19 1.

5 The future of ore deposit geology

Amount
economic
cut-off grade

current ores

Log grade of metal (%)

‘mineralogical gap’
(partitioning)
Amount

silicates
(isomorphous sulfides
substitution) current ores

Log grade of metal (%)

Figure 1.8 Schematic representations of the amount of a trace element in the Earth’s crust
by grade of element in rock, differentiating ores as rocks of highest grade. The upper graph
shows a unimodal, approximately log-normal distribution. In this case, an exponentially
increasing amount of metal is available if the economic cut-off grade of ore is reduced. The
lower graph shows a bimodal distribution of sulfide ores and the metal as a trace component
in solution in silicate minerals. In this case the tonnage of available ore is only marginally
increased if the economic cut-off grade is reduced. (Modified from Skinner, 1976.)

formed in the past may be at the present surface, be buried, or have been eroded away.
They argue that if deposits of any type have been forming at a uniform rate through
time, then the numbers of deposits of different ages now exposed at the surface
reflects the rate of production through geological time, the depth of formation, and
the rate of burial and erosion of rocks. The last factor is what they call ‘tectonic
diffusion’. If we know the age distribution of deposits at the present surface, their
depth of formation, and make estimates of the likelihood and rates of burial or
erosion, we can estimate the rate of deposit production. Although the modelling does
not take account of many geological processes, including tectonic controls on when
and where erosion or burial takes place, a conclusion of the analysis is that we have
to date exploited only a small fraction of ore in the crust. The majority of ore is as
yet undiscovered, and much of it is at potentially mineable depths of less than about
3 km (Figure 1.9).

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20 What is an ore deposit?

Deposits eroded to surface, time to erosion; maximum depth of burial

Potentially 4 800 Ma; 20 km 3 400 Ma; 12 km 2 200 Ma; 6 km 1 50 Ma; 2 km
exploitable 1
deposits
2
Deposit
5 formation

Depth spectrum of deposits

Depth 3
(km) Depth travel
of deposits
10

15 4

20
Age spectrum of deposits
at Earth’s surface

500 400 300 200 100

Time (Ma)

Figure 1.9 Numerical model simulation of the depth history through burial and erosion
in the crust of a large number of ore deposits assumed to form at 1.9 km depth – as
an approximation of the case of porphyry deposits (see Section 3.1.1) (Kesler and
Wilkinson, 2008). Over each model time step of 1 Ma, a deposit moves up 468 m, down
468 m or stays at the same depth with equal probability. The movement at each time step
is independent of the preceding time step. Deposits that move above the Earth’s surface
are assumed to be eroded away. Note the scattering of deposits over depth with time. The
number of deposits that are predicted to be at the Earth’s surface at different times is
given at the bottom of the diagram. To estimate the number of deposits that are formed
and preserved in the Earth, model parameters such as the rate of deposit formation and
the rate of burial and erosion are tuned so as to provide the best match between the
predicted spectrum of ages of deposits at the surface and the age spectrum of known
deposits in the world. Note the large number of deposits at a few kilometres depth at all
stages in the model: any deposit which is at a depth of less than 3 km may be
economically extractable.

Questions and exercises

................................................................................
Exercises
1.1 Quantification of the relationship between ore grade and energy required to extract a
metal illustrated schematically in Figure 1.6.
The extraction of Cu from sulfide ore requires about 70 kWh (kilowatt hours) of energy
per tonne of ore. Extraction from ore in which Cu is in silicate minerals requires about 500
kWh per tonne of ore. Research local current approximate costs of energy (per kWh) for
industry and the market price of Cu. Calculate the costs of the energy that would be
required to produce a tonne of Cu from sulfide ore of 1% and 0.1% grade and from silicate
ore of the same grades. How do these costs compare with the market price of the metal?
1.2 Using data from Tables 1.1 and 1.4, and assuming an average global ratio of mined
waste rock to ore of 5 (¼ stripping ratio), make an estimate of the total mass of rock
that is mined per year to extract Cu.

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 21 Further readings

If consumption continues to increase at the annual rate given in Table 1.1, and ore
grades on average decrease by 2% per year, what mass of rock will be moved per
annum in 100 years time to extract Cu?
Estimate the area of land that would be taken up for mining every year, assuming
that mining is on average to 100 m depth?

Discussion questions
1.3 The different schemes of classifying ore deposits have different purposes and value.
In addition to classification based on genetic processes of ore deposit formation,
classifications are available based on commodity, host-rock type and tectonic envir-
onment. Under what practical situations would each of these classification schemes
be of use?
1.4 Using the scientific literature, mining industry and government reports, and material
on the internet, write a report on one of the minor metal and gem commodities in the list
below. None of these commodities are specifically covered or discussed in this book.

Antimony Indium Thorium

Arsenic Mercury Vanadium
Bismuth Scandium Emerald
Boron Selenium Opal
Gallium Silicon (Silica metal) Ruby and sapphire
Germanium Strontium
Helium Tellurium

The report should include:

(i) A summary of the geochemical behaviour of the element or mineral, whether the
commodity is recovered as a by-product or co-product during mining of another
commodity, and the grade required for economic extraction or mining.
(ii) A summary of the uses of the commodity, the history of its use, and its current
importance in the world economy.

Further readings
..............................................................................................................................................................
The following are recommended for additional information and discussion of background
economic and societal questions about ore deposits and their extraction:
Kesler, S. E. (1994). Mineral Resource Economics and the Environment, New York,
MacMillan College Publishers.
Kogel, J. E., Trivedi, N. C., Barker, J. M., and Krukowski, S. T. (eds.) (2006). Industrial
Minerals and Rocks, Commodities, Markets, and Uses, 7th Edition, Littleton, Society
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc.
Mudd, G. M. (2009). The Sustainability of Mining in Australia: Key Production Trends and
their Environmental Impacts for the Future. Research Report no. RR5, Department of
Civil Engineering, Monash University and Mineral Policy Institute.
Skinner, B. J. (1976). A second iron age ahead? American Scientist 64, 258–269.

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