11 Persuasive Speaking Jaffe

Chapter
17
This Chapter Will
Help You
• Find a subject for a

persuasive speech
• Decide on a claim of
fact, value, or policy
• Diagram and explain

Toulmin’s model of
reasoning
• Analyze your audi-

ence’s attitude toward
your topic
Diana Ong/SuperStock
• Develop a speech to
convince
• Create a speech to
actuate behaviors
Persuasive Speaking
FROM ANCIENT ATHENS to today’s law courts, governing assemblies, and
ceremonial or ritual occasions, rhetoric—the art of finding the available means Review the
chapter
of persuasion—has enabled democracy to thrive.1 Because civic engagement
Learning
and free speech are valued in US culture, you, too, can be a person of influence Objectives
who attempts to persuade others to believe or to act in ways you find desirable. and Start
with a quick
The role of persuasive speaking varies cross-culturally, as Diversity in Practice: warm-up
Persuasion in China illustrates. activity.
This chapter provides information about selecting a topic, using a model of

reasoning, deciding on a claim, and analyzing your audience’s attitude toward
that claim. Then it gives guidelines for creating speeches to convince and to
motivate listeners to act.
Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Select Your Persuasive Topic 235
Persuasion in China Diversity

in Practice
As China rapidly becomes a global superpower,

interactions between China and the West high-
light some fundamental assumptions about
influence and persuasion. Li Liu,2 a professor
at Beijing Normal University, summarizes the
© PaulPaladin/Shutterstock.com
Western model of persuasion as a combination
of ethos, pathos, and logos by which persuaders
hope to sway others. In contrast, Chinese per-
suasion follows a more collectivist model that
is dialogical and interdependent—reflecting
Confucian ideals of harmonious relationships
Chinese art symbolizing yin-yang that balance yang (power, light, masculinity)
(Tai Chi). and yin (passivity, darkness, femininity).
In China, a person’s sense of self is embed-
ded in family and social relationships; consequently, persuasion is grounded in
these associations. Within the family, influence is based in filial piety (respect
for parents) and in maintaining family harmony. Outside the family, influence is
grounded in guanxi, or relationships that operate on reciprocity; obligations that
emerge from these relationships become tools of influence.
How do cultural differences work out in practice? Researchers explain that
messages are more persuasive when they are tailored to embedded cultural frames,
when they include culturally relevant themes, and when the recipients are aware
of cultural distinctions. For example, European Americans were more likely to
believe that caffeine posed risks and they should alter their behaviors when the
message was framed as hurting them personally. However, Asian Americans were
more persuaded by messages that focused on their relational obligations.3
On weblink 17.1, watch the video in which two Chinese people explain the
concept of guanxi. Then talk with a few classmates about how guanxi might affect
an American who is doing business in China.
Select Your Persuasive Topic

Choosing a persuasive topic can be challenging. It should be disputable, significant Read, highlight, and take
to others, and important to you because it’s arguably more ethical to influence others notes online.
toward a viewpoint or action that you personally believe, care about, and actually
practice. So begin your topic search by asking yourself several questions.4
• What do I believe strongly? What do I accept as true that my audience might dispute?
What issues and ideas do I think are false?
• What arouses my emotions? What angers me? What are my pet peeves? What arouses
my pity? When am I happiest? What do I fear?
• What social ideals do I support? What changes would I like to see in society? What
current problems or conditions could improve if we were convinced there is a
236 CHAPTER 17 Persuasive Speaking
problem, that solutions exist, and that we can be part of those solutions? For which
causes would I sign a petition or join a protest?
• What practices enrich my life? What have I discovered that makes life more meaningful?
What activities expand our horizons? Improve our health? Lead to more fulfilling
personal relationships?
Carrie’s speech about grief counseling on campus grew out of her experiences
following her father’s death. (It is available in Appendix B and on your online resources.)
Other students spoke to convince listeners that rap music reinforces male dominance,
that photoshopped images in ads are unethical, that the audience should attend a ballet
or learn another language, and so on.
Make a Claim
claim a debatable point or After you have chosen a topic, your next step is to identify the major claim—a debatable
proposal, conclusion, or gen- point or proposal, conclusion, or generalization—to support, whether it be fact, value,
eralization that some people or policy.
won’t accept without some
sort of evidence or backing
Claims of Fact
factual claims argument Factual claims address controversial questions about what, when, where, why, or
about debatable points, how something happened or will happen. We use terms such as true or false, correct or
causation, or predictions incorrect, yes or no to assess their validity. The three general categories regarding facts are
debatable points, causal relationships, and predictions.
debatable points disputable Debatable points are disputable statements about things that do or do not exist
statement about facts of exis- (existence) or things that did or did not happen (history). Here are two examples about
tence or history which reasonable people disagree:
There is life on other planets.
Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone to assassinate President Kennedy.
causal claim claim about Causal claims are made about the relationship between occurrences. Often two
the relationship links between things regularly occur together (correlation). But does that mean they are linked in
occurrences such a way that the first one leads to the other? In other words, correlation and causa-
correlation two things occur
tion are not synonymous. For example, skipping breakfast and poor grades may occur
together, but one does not together in an elementary school (correlation), but does skipping breakfast actually lead
necessarily lead to the other to poor grades (causation)? Other factors such as tardiness and absences may have more
impact on grades than breakfast.5 Here are examples of causal claims:
Certain meat marinades reduce carcinogens in grilled chicken.6
Too much time spent on Facebook causes depression in young girls.
claims of prediction claim Claims of prediction contend that something will or will not happen in the future.
that something will or will For example,
not happen in the future
Almost every country will be able to build or buy armed drones within ten years.7
A deadly strain of flu will become a pandemic in the coming year.
In short, debatable points, causal claims, and predictions generate differences of
opinion that need evidence or support before audiences accept them. All three types
often exist in the same issue. Take climate change, for example. Someone might argue
that (1) unnatural climate change exists, (2) human activity caused it, and (3) if we don’t
do something, there will be dire consequences for the planet. Others might accept the
existence of change, but dispute the causes or the proposed solutions.
Make a Claim 237
Within a single topic such

