 58089 Xangari, Michoacan,
b
´ UniÕersidad Nacional Autonoma
Instituto de Geografıa, ´ ´
de Mexico, Mexico

Received 9 September 1999; received in revised form 11 December 2000; accepted 20 December 2000

Abstract

Land use planning and necessary supporting data are crucial to developing countries that are usually under severe
environmental and demographic strains. Approaches and methods to map the variability of natural resources are important
tools to properly guide spatial planning. In this paper, we describe a method to quickly map terrain at reconnaissance
Ž1:250,000. and semi-detailed Ž1:50,000. levels. This method can be utilized as a basis for further land evaluation and land
use planning in large territories. The approach was tested in the state of Michoacan, central-western Mexico, currently
undergoing rapid deforestation and subsequent land degradation.
Results at the reconnaissance level describe the geographic distribution of major landforms and dominant land cover, and
provide a synoptic inventory of natural resources. Results at the semi-detailed level indicate how to nest individual
landforms to major units and how they can be used to run procedures for land evaluation. If combined with appropriate
socioeconomic data, governmental guidelines for land use planning can be formulated on the basis of reconnaissance and
semi-detailed terrain analysis. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Geomorphological mapping; Land use planning; Remote sensing; GIS; Mexico

1. Introduction tries that are usually under severe environmental and

Land use planning results from a reasonable com-
promise between the environmental potential Žmea-
sured in terms of the availability of natural re-
sources. and the social demand Žmeasured in terms
of the requirements of goods and services by specific
human communities.. Land use planning and neces-
sary supporting data are crucial to developing coun-
)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q52-43-244537; fax: q52-43-
244537.
E-mail address: gbocco@oikos.unam.mx ŽG. Bocco..
demographic strains Žsee, e.g. Food and Agriculture
Organization, 1995.. Third World countries have
difficulty in meeting the high costs of controlling
natural hazards through major engineering works and
rational land use planning ŽGuzzetti et al., 1999..
In Mexico, for instance, a substantial amount of
the population lives in poverty conditions, especially
in rural communities. This has important environ-
mental implications because 80% of the remaining
Mexican forested areas Žtemperate and tropical. are
managed by indigenous people in rural communities
ŽThoms and Betters, 1998.. Usually, however, data

0169-555Xr01r$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 5 5 5 X Ž 0 1 . 0 0 0 2 7 - 7
212 G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219

