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Reading:
Today: p113-123
Next Lecture: p123-133
Seismic surveying
…think sources and targets
Global seismology
• Earthquake sources
• Global ray paths
• Imaging 3D structure
of the Earth’s interior
1
Elastic waves
When a stress is applied (or released) the corresponding strain
propagates out from the source.
Waves – a reminder
v = fλ • Velocity, v
• Wavelength, λ
• Frequency, f
• Period, T = 1/f
Distance
Time
2
Body waves
P-waves
• P for “primary” or “push-pull”
• Compression and rarefaction, no rotation
• Causes volume change as the wave propagates
• Similar to sound waves traveling through air
Body waves
S-waves
• S for “secondary” or “shear” and “shake”
• Shearing and rotation
• No volume change as the wave propagates
3
Body waves
P and S-waves
Young’s Poisson’s
modulus ratio
Bulk modulus, κ
Shear modulus, µ • Ratio of increase in pressure
• Force per unit area to to associated volume change
change the shape of • Always positive
the material
4
P and S-velocities
P-velocity S-velocity
κ + 43 µ µ
VP = VS =
ρ ρ
change of shape and volume change of shape only
Surface waves
Rayleigh Ground roll in plane of
propagation direction
Love
Ground shake in a
horizontal direction
5
Velocity sensitivity
The amplitude of wave motion
decreases with depth
Î Related to depth/wavelength (This fig is
Î Longer wavelengths sample deeper for water-waves)
Source spectrum
This is the range of frequencies within the source pulse
Sources:
Shotgun
higher to
Hammer lower
Explosive frequency
Air gun
6
Attenuation
The amplitude of an arrival decreases with distance from the source
1. Geometric spreading
Energy spread over a sphere: 4µr2 2. Intrinsic attenuation
Amplitude ∝ 1/r Rocks are not perfectly elastic.
Some energy is lost as heat due to
frictional dissipation.
Amplitude ∝ e-αr
where α is the absorption coefficient
(dependent on wavelength)
Total attenuation
A = (A0 e-αr)/r
7
Reflection and transmission
AR ρ 2V2 − ρ1V1
RC = =
Ai ρ 2V2 + ρ1V1
Transmission coefficient
AT 2 ρ1V1
TC = = 1 − RC = Reflection and transmission coefficients
Ai ρ 2V2 + ρ1V1 for a specific impedance contrast
8
Reflection and transmission
From optics
Diffraction
A sharp break in a reflector acts as a
secondary source of a spherical wavefront
9
Critical incidence
sin iP sin rP
=
VP1 VP 2
when V2 > V1, rP > iP
therefore, we can increase iP until rP = 90°
Head wave
• Occurs due to a low to high velocity interface
• Energy travels along the boundary at the higher velocity
• Energy is continually refracted back into the upper medium at an angle iC
• Provides constraints on the boundary depth e.g. Moho depth
10
Head wave
κ + 43 µ
Factors affecting velocity VP =
ρ
µ
VS =
ρ
Density – velocity typically increases with density
(κ and µ are dependant on ρ and increase more rapidly than ρ)
11
Velocity and density
Nafe-Drake VP
igneous and
curve metamorphic rocks
sediments and
sedimentary rocks
VS
ρ = aVP
1
4
v = aρ + b
Three pressures
Crust and
mantle rock
observations
12
Typical rock
velocity ranges
13