as climate change, people
often disagree on existence
or extent, on causes, and
on predictions regarding the
future.
© kwest/Shutterstock.com
Claims of Value
When you evaluate something using terms such as right or wrong, good or better or best,
beautiful or ugly, worthwhile or not worthwhile, you’re making a value claim. Here are value claim argument about
some value claims (with the evaluative term in italics): right or wrong, moral or
immoral, beautiful or ugly
It’s unfair for giant corporations to avoid paying taxes.
Boxing is inhumane.
National security is more important than personal privacy during airport screenings.
Note that the third claim agrees that national security and personal privacy are both
important, but the argument is over which value should take priority in the specific
context. Similarly, in the abortion debate, pro-choice people are not anti-life, nor are
pro-lifers anti-choice. However, the two sides disagree over which value should have
precedence when a woman faces an unwanted pregnancy.
Resolving value conflicts requires agreement on the criteria or standards for decid- criteria the standards used
ing what is moral or immoral, fair or unfair, humane or inhumane. That’s why it’s vital for making evaluations or
to state the criteria you’re using to judge. If you can convince listeners to accept your judgments
standards, they’ll more readily accept your judgment; even if you fail to convince them,
they can at least understand the reasoning behind your argument.
Claims of Policy
Policy claims are disputable statements we make about courses of action, whether per- policy claims disputed
sonal or on a broader basis. To identify them, look for the terms should or would. There claim about the need to act
are basically three types of policy claims: policies should change, behaviors should or the plan for taking action
change, and policies (or actions) should remain the same.
status quo Latin phrase that Status quo is a Latin phrase that means the existing state of affairs, and arguments
means “the existing state of against the status quo are arguments for change. When you argue against the status quo,
affairs” the burden of proof is your responsibility because, as the cultural saying puts it, “If it
ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” Consequently, it’s up to you to prove that there is a significant
burden of proof responsibil-
ity of the speaker who argues
problem and that it can and should be fixed by the solution you propose. Examples
against the status quo to include the following:
make the case for change Congress should adopt a flat tax system.
Our campus should create a grief support system.
Some policy claims aim at personal behaviors. Here, your goal is to have your
audience change their actions, as these examples illustrate:
Every student should get involved in a civic engagement project.
Students should cut up their credit cards.
In contrast, arguments supporting the status quo are in favor of the current
presumption assumption situation and against change. These claims have presumption, meaning that the status
that change is not necessary quo is assumed to be workable. (In courts of law, presumption of innocence lies with
until proven otherwise the defendant. The prosecution must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.) Here are
some claims supporting the status quo:
The university should not raise tuition.
You should stay in school instead of dropping out.
Often people agree that there is a problem, and they may even agree on its causes.
However, they argue over solutions. For example, educational reformers may agree that
education needs improvement, and they may similarly argue against the status quo, but
their solutions become debatable. Some argue for smaller classes. Others advocate for
alternative schools; still others think vouchers are the way to solve specific problems.
Although we separate claims of fact, value, and policy for analysis, in reality persua-
sive speeches commonly include a combination of claims. Effective speakers skillfully
blend fact, value, and policy claims in order to successfully persuade an audience.
argument intentional,
Use Toulmin’s Model of Reasoning
purposeful, rational activity
created to explain disputed Some people say they hate to argue because they think of arguments as word fights.
beliefs and conclusions However, as Chapter 16 pointed out, in rhetoric, an argument provides a set of reasons
in support of a disputed idea or action. Put another way, an argument is “an intentional,
Toulmin’s Model of purposeful activity involving reason and judgment” 8 that you create to explain your
Reasoning a linear model beliefs and conclusions to people who don’t initially accept them.9 Professor Stephen
designed to show six ele- Toulmin10 diagrammed a six-element linear model—Toulmin’s Model of Reasoning—
ments of reasoning common shown in Figure 17.1, that depicts a type of reasoning common in the United States.
in the United States
Claims, as noted earlier, are the debatable points or proposals, conclusions, or gen-
qualifiers word or phrase eralizations that some people won’t accept without some sort of evidence or backing.
that limits the scope of the Qualifiers are words and phrases that limit or narrow the scope of the claim.
claim Instead of saying always or never, substitute limiting phrases such as in most cases, in males
between the ages of 7 and 9, usually, and among women with a college degree.
grounds, data, or evidence
Grounds, data, or evidence are materials used to support your claims as described
supporting material for
in Chapter 8. Use facts, examples, statistics, and so on from a variety of reliable sources,
claims
and arrange the data in the order your listeners will find most reasonable or most
unsupported assertion forceful. 11 Without sufficient and credible grounds, your claims are unsupported
unsupported claim assertions.
Assess Your Audience’s Attitude 239
Figure 17.1
Toulmin’s Model of
Reasoning
Grounds
(Evidence) Claim
Warrant Rebuttal
Backing Qualifier
Warrants are the assumptions, justifications, or logical links you and your listeners warrants assumption that
use to connect your evidence with your claim. Warrants come from cultural traditions justifies or logically links the
and institutional rules, laws, or principles.12 For example, the Constitution lets police evidence to the claim
officers search a suspect only after they get a warrant showing sufficient evidence to link
the suspect to the crime. If a fingerprint on a gun (evidence) matches the suspect’s print
(additional evidence), it is logical to conclude that the suspect fired the gun (claim of
fact) because our fingerprints are all unique (the warrant that links the evidence to the
claim).
In many cases, warrants are implicit. For example, ads for vitamins use words like
perkiness, power, and energy. The advertisers assume that buyers want those qualities and
will associate them with the product. An audience that disagrees with the warrant won’t
accept the argument.13
Backing gives additional reasons to support or defend a warrant that is not broadly backing additional reasons
understood or broadly accepted. For example, if blood were found on a defendant’s to support or defend a
jacket (evidence) but the jury doesn’t get the link (warrant) between the blood evidence warrant
and the defendant, the prosecution brings in experts who explain the science of DNA
(backing) and testify that the blood must belong to the victim (backing). If buyers don’t
associate “perkiness” with vitamins, the ad makers might bring in scientific evidence or
testimonials to strengthen the link.
The rebuttal part of the model assumes your listeners have questions that begin rebuttal counterargument
with the word But … or the phrase But what about … ? As a “listening speaker,” you the audience might have
should try to hear their potential counter arguments and then prepare to deal with
them directly. Demonstrating that you’ve considered arguments both for and against
your conclusions and that you still have good reasons for your claim enhances your
persuasiveness.
In summary, if you learn to recognize the type of claim you are making, qualify
it, provide evidence and backing to warrant it, and then confront potential audience
rebuttals, you will be more effective in presenting your ideas to others and having them
recognize your views as reasonable.
Assess Your Audience’s Attitude

