Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2018) 25:14919–14933

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1639-5

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Confucian Culture as Determinants of Consumers' Food Leftover

Generation: Evidence from Chengdu, China
Chuanhui Liao1,2 & Jin Hong1 & Dingtao Zhao1 & Shuang Zhang2 & Changhong Chen2

Received: 16 October 2017 / Accepted: 28 February 2018 / Published online: 15 March 2018
# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Food waste is a worldwide problem due to its effects on carbon emission, water pollution, and arable lands. Previous studies of
food waste generation and reduction focus on demographic, psychological, and situational factors, whereas the effects of culture in
different countries have been ignored. This paper investigates the influence of Confucian culture on behaviors that waste food,
considering additional factors of face saving and group conformity. We used an integrated behavioral intention model combining
the TPB model and Lee’s modified Fishbein model. The results show that including the constructors of Confucian culture
increases the predictive power of the model. Face saving and group conformity are found to significantly influence attitude
toward food waste reduction. Face saving can greatly reduce the intention to pack leftovers, and group conformity has a significant
effect on the ordering of small portion sizes. Based on these results, we give a discussion and put forward with suggestions to the
government and the catering industry. Limitations and implications for future research are provided accordingly.

Keywords Food waste . Confucian culture . TPB and modified Fishbein behavioral intention model