on natural resources are either incomplete or non-up-

dated ŽBrodnig and Mayer, 2000.. In Mexico and in
many Latin American countries, basic geographic
data Žtopographic and thematic. exist at different
´
scales Žsee, e.g. Lugo and Cordova, 1996.. Monitor-
ing and analysis of natural resources at coarse scales,
however, is often lacking.
Feasible methods to map variability of natural
resources and natural hazards, and to assess land
capabilities Žsee Christian, 1957; Mabbut and Stew-
art, 1963; Wright, 1972; Cooke and Doornkamp,
1974; Steiner et al., 1994; Panizza, 1996; Rivas et
al., 1997; Pasuto and Soldati, 1999. are important
tools to properly guide spatial planning and may be
very useful in developing countries.
Geomorphological mapping still holds as a valu-
able research tool Žsee the case of fluvial geomor-
phology, for instance, in Castiglioni et al., 1999.. For
applied purposes, however, a rather pragmatic ap-
proach is recommendable, especially when surveys Fig. 1. Location map of study area.
encompass large areas and results must be available
quickly. In this paper, we describe a method to
quickly map terrain in relatively large territories pressions, and Temperate Highlands ŽCommission
Žthousands of square kilometers. and show how it for Environmental Cooperation, 1997..
can be used as a basis for further land evaluation and
land use planning in the event that relevant resource
data are either scarce, non-updated, or unavailable. 3. The approach: landform and landscape classifi-
This is the case in many developing countries, most cation
located in inter-tropical regions under fragile envi-
ronmental conditions. This approach uses landform mapping, at differ-
ent resolutions, as the major entry to landscape
classification. In this sense, we partially followed the
land system and terrain analysis mapping schemes
2. The study area developed in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in
Europe and Australia Žfor a review, see Verstappen,
We tested the approach in the state of Michoacan, 1983; van Zuidam and van Zuidam, 1985.. Invento-
Mexico ŽFig. 1. Žca. 60,000 km2 and 4 million ries of natural resources were completed relatively
inhabitants.. The region has undergone severe land quickly using those frameworks.
use change: deforestation rates are the highest in the Major technological advances, primarily during
country, per capita income is half the national aver- the last two decades, involve the following.
age, and indigenous groups living in marginal condi- Ži. The use of digital remote sensing and geo-
tions impact resource use. Climates in the region graphic information systems ŽGIS. techniques in re-
vary from tropical dry at the coast, to temperate and ´
source surveying Že.g. Lopez-Blanco and Villers,
semiarid inland, depending on elevation. Altitudes ´
1995; Pickup and Chewings, 1996; Garcıa-Melendez ´
range from sea level to ca. 3900 m asl. Major et al., 1998; Novak and Soulakellis, 2000.. An op-
physiographic units include Quaternary Volcanic portunity now exists to gain fresh insights into bio-
Temperate Sierras, Geologically Complex Temperate physical systems through the spatial, temporal, spec-
and Tropical Sierras, Fluvio-Tectonic Tropical De- tral, and radiometric resolutions of remote sensing
 G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219
systems and through the analytical and data integra-
tion capability of GIS ŽWalsh et al., 1998..
Žii. Developments in digital elevation modeling at
different resolutions and operational in personal
computers ŽDaymond et al., 1995; Giles and Franklin,
1998.. This technique allows full data extraction
from topographic maps, and the automation of slope
gradient and aspect calculations and display, includ-
ing the pseudo three-dimensional views.
Žiii. The development of automated frameworks
for land evaluation Že.g. Rossiter, 1990; Food and
Agriculture Organization, 1995.. Land capability as-
sessments were eased by automating analyses of soil
properties and the relationship between land form
and land quality.
All the above-mentioned advances were consid-
ered in this research. In addition, geomorphologic
mapping for the exercise followed a slightly different
approach. Landforms are discrete units that can read-
ily be defined and verified at different scales by
proven techniques. Vegetation and soils tend to vary
predictably within a landform unit and are affected
by altitude and slope aspect and gradient. Relation-
ships between landforms and soil, vegetation and
land use Žthe latter embodied here as land cover. can
be described using different analytical techniques
Žsuch as map overlaying. in automated databases of
a GIS. In other words, landforms are acceptable
integrated classifiers of the landscape, and can be
used to divide it into discrete segments.
Another relevant issue in this approach is the use
of a hierarchic classification of landforms, from
which nested legends can be derived at different
scales ŽZinck, 1988.. We formulated a legend and
mapped the entire state at 1:250,000 Žreconnaissance
level. and zoomed in on one area at 1:50,000 to
show how nesting could be accomplished Žat a
semi-detailed level.. For each scale, we focused on
different geomorphic and landscape criteria. We
aimed at developing mapping schemes that could, in
the future, be used by land use planners and conser-
vationists.
Throughout the entire analysis, we extensively
used Ži. interpretation of topographic maps and digi-
tal terrain models for relief; Žii. interpretation of
lithologic maps for bedrock, Žiii. interpretation of
aerial photographs and Landsat imagery for both
landforms and land cover, Živ. selective field verifi-
213
cation, and Žvi. automated data management and
analysis in a GIS. We applied map-overlaying tech-
niques coupled to statistical analyses to describe the
quantitative relationships between landscape compo-
nents: landforms, soils and vegetation.
For this exercise, we used the Integrated Land and
Watershed Management Information System ŽILWIS,
2000., a powerful, albeit user-friendly PC-based GIS
with vector Žincluding aerial photograph rectifica-
tion., raster and relational capabilities, and modeling
tools such as terrain modeling, geostatistics, map
calculation and Boolean algebra. For the carto-
graphic output, we used Arc View Žversion 3.2..
4. Method and materials
The region that was mapped ŽFig. 1. is carto-
graphically represented in five 1:250,000 base maps,
each constituted by 24 1:50,000 maps. All maps
were produced and edited by INEGI, the Mexican
national mapping agency. For the regional analysis,
we interpreted the topographic expression of relief
and lithology, respectively, on the topographic and
rock type maps at 1:50,000 for the entire state and
expressed results on 1:250,000 topographic maps. At
this scale, we basically used morphometry Žrelief
amplitude and slope gradient, derived from digital
terrain models. and morpholithology as discriminat-
ing criteria. We specifically excluded morphogenesis
at this coarse approximation; rather, we emphasized
a more physiognomic approach that eased mapping,
despite using quantitative criteria. The idea behind
this could be described as Ayou map what you seeB;
we thought that the scheme could be comprehensive
and useful to other specialists involved in planning.
A goal was to be clear and descriptive without losing
geomorphic quality.
Table 1
Major landforms with prominent relief expression
Unit name Relief amplitude Slope Dominant
Žm. steepness lithology
Very low hills - 250 3–88 volcanic
Low hills 250–500 6–208 volcanic
High hills 500–1000 20–458 various
Sierras 1000–4000 ) 308 various
214 G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219