Much persuasion-related research focuses on attitudes, which Chapter 6 described as
positive or negative evaluations of a topic, claims, and goals. Attitudes include both
mental (what we believe about it) and emotional (how we feel about it) components, and
Table 17.1
Audience attitudes involve a combination of their beliefs, emotions, and actions regarding your topic.
strongly moderately neutral moderately strongly
BELIEFS disagree disagree no beliefs either agree agree
way
EMOTIONS hostile negative no evaluation positive favorable
either way
ACTIONS never act rarely act unaware of need sometimes act always act
to act
ATTITUDE negative negative neutral positive positive
<–——convince first, then motivate to act——–> <–reinforce or motivate to act-–>
most difficult—————————————————————————easiest
they form the basis for our actions. The Princeton University Cognitive Science website
summarizes attitudes as complex mental states “involving beliefs and feelings and values
and dispositions to act in certain ways.”14
Chapter 6 showed an attitude scale ranging from strong agreement or acceptance
to strong disagreement or nonacceptance. Table 17.1 illustrates how an audience’s atti-
tude can range from strong support to strong opposition to your claim. In between, are
neutral listeners—often because they lack information to form an opinion either way
or because they are apathetic and lack motivation to care or to do something about the
issue. Obviously, it’s most difficult to persuade someone who is strongly opposed to the
position you are advocating.
In general, the following guidelines will help you plan effective speeches that are
sensitive to audience attitudes:
• When listeners are neutral toward your claim, ask why. Do they lack information?
If so, start by giving relevant information they can use to form an opinion. Follow up
with emotional appeals to create either a positive or negative attitude toward your
topic. Are they apathetic? Then use emotional appeals by linking the topic to them in
as many ways as you can, and appeal to values such as fairness and justice.
• When differences are mild, approach your audience directly. Use objective data to
make a clear case; present the positive facets of your subject, and make links to per-
sonal and community values your audience accepts. This way, although they might
still disagree with you, they can understand why you hold your position.
• When your listeners are negative toward your proposal, rethink your options.
With mildly or moderately negative audiences, try to lessen the negative so they
can see positive aspects of your proposal. If they’re strongly opposed, you face a
hostile audience. So set modest goals and aim for small attitudinal changes. Present
your points clearly so that they will at least understand how you came to your
conclusions.
• When audiences reject your proposals, approach the subject indirectly by estab-
lishing common ground. For instance, begin with a statement with which everyone
agrees, and explain why there is agreement. Then make a statement that most would
accept, and explain why this is so. Move gradually to the disputed point. By this time,
they will have seen that they agree with you on many points, and as a result, they may
be less negative toward your ideas.15
• When the audience is hostile toward you personally, it’s vital to emphasize com-
mon ground between yourself and your listeners—challenging as this is.
Choose a Specific Purpose 241
Generally, attitudes change incrementally, so expect change to be gradual. Each