Introduction emissions (GHG) generated from decomposition of wasted

Sustainability in food consumption and the reduction of food
losses and food waste have gained substantial attention world-
wide. It is estimated that food losses and food waste squander
one third of the food produced in the world (Food and Nations
2013). Moreover, it is estimated that food waste in Asia will
increase from 2.78 to 4.16 million t from 2005 to 2025
(Mavropoulos 2011). Food wastage not only threatens global
food security but also has effects on the environment. On one
hand, wastage of cereals, meat, and vegetables has been
regarded as a significant problem for the environment and
has negatively influenced carbon, water, and arable land
(Food and Nations 2013). It is reported that greenhouse gas
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
* Chuanhui Liao
liaochuanhui@163.com
1
School of Management, University of Science and Technology of
China, Hefei 230026, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
2
School of Economics and Management, Southwest University of
Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, Sichuan, People’s
Republic of China
food amounts to 3 Gt of CO2 eq., which is more than twice
the total GHG emissions of all road transportation in the USA
in 2010 (Food and Nations 2013). Also, the disposal of bio-
degradable food waste into landfills may release large quanti-
ties of gases, most notably methane, which is more potent than
carbon dioxide. On the other hand, since food waste accounts
for a large part of the municipal solid waste (Guven et al.
2017), it may cause heavy environmental burdens on munic-
ipal solid waste management and it increases the cost of gar-
bage disposal (Liwei et al. 2013).
Food waste refers to Bfood appropriate for human con-
sumption being discarded, whether or not after it is kept be-
yond its expiry date or left to spoil.^(Food and Nations 2013).
We use the term leftover to describe food after preparation/
consumption, including food residues after a meal. Hence,
leftover food (also called Bleftovers^) can be a type of food
waste if it is not saved for later consumption. It is reported that
12% of the food waste is generated in the food service sector
in EU member states in 2012 (Stenmarck et al. 2016), and
plate leftovers amount to 17% of all food waste in a certain
Finnish food chain (Katajajuuri et al. 2014). Since the major
components of food leftovers are uneaten vegetables and
starchy side dishes, food leftovers are regarded as main
opportunity area to reduce food waste (Katajajuuri et al. 2014).
14920
In the context of China, although there is no precise data on
food waste, it is known that this waste problem is growing
across China, especially in the catering industry (Chen et al.
2010; Zhang and Fu 2010). The Reduction in Food Waste
Project estimated that between 2013 and 2015 in China, the
annual food waste was about 17 million to 18 million t, which
could have supplied food for 300–350 million people. 1
According to previous studies, the food waste generated in
the catering industry is astonishing. For example, 26.7% of
the served food in the catering industry was wasted in
Chengdu in 2011 (Wang and Xu 2012) and food wasted in
restaurants (0.3 kg per capita per day) was much higher than
that generated at home (0.07 kg per capita per day) in Beijing
in 2008 (Zhang and Fu 2010). Hence, reducing food waste,
especially reducing food leftovers in the catering industry has
become an important source for policy-makers and adminis-
trators (Liwei et al. 2013).
To reduce food leftovers, various laws, programs, and cam-
paigns have been applied worldwide. A variety of projects and
campaigns has been initiated, such as the BZero hunger
challenge^ of the UN, BHorizon 2020 project^ of the EU, and
Bfood education^ initiated in Japan. In the context of China, a
voluntary campaign, named Bclean your plate^ and targeting
food reduction in dining out circumstances, was proposed and
implemented in 2013. The basic concepts and advice of the
campaign include Bordering less food in catering situations^
(hereafter called caterings), Bgiving less food in canteens,^
Bpreparing less food in kitchens,^ and Bpacking leftovers from
public caterings.^ Later, the government joined the campaign.
In 2014, the Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of
China (MCPRC) and the China National Tourism
Administration (CNTA) jointly released Bthe guidance on
enforcing thrift and countering extravagance and waste in the
catering industry,^ advocating Bmoderate meal size ordering^
and Bsmall portions and healthy consumption^ concepts in the
catering industry. Four years have passed since the initiation of
this campaign and though there have been some good effects,
the overall outcome is not satisfactory. According to people.cn,2
currently there is a revival of food waste generation behavior in
caterings and restaurants, and fewer restaurants have persisted
in this campaign.
Reducing food leftovers can be seen as a pro-environmental
behavior and has attracted great attention in research concerning
international affairs (Food and Nations 2013). Understanding
the consumers’ food waste generation behavior from the per-
spective of psychology and the conditional situation may help
us develop policies and implement campaigns more directly and
efficiently. Considering research on food-related behavior,
1
China environmental newspaper, Do not waste food from now on, 2016-
12-8. Available at http://www.igsnrr.ac.cn/xwzx/xwdt_cmsm/201612/
t20161208_4718432.html. Accessed 17-09-13.
2
People.cn, is a website, owned and operated by the Renmin Daily, an impor-
tant official media agency in China.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
scholars from different disciplines use both qualitative and
quantitative methods to investigate this domain. The main
topics concern social-culture aspects such as food-related
values, social norms, attitudes, and culture (Cruwys et al.
2015; Mahon et al. 2006). These studies investigate how food