Table 2 categories were tropical dry forest, temperate forest,

Major landforms without prominent relief expression shrubs–grasslands, crops, and human-induced fea-
Unit name Relief amplitude Slope Dominant tures. Spectral criteria depicted on the imagery were
Žm. steepness lithology
coupled to ancillary data layers: altitude and slope
Valleys -100 - 38 alluvial characteristics from the DEM, climate, rock type and
Plains -100 - 38 alluvial
relief. The resulting information was manually digi-
Plateaus -100 -68 volcanic
Piedmonts 100–500 -108 alluvio-colluvial tized to GIS databases where cartographic overlaying
operations provided quantitative relationships be-
tween landforms and land cover. Field verification
consisted of transects following roads that inter-
The entire area was divided into two broad groups sected major environmental units. At this scale, we
of major landforms, with and without important re- basically verified land cover and ambiguous geomor-
lief expression. For the first group, we differentiated phic contacts.
four geomorphic regions: very low hills, low hills, For the semi-detailed analysis, we focused on a
high hills, and sierras. The second group was formed volcanic area near Morelia, the capital city of Mi-
by four other regions: valleys, plains, highplains, and choacan. We interpreted 1:50,000 and 1:80,000
piedmonts. The thresholds for discriminating criteria panchromatic black-and-white, up-to-date aerial pho-
Žrelief amplitude and slope steepness. are given in tography for landform and land cover delineation
Tables 1 and 2, respectively, for both groups of Žvan Zuidam and van Zuidam, 1985.. Within each
landforms; in this way, the method can be replicated regional unit, landforms were discriminated primar-
in similar environmental conditions. ily according to morphogenesis. Because of scale
Dominant vegetation and land use Žland cover. constraints of the regional mapping, same landform
was visually interpreted from improved color com- units may be located within more than one regional
positions of Landsat images, geometrically correct unit ŽTable 3.. Vegetation delineation differentiated
and printed at 1:250,000 scale by INEGI. Mapping some of the categories defined above.

Table 3
Geomorphic regions and landforms, characterized by lithology and dominant soil and land cover
Geomorphic region Landform
ŽA. Plains Ž1. Alluvial plain with vertisols and crops
Ž2. Mesa on basic lava with feozems and crops
ŽB. Piedmonts Ž1. Alluvial plain with vertisols and crops
Ž3. Scoria cones with andisols, crops, and shrubs
Ž4. Concave upper footslopes on basic volcanic rocks with a pyroclastic cover,
luvisols, crops, and grasslands
Ž5. Convex upper footslopes on basic volcanic rocks without a pyroclastic cover,
luvisols, grasslands, and oak forest
Ž6. Lower footslopes on volcanic colluvium with clayey soils and crops
Ž7. Basaltic lava flows with leptosols and andisols, shrubs, and crops
ŽC. Very low hills Ž1. Alluvial plain with vertisols and crops
Ž2. Mesa on basic lava with feozems and crops
Ž7. Basaltic lava flows with litosols and andisols, shrubs, and crops
Ž8. Gentle slopes on basic volcanic rocks, with andisols, crops and shrubs
Ž9. Undifferentiated footslopes, on basic rocks with acrisols and crops
ŽD. Low hills Ž9. Undifferentiated footslopes on basic rocks with acrisols and crops
Ž10. Steep slopes on basic rocks with andisols, and pines, oaks, and mixed forests
ŽE. High hills Ž8. Gentle slopes on basic volcanic rocks with andisols, crops, and shrubs
Ž10. Steep slopes on basic rocks with andisols, and pines, oaks, and mixed forests
Ž11. Summit surface on basic volcanic rocks, with andisols and crops

Notice that the same landform may be recognized in more than one region.
G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219 215

Fig. 2. Major geomorphic regions.

 216
G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219
Fig. 3. Semi-detailed analysis of landforms, dominant soils and land cover. See description of mapping in Table 3.
 G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219 217

Interpretations were manually digitized directly the narrowing-down of future research and policy
from photographs and geometrically corrected using concern.
the monorestitution capability of the GIS ŽMc- At the semi-detailed level, the results of nesting
Cullough and Moore, 1995.. This method allows the individual landforms were discriminated using mor-
rectification of aerial photographs through ground phogenetic criteria grouped into major units ŽTable
control points and digital elevation data. Soil infor- 3.. The approach at 1:50,000 can be used to run land
mation was digitized from INEGI maps at 1:50,000. evaluation procedures ŽRossiter, 1990; Steiner et al.,
We verified landforms and cover interpretations 1994. whose results can be further combined with
in the field along a transect from plain to high hills. appropriate socioeconomic data to formulate guide-
The accuracy of the database was inspected follow- lines for land use planning. In Mexico, 1:50,000 is a
ing Bocco and Riemann Ž1997.. This method tests suitable scale for environmental planning of most
the efficiency during labeling of digitized polygons municipalities.
and allows for error correction. This mapping effort is currently used by the
Ministry of the Environment to assess the change of
land cover at a regional scale ŽBocco et al., 1998..
5. Results and discussion The statistics obtained indicate severe trends of de-
forestation in temperate Ž1% annual rate. and dry
The results of the mapping are presented in a forests Ž2% annual rate., as well as a strong increase
generalized manner ŽFigs. 2 and 3.. Quantitative data of the areas under shrubs and grasses following
are summarized in Table 4. Results at the reconnais- cattle grazing in scarcely populated areas. In turn,
sance level quantitatively describe the geographic deforested areas for cattle are abandoned and other
distribution of major landforms and dominant land non-productive uses may prevail. In many remote
cover. This shows a synoptic inventory of forest areas, illegal crops Žsuch as cannabis. are found.
resources that can guide planning efforts at the state Because land cover data can be easily updated in the
level. In the case of Michoacan, comparison of land automated GIS created, sequential analysis of the
cover to landforms indicates that severe deforestation change in cover is feasible. Landforms remain, how-
is occurring in steep terrain Žhills and sierras. that ever, as the basic analytical spatial unit.
should be devoted to forest because of its unsuitabil- The entire survey took 12 personrmonths. Be-
ity for other uses ŽBocco et al., 1998.. Areas of cause the investigation was carried out in an aca-
inappropriate or potentially conflictive land use are demic institution, costs of human resources were
thus easily detected at this coarse scale and permit minimized, and hands-on training of assistants was
achieved. The total cost, including maps, images,
Table 4 scholarships and fieldwork, was around US-
Quantitative distribution of major landforms and dominant cover $0.50rkm2 .
Geomorphic Percentage Dominant cover The method avoids the use of specialized termi-
region of total area nology as much as possible without becoming vague.
Valleys 5.3 crops, dry forest This insures the use of data by non-geomorpholo-
Plains 7.5 crops gists, such as social scientists, involved in planning.
Plateaus 1.0 dry and temperate In Mexico, regional ecological mapping, based on
forests geomorphology, is used by the National Institute of
Piedmonts 8.0 crops
Ecology ŽMinistry of the Environment. for land use
Very low hills 17.9 crops, dry forest
Low hills 15.0 dry forest, crops planning at the national and local scales. In Michoa-
High hills 16.6 dry and temperate can, the regional geomorphologic mapping described
forests, grass–shrubs in this paper is the basis for further mapping and
Sierras 27.1 dry and temperate planning efforts by the local planning authority in
forests, grass–shrubs
the Cuitzeo basin, the second largest lake in Mexico.
The difference to 100% is occupied by water and man-made This basin is severely degraded; off-site effects of
features. Dominant cover represents more than 60% of unit areas. soil erosion are dramatic on the water body.
218 G. Bocco et al.r Geomorphology 39 (2001) 211–219
6. Conclusions
In the 21st century, scientists will be judged on
how well they generate new knowledge, and also for
how well they help solve local and global problems.
Scientists in every nation must take action to ensure
that policy makers and the public make their deci-
sions based on the best available information ŽAl-
berts, 2000..
The approach and results discussed in this paper
are in line with the idea of geomorphologists influ-
encing societal decision-making ŽGupta and Ahmad,
1999.. This also holds for other scientific communi-
ties that are concerned with the outreach of scientific
results at large ŽLudwig et al., 1993.. Especially in
Third World countries searching for sustainable de-
velopment strategies, the gap between science and
policy can be bridged through multidisciplinary ef-
forts.
Two possible linked paths are Ži. matching the
knowledge base to user needs and transforming input
to decision making into publishable research ŽSnow,
1998.; and Žii. strengthening capabilities in rural
communities for resource management through par-
ticipatory research approaches ŽGobin et al., 2000..
Acknowledgements
We thank Lorenzo Vazquez,´ Alan Woods and
Glenn Griffith for critically reading an early version
of the paper. Mauro Soldatti and Mario Panizza
kindly reviewed the manuscript. Two anonymous
referees critically contributed to improving the final
version of this paper. Research on which the article
is based was funded by CONACYT ŽSIMORELOS
Programme 1996: Land Use Change in Michoacan..
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