new encounter with the subject may bring about only a slight alteration in attitude, but
eventually, the small changes can add up.
Choose a Specific Purpose

After you better understand your audience’s attitude and how that affects your strate-
gies, consider the specific response you want from your listeners. Do you want them to
mentally accept your ideas? Do you want to motivate them to act? Each specific purpose
requires different strategies.
Persuasive Goal: To Convince

Often, audience members don’t believe your claim or accept your value judgment, either
because they hold a different viewpoint or because they haven’t thought much about the
subject. Consequently, when you want mental agreement with your claim—whether it is
a claim of fact, value, or policy—you design a speech to convince. convince a persuasive pur-
pose that targets audience
Convincing about Facts beliefs
Some general strategies are effective when your goal is to convince listeners to believe
a disputed fact, accept a causal relationship, or agree that your prediction is probable.
• Define important terminology and provide a history of the issue.
• Build your case carefully, using only high-quality evidence that passes the tests for
credible supporting material. Research studies show that statistics are particularly
useful for this goal.16
• Rely more on logical appeals than on emotional appeals.
• Prove your competence by being knowledgeable about the facts and by citing your
sources.
• Show respect for your listeners’ intelligence and divergent beliefs.
For example, Kelli decided to argue a factual claim of causation: Playing with fashion
dolls leads to poor body images in young girls. Many audience members disagreed mildly;
the females who grew up playing with these dolls didn’t feel particularly harmed. The
males hadn’t thought much about it. So most of her audience was neutral or moderately
opposed to her causal claim. Her burden was to prove the link, and her best strategies
were logos or rational proofs. Here is how she built her case:17
• First, she provided a brief history of the most famous fashion doll of all: Barbie.
• She countered a common myth (“Barbie’s body would be bent in half constantly if
she were alive because her lower body could not support her upper body”) by report-
ing, “I couldn’t find any facts to support this, but I did find a study in Sex Roles Journal
of 1996 that discussed the proportions of Barbie’s body.”18
• Next, she explained a study reported by developmental psychologists in the journal
Adolescence that showed the importance of toys in children’s development.19
• Following this, she reported that a study from the journal Developmental Psychology20
explained that children internalize images from dolls and become aware of their body
image at around age 6, and some 6-year-old girls already have body dissatisfaction.
The study also compared girls who played with Barbie to girls who played with Emme,
a larger-sized fashion doll, and found the former had more negative body images.
• Her final point was a finding that adolescent females believed fashion dolls were
images of perfection, and both males and females believed they affected girls’ self-
image. Most said they were bad role models.21
• She concluded by emphasizing her goal: Her purpose was to convince listeners of
a link between fashion dolls and body image (causal claim) not to call for a ban on
these dolls (policy claim).
Overall, the studies by experts provided Kelli’s listeners with good reasons to see
the link.
Convincing about Values