practices are organized in everyday life and explore how social,
material, and temporal aspects affect food waste generation
(Evans 2014). Moreover, studies that specifically consider left-
overs have emerged recently, mainly focusing on extended be-
havioral frameworks in analyzing what makes people leave their
food on the plate (Lorenz et al. 2017). Though there have been
many achievements in this domain, the cultural antecedents of
food waste and leftover are still somewhat underexplored
(Porpino et al. 2015; Waitt and Phillips 2016). In fact, little
research in this domain has been made to date and these studies
mainly consider Western cultures (Greaves et al. 2013; Wang
et al. 2016). Studies of the cultural antecedents of food waste
and leftover in the context of Asia and China are still scarce.
Confucian culture is based on Confucianism and is regarded
as the most important part of the overall Chinese worldview.
This culture originated from and is focused on Confucian ethics,
which dominate the Chinese traditional culture (Hofstede and
Bond 1988). Since its formation, it has proven to be difficult to
change, and it has had a strong influence on the thoughts and
behaviors in Asian areas for thousands of years. Though not a
religion, Confucianism consists of a set of pragmatic rules for
daily life which affect Chinese thought and behavior. Among
the principles of Confucianism, the concepts of group orienta-
tion and ideas of face saving are applicable in explaining the
consumer’s behavior. Furthermore, Confucianism requires one
not to spend more than necessary, a principle which governs
and drives the Chinese people to reduce waste in a variety of
domains, including the field of food waste reduction (Hofstede
and Bond 1988). Since the cultural antecedents of food waste
and leftovers are still somewhat underexplored (Porpino et al.
2015;Waitt and Phillips 2016), in this paper, we want to narrow
this gap by introducing concepts of Chinese culture and digging
into the deep factors that influence consumer food leftover gen-
eration behavior in China.
We arrange this paper as follows. Part 2 provides the liter-
ature review and the development of hypotheses, followed by
data collection and methodology in part 3. Part 4 presents the
results. In the last part, we offer discussion, conclusions, lim-
itations, and suggestions for further research.
Review of the literature and hypothesis
development
Theory of planned behavior
Several theories are employed in analyzing the consumer
pro-environmental behavior domain, including the Theory
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
of Reasoned Action (TRA), Norm Activation Model
(NAM), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and Theory of
Planned Behavior (TPB). Among these theories, TPB is the
most widely used in analyzing pro-environmental behaviors
such as green buying, energy conservation, and recycling
(Davies et al. 2002; Wahid et al. 2011). TPB aims to inves-
tigate the relationship among beliefs, attitudes, intentions,
and behaviors (Tonglet et al. 2004). In TPB, it is postulated
that the consumers’ behavioral intention is determined by
attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control.
It is also believed that the behavioral intention will lead to the
changes in behavior (Ajzen 1991a, b). Therefore, TPB not
only considers the effects of volitional factors (e.g., attitude)
but also external factors (e.g., perceived behavioral control)
and other external factors employed in the extended TPB mod-
el. The other three theories, namely NAM, TRA, and SCT, are
widely used to study consumer pro-environmental behaviors
but they have limitations in the context of our research for the
following reasons. Firstly, TRA mainly considers volitional
control factors, with non-volitional factors being ignored
(Lam and Hsu 2004). In addition, NAM has been criticized
for overemphasizing impersonal morality and ignoring external
factors. Secondly, in SCT, behavior is influenced by three
self-regulatory mechanisms: perceived self-efficacy for out-
come attainment, outcome expectations, and personal goal set-
ting. In SCT, beliefs of self-efficacy are central to the participa-
tion decisions (Bandura 1977). Comparing SCT and TPB, al-
though the self-efficacy of SCT is similar to the perceived be-
havioral control (PBC) of TPB, self-efficacy focuses on factors
internal to the individual, while PBC is more related to external
factors (Ajzen and Timko 1986). Since the current paper in-
tends to analyze both internal and external factors that influence
leftover generation in China, SCT seems to be inappropriate
here due to its inefficiency in explaining external factors.
Considering the advantages of TPB and the limitations of
SCT, NAM, and TRA, the selection of TPB as the basic theo-
retical framework is reasonable and appropriate for the main
purpose of this paper.
However, when TPB is applied to compare pro-environmental
behaviors of different countries, a Bself-reference^ phenomenon
emerges (Albaum and Peterson 1984). The main argument here is
that theories and outcomes which are mostly derived from studies
of American consumers may be not universally applicable, and
characteristics of culture in different countries should be taken into
consideration. Based on this thought, Lee (1991) proposed the
modified Fishbein behavioral intention model by introducing con-
structors of Confucian cultures in Asian countries like Korea,
China, and Japan. In the modified Fishbein’s behavioral intention
model, the subjective norm in TPB is replaced by two constructs
derived specifically from Confucian culture societies because the
subjective norm was regarded as failing to capture the Bbehavioral
impetus or social pressure of referent opinions in Confucian
societies^ (Lee 1991).
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Considering the merits and limitations of the models men-
tioned previously, this paper proposes a composite model by