Because we don’t agree on evaluations of people, objects, policies, and so on, we often
try to convince others to share our judgments. Here are two value claims: (1) embryonic
stem cell research is wrong; and (2) finding cures for people who are currently alive is
more important than preserving an embryo. The first makes a judgment about the issue;
the second argues that both values are important, but one supersedes the other in a
specific context.
For a variety of reasons, value judgments within a single audience may vary so
widely that some judge a topic, such as gay marriage, as unethical whereas others con-
sider it a moral necessity. Furthermore, because values are assumptions about what is
good, value questions often generate deep emotional responses. It is nearly impossible
to move listeners from judging a topic as unethical to evaluating it as highly ethical
because of a single speech, but here are some tips for arguing value claims:
• Use emotional appeals. Examples are a good way to help listeners identify with
those involved in the issue. Also, link the topic to related values that everyone can
criteria-satisfaction pattern agree on, such as fairness or freedom.
good for value or definition • Appeal to authority if your audience accepts your source as authoritative.
speeches; sets forth stan- (See Chapter 8.) Some audiences will be moved by appeals to cultural traditions,
dards for judgment or for words of poets, philosophers, scientists, or scriptural texts; others will discount those
inclusion in a category and
same authorities.
then shows how the proposal
meets or exceeds these stan- One useful organizational strategy is the criteria-satisfaction pattern in which
dards or fits into the category you first establish the standards you’re using to evaluate the topic and then show how
Value claims often arouse

deep emotions, and many
people feel horror at the
claim that a snake makes a
good pet. So Helene carefully
set up acceptable criteria for
good pets and then showed
how snakes met those
criteria.
© Matt Jeppson/Shutterstock.com
your subject meets those standards. Set audience-centered criteria22 by answering ques-
tions such as these:
• What criteria do we use to make and apply judgments regarding this issue?
• Where do these criteria come from?
• Why should we accept these sources?
Helene faced a hostile or at least moderately negative crowd when she presented
her value claim: Snakes make good pets. So she first set up some criteria that people com-
monly look for in a good pet:23
• A pet should be interesting.
• Pets should be easy to care for.
• You should be able to read a pet’s emotions.
She then linked each point to snakes.
• She presented several interesting facts about snakes.
• She described how easy they were to care for.
• She explained how to read a snake’s emotions.
At the end of her speech, no one was ready to run out and buy a snake, but listeners
were more willing to evaluate snakes positively—at least as pets for someone else.
Convincing about Policies

To convince an audience that a policy claim is workable, you must adequately address
the stock issues, which are defined as the fundamental questions that must be answered stock issues the questions
if a proposition is to be accepted or rejected. In other words, what questions would a a reasonable person would
thinking, reasonable person ask and need to have answered to make a reasoned decision need to have answered
about a particular issue?24 before forming a reasoned
decision about a topic
The four stock issues related to policy claims are harm (or ill), blame, cure, and cost.
• Harm is sometimes called ill. Here you define the problem, explain its history, and harm the problem in a stock
show that it is significant enough to call for a solution. Develop the quantitative harms issues case; also called ill
(the number of people affected) by using statistics or studies that show how wide-
spread it is. Also include qualitative harms (how it affects an individual’s or group’s
quality of life) by using examples or testimony from people involved with the
problem.
• Blame is the “cause” part of the problem where you link a cause or causes to the blame the cause of the
effects you established in the harm section. What elements of the status quo contrib- problem
ute to the problem or allow it to remain unsolved? Some causes may be structural,
meaning that laws or organizations are either in place and should be removed, or
that structures are lacking, and the problem exists because they are not there. Other
causes may be attitudinal, meaning that individuals or groups lack the understand-
ing or the will to solve the problem. Either way, support your causal claims by using
scientific studies, plausible explanations, and testimony from experts who have inves-
tigated the problem in depth.25
• Cure is the “solution” section of the speech where you provide a plan and describe cure the solution
how it will create solvency, an effective solution to the problem. What must happen
solvency the proposed
for the problem to be solved? Who will do it? How? Through what agency? At what
plan will actually solve the
price? How will the plan eliminate or bypass the structural or attitudinal causes? problem
Clear and detailed answers to these questions will help convince your listeners that
your plan will actually solve the problem.
• Cost is the “feasibility” part of the plan in which you do a cost–benefit analysis and cost advantages weighed
weigh the advantages against the disadvantages. You must show that the plan will actu- against the disadvantages
ally work. Some plans look good on paper, but they are too costly in time or money
to be practical.
In summary, you must convince your audience that a problem exists and that it
affects a significant quantity of people and alters their quality of life. You then convince
them that it was caused by structures or attitudes that can either be eliminated or cir-
cumvented by your proposed plan. Give enough details so that listeners can understand
how the plan will work, and provide a cost–benefit analysis so they are convinced that it
is practical.
US citizens got a lesson in policy debating when the federal government enacted
health care reform called “Obamacare.”
• [Harm] Almost everyone agreed that problems existed in the status quo and affected
great numbers of people in ways that hurt their quality of life. Health costs were
high; insurance rates were skyrocketing; not everyone had access to the treatments
and medications they needed, and so on.
• [Blame] Congress pointed to structural causes including (depending on who you
asked) for-profit health insurance companies, too many malpractice lawsuits, the lack
of a single-payer government system, and so on. Attitudes also contribute. Too many
people demand unnecessary procedures from costly specialists.26
• [Cure] Congress passed a giant plan that most members did not actually read. Critics
disputed details of the plan; some thought it went too far; others thought it didn’t
go far enough. When it actually rolled out in October 2013, several flaws showed up
that required adjustments to the plan.
• [Cost] The cost of the overhaul was hotly debated. Cost-saving benefits were touted
by supporters and disputed by detractors. Advantages and disadvantages are still
being weighed.
Time, energy, and money continue to go into the ongoing task of ensuring that the
structural changes in the law will eventually solve for the quantitative and qualitative
harms in the previous health care system.
Persuasive Goal: To Actuate

When you want your audience to change their behaviors, your specific purpose is to
actuate motivate the audi- actuate. This requires you to consider their beliefs about your topic, their motivations,
ence to do something and their opinions about whether or not they can and should act as you suggest. This
section discusses two theories that explain motivations to act: cognitive dissonance
theory and the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). It then provides an organizational
pattern commonly used to motivate behaviors.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Often we behave in ways that are inconsistent with our beliefs or values. Leon Festinger27
cognitive dissonance developed the cognitive dissonance theory to explain the resulting inconsistency or
theory humans seek stability dissonance we experience. He originally studied smokers who continued to smoke even
or equilibrium; when faced though they knew it harmed their bodies. In this theory, living organisms, including
with inconsistency they seek humans, seek balance or equilibrium. When challenged with inconsistency, we try to
psychological balance; this return to a balanced psychological state. Consequently, if our behaviors fail to match
may motivate them to change
our beliefs, we typically experience discomfort until we either alter our beliefs to match
in order to be consistent
our behaviors or alter our behaviors to match our beliefs.
dissonance inconsistency Inconsistency between action and belief is one of the best motivators for change.
or clash For example, it is easier to persuade you to consult an employment counselor if you are
stuck in a job you hate than if you love everything about your current workplace. If you
strongly support a political party’s ideas but do nothing, it’s easier to persuade you to
vote than if you care nothing about politics. In short, keep this theory in mind when
your audience’s behaviors don’t match up with their beliefs and ideals.
We are motivated to act when

our attitude toward the task
is positive, we think other
people would support our
actions, and we think we can
actually do the task. This
then reduces dissonance by
bringing our behaviors into
line with our ideals such as
helping others.
© Mangostock/Shutterstock.com
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is another good way to think about the theory of reasoned action
process of motivating actions because it adds a social component—what our friends and (TRA) links behavioral inten-
family think. It assumes that we are rational and will systematically weigh the costs and tions with attitudes, subjec-
benefits of acting, given an opportunity to do so.28 We also act in ways that allow us to tive norms, and perceived
meet the expectations of others. In short, our behaviors line up with three things: (1) our behavioral control; assumes
we rationally weigh costs and
attitudes, including both our beliefs and feelings about the topic; (2) our subjective
benefits of our actions
norms, which are our perceptions of what people who are important to us think we
should do; and (3) our perceived behavioral control, our opinion about our ability to subjective norms our per-
accomplish the behavior in question.29 All three factors influence our intentions to act, ceptions of what significant
although our attitudes generally carry more weight. Interestingly, one study found that people think we should do
people in a collectivist culture scored higher on subjective norms, but this did not neces-
sarily predict their intention to act.30 perceived behavioral
For illustration, let’s say a speaker urges listeners to donate blood, and she wants control our opinion about
our ability to do a behavior
them to understand that they can easily do this. So, in addition to motivational appeals,
she includes specific information about where and when to find the bloodmobile on
campus. An audience member might reason like this:
I think I’ll donate blood this afternoon (intention) at the bloodmobile on campus
(opportunity). I dislike needles and taking time from my studying (negative attitude/
cost), but I like the idea of saving someone’s life (positive attitude/benefits). My friends
and family donate blood (subjective norms), and they’d admire me for donating
(benefits). Therefore, I’ll do it.
In contrast, another listener might respond differently:
I don’t intend to donate today or in the near future (intention). I hate needles and
can’t take time from studies (negative attitude/cost), and I do a lot of other things to
help others. None of my friends or family would know or care (subjective norms)
whether or not I went. So count me out.
In short, the Theory of Reasoned Behavior adds a social dimension to motivation.

People are moved to act, not only by inconsistencies between their behaviors and beliefs,
but also by how they think others will perceive their actions and by whether or not they
believe they can act successfully.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

One commonly used pattern is especially effective when you want people to do some-
Monroe’s Motivated thing. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence is a modified problem–solution format, named
Sequence a call to action in after Alan Monroe, a legendary professor at Purdue University.
five steps: attention, need, Because people need encouragement to do what they know they should do, it’s
satisfaction, visualization, important to provide emotional as well as logical reasons for behaviors. This pattern
and action includes the word motivated because it builds in several steps that increase motivational
appeals. (Note: This pattern is not a formula in the sense that you must include each
element. Rather, Monroe suggests various ways to develop your points.) Here are the
five easily remembered steps in the sequence, as explained by Monroe himself.31
1. Attention Step: As with any other speech, begin by gaining the audience’s atten-
tion and drawing it to your topic.
2. Need Step: This step is similar to the problem part of a problem–solution speech.
Monroe suggests four elements: (a) statement—tell the nature of the problem;
(b) illustration—give a relevant detailed example or examples; (c) ramifications—
provide additional support such as statistics or testimony that show the extent of
the problem; and (d) pointing—show the direct relationship between the audience
and the problem.
3. Satisfaction Step: Next, propose a solution that will satisfy the need. This step
can have as many as five parts: (a) statement—briefly state the attitude, belief,
or action you want the audience to adopt; (b) explanation—make your proposal
understandable (visual aids may help at this point); (c) theoretical demonstration—
show the logical connection between the need and its satisfaction; (d) practicality—
use facts, figures, and testimony to show that the proposal has worked effectively or
that the belief has been proved correct; and (e) meeting objections—show that your
proposal can overcome your listeners’ potential objections.
4. Visualization Step: This is the unique step. Here, you ask listeners to imagine
the future, both if they enact your proposal and if they fail to do so. (a) Positive—
describe a positive future if your plan is put into action. Create a realistic scenario
showing good outcomes your solution provides. Appeal to emotions such as
safety needs, pride, pleasure, and approval. (b) Negative—have listeners imagine
themselves in an unpleasant situation if they fail to put your solution into effect.
(c) Contrast—compare the negative results of not enacting your plan with the
positive things your plan will produce.
5. Action Step: Call for a specific action: (a) name the specific, overt action, attitude,
or belief you are advocating; (b) state your personal intention to act; and (c) end
with impact.
Terah, a nursing major, wanted to give an organ donor speech, but her survey
revealed that her classmates had a lot of information and a good attitude toward
donation, so she focused on motivating them to put their good intentions into action by
giving specific details they could easily do. Here are her major points:32
Attention: My survey showed that you want to be organ donors but have not yet
signed up.
I. It’s easy and accessible.
II. From my research, I will give you specific steps to take to become an organ donor.
Need: My survey showed that I don’t need to convince you of a need for organ donor,
and I don’t have to clear up misconceptions.
Summary 247
Satisfaction: My survey revealed that you need how-to information about signing up.
I. For $34 and proof of identity, the Department of Motor Vehicles can mark your driver’s
license.
II. You can get a free donor card from www.organdonor.gov/donor/index.htm.
III. You can sign up for free at www.donatelifenw.org or on the online donor registry at
www.organdonor.gov/donor/registry.shtm.
IV. Be sure to tell your family your wishes because they may have to tell doctors who ask
about donating.
Visualization
I. Imagine you sign up, a tragedy happens, and Josh in New Mexico gets your heart, Mary in
Colorado has a new kidney, Glen in North Dakota receives your liver, and many more have
improved lives from other tissues.
II. Now imagine you don’t follow up, a tragedy happens, and several very sick people can’t
benefit from your organs.
III. Which choice is ideal?
Action
I. Follow one of the easy procedures and sign up to be a donor.
II. I did this last year, and I’m very glad I did.
III. No more procrastination; do it today!
As you might imagine, this pattern is good for sales speeches when your goal is to
create a need and motivate people to purchase a product.
Summary
The best subjects for persuasive speeches come from the things that matter most to
you personally. For this reason, ask yourself questions such as “What do I believe
strongly?” “What arouses my strong feelings?” “What would I like to see changed?”
“What enriches my life?” Your answers will generally provide topics that you’re willing
to defend. Choosing your subject is only the first part of topic selection. You must then
decide whether you will focus on developing a claim of fact, value, or policy. Toulmin’s
Model of Reasoning can help you visualize the elements needed to defend your claim
successfully.
Understanding the strength of the audience’s attitude—comprised of their beliefs,
emotions, and actions regarding your topic—will help you develop specific strategies for
audiences who are hostile or somewhat opposed to your ideas, for audiences who are
neutral, and for audiences who are generally supportive of your claim.
This chapter explained how to develop speeches around two specific goals: to con-
vince or to actuate behaviors. A speech to convince aims to gain audience agreement
with your conclusions, whether they are about facts, value judgments, or the wisdom
and feasibility of specific policies. A speech to actuate tries to motivate the audience
to act in the ways you propose. According to cognitive dissonance theory, motivation
comes when our beliefs and actions don’t match up; aligning them helps us regain the
desired state of balance or equilibrium. The Theory of Reasoned Action adds a social
component. We act when our beliefs and attitudes are favorable toward the behavior
in question, when we believe that we can accomplish it, and when we think others are
supportive of our actions. One of the most common patterns for motivating people to
act is Monroe’s Motivated Sequence with its five elements: attention, need, satisfaction,
visualization, and action.
Study and Review

Reflect on what you’ve
Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society offers a broad range of
learned.
resources that will help you better understand the material in this chapter, complete
assignments, and succeed on tests. Your MindTap resources feature the following:
• Speech videos with critical viewing questions, speech outlines, and transcripts
• Interactive versions of this chapter’s Stop and Check activities, as well as Critical
Thinking Exercises and Application Exercises
• Speech Builder Express
• Weblinks related to chapter content
• Study and review tools such as self-quizzes and an interactive glossary
You can access your online resources for Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a
Diverse Society at cengagebrain.com using the access code that came with your book or
that you purchased online.
Key Terms
Review your Flashcards. The terms below are defined in the margins throughout this chapter.
actuate 244 harm 243

argument 238 Monroe’s Motivated
backing 239 Sequence 246
blame 243 perceived behavioral
burden of proof 238 control 245
causal claim 236 policy claim 237
claim 236 presumption 238
claim of prediction 236 qualifier 238
cognitive dissonance rebuttal 239
theory 244 solvency 243
cost 243 status quo 238
cure 243 stock issues 243
convince 241 subjective norms 245
correlation 236 Theory of Reasoned Action
criteria 237 (TRA) 245
criteria-satisfaction pattern 242 Toulmin’s Model of
debatable point 236 Reasoning 238
dissonance 244 unsupported assertion 238
factual claim 236 value claim 237
grounds, data, or evidence 238 warrant 239
Critical Thinking Exercises

1. To review the elements of the Toulmin Model, watch a crime show and identify the
types of evidence required to prove the factual claim: the defendant did the crime.
How does the evidence required for legal cases differ from the evidence you use to
support factual claims in the classroom? How is it similar?
2. To better understand Leon Festinger’s theory, do an Internet search for “cognitive
dissonance theory” and follow a couple of links that have .edu in their URL. How can
this theory help you achieve your goals for your classroom speech?
3. To better understand the TRA, search the Internet or your library databases for Theory
of Reasoned Action. What elements of this theory (alternatively called the Theory of
Summary 249
Planned Behavior) should you keep in mind to help you achieve your goals for your
persuasive speech?
4. Listen to at least one persuasive speech by a professional speaker, taking notes on the
speaker’s arguments. (C-SPAN or ted.com are good sources for such speeches.) What
kinds of claims does the speaker make? How does he or she support the claims? Who
are the intended audiences? How effectively does the speaker adapt to audience
attitudes? Weblink 17.2 maintains links to these sites.
5. To explore hostile speaking in greater depth, go to weblink 17.3. The author is a
professional consultant. Compare his list of ten typical responses to hostile audiences
with his six positive alternative strategies. This is a .com website. How credible do you
think the author is? Why?
6. Critique Linnea Strandy’s speech “Fair Trade Coffee,” which is organized according to
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence. You can find her speech in your online resources. Give
at least three reasons why the visualization step is a good motivator.
Application Exercises
1. Scan a current news source and identify at least two news items of the day that
address issues in each category: fact, value, and policy. Bring the list to class and
discuss it with your classmates.
2. With a small group in your classroom, identify areas in which national attitudes have
changed regarding a controversial issue. How did persuasive public speaking
contribute to those changes?
3. Working with a partner, use Monroe’s Motivated Sequence to outline the points of a
speech to motivate your audience to action. Use one of the following categories:
• Sales: Convince listeners to buy a product.
• Public service: Ask the audience to contribute time or money to a worthy cause.

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Chapter

• Find a subject for a

• Diagram and explain

• Analyze your audi-

This chapter provides information about selecting a topic, using a model of

Persuasion in China Diversity

As China rapidly becomes a global superpower,

Select Your Persuasive Topic

Within a single topic such

Assess Your Audience’s Attitude

Generally, attitudes change incrementally, so expect change to be gradual. Each

Choose a Specific Purpose

Persuasive Goal: To Convince

Convincing about Values

Value claims often arouse

Convincing about Policies

Persuasive Goal: To Actuate

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

We are motivated to act when

In contrast, another listener might respond differently:

In short, the Theory of Reasoned Behavior adds a social dimension to motivation.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

Study and Review

actuate 244 harm 243

Critical Thinking Exercises

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