incorporating TPB and the Lee’s (1991) modified Fishbein
model, because TPB is stated to consider both internal and
external factors, which overcomes the limitations of TRA,
NAM, and SCT. Lee’s modified Fishbein model not only con-
siders the self-efficacy of SCT but also does better in
explaining the cultural factors behind Asian consumer behav-
iors. Hence, by combining TPB with Lee’s modified Fishbein
model, the proposed model is able to test the effects of inter-
nal, external, and cultural factors. Here, we include group
conformity and face saving as the indicators of Chinese
Confucian values, and we analyze their influences on food
leftover generation behavior in China.
Measurement of leftover generation behavior
In defining the intention of leftover generation behavior, we
follow the proposal in the clean your plate campaign from the
perspective of consumers. In that campaign, the consumers
are encouraged to order their meal in accordance with the
appetite of the participants and to avoid wasting food. Also,
consumers are encouraged to pack the edible uneaten food in
leftover containers (sometimes called Bdoggy bags^) to reduce
food leftovers released into landfill. Thus, in this paper, we
define two types of food waste generation behavior: the
intended meal size and the intention of packing uneaten food.
The definition of Bintended meal size^ is taken from previous
studies (Lorenz et al. 2017; Visschers et al. 2016) and adapted
for the context of Chinese culture. The definition of Bintention
of packing uneaten food^ is made in accordance with (Francis
et al. 2004) general recommendation. Studies concerning the
portion size served in canteens and caterings indicate that
smaller plate portions lead to fewer leftovers (Hermans et al.
2012; Lorenz et al. 2017). In Western countries, food is served
in the style of individual portions, so portion size is used to
represent the quantity of food ordered or provided. In contrast,
a group dining system is the basic food consumption style in
China. In the group dining system, food is not ordered indi-
vidually, so there is no specific portion size for an individual,
let alone an individual’s food leftover. Accordingly, here we
use meal size to represent the quantity of all the dishes on the
table for all the participants. Another aspect of leftover gener-
ation is whether the edible uneaten food is packed to take
home for further use (Wang et al. 2016). If the consumers pack
the edible uneaten food then the leftovers released for landfill
will decrease.
Here we define the constructor behavior as the index
for estimated leftovers and the frequency that leftovers are
thrown away, and we use items adapted from previous
questionnaires (Connors and Rozell 2004; Lorenz et al.
2017; Russell et al. 2017).
14922
Attitude, perceived behavioral control, and leftover
generation
Attitude here means the favorable or unfavorable evalua-
tion a person holds toward a certain behavior (Ajzen
1991a, b). The more favorable the attitude toward a cer-
tain behavior, the greater the likelihood a person will pro-
duce the desire to do a specified behavior. Many research
papers have confirmed that attitude is the most powerful
predictor in TPB constructs (Ajzen 1991a, b; Han et al.
2010). In our research, individuals holding a positive at-
titude toward the environment would choose to follow the
suggestions and perform actions leading to fewer food
leftovers (Stuart 2009). On the one hand, they would form
the intention to order the meal according to the partici-
pants in the meal, so that the food will be eaten up
completely. Moreover, if there is food that cannot be eaten
up, they would choose to pack the uneaten food in doggy
bags and take them back home for further use.
Perceived behavioral control is the people’s perception
and judgment about whether they have facilities and con-
trol to carry out a specified behavior (Ajzen 1991a, b). The
easier they perceive the control power over situational fac-
tors to be, the higher the likelihood they will form the
intention and perform the behavior (Ajzen 1991a, b). In
the case of leftover generation, an individual with a strong
will and necessary resources would choose to order less
food and eat up all that food (Ajzen 1991a, b; Lorenz
et al. 2017). Further, if there is food uneaten at the end of
the meal, such an individual would prefer to pack the food
for later use.
In standard TPB, intention is hypothesized to be positively
correlated with behavior (Ajzen 1991a, b). Though it is noted
that there exists a gap between the intention and the final
behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980), we still follow the pos-
itive hypothesis, as do most studies.
Hence, we propose the following hypotheses:
H1a: The intended meal size is negatively influenced by
the attitude toward food leftover reduction.
H1b: Intention to pack the uneaten food is positively
influenced by the attitude toward food leftover reduction.
H2a: The intended meal size is negatively influenced by
the perceived behavioral control over food leftover
reduction.
H2b: Intention to pack the uneaten food is positively
influenced by the perceived behavioral control over food
reduction.
H3a: The ratio of the leftovers over the served food is
positively influenced by the meal size ordered.
H3b: The ratio of the leftovers over the served food is
negatively influenced by the intention to pack the uneaten
food.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
Face saving, attitude, and intention
Although standard TPB has been applied in various research
efforts, the Bself-reference^ phenomenon prevents its applica-
tion in the context of different cultures (Albaum and Peterson
1984) so TPB is regarded to be limited in explaining the in-
fluence of cultural values (Lee 1991). Lee’s (1991) modified
the Fishbein model by replacing subjective norms with two
Confucian cultural values: group conformity and face saving.
The new model achieved stronger predictive power when it
was used in explaining the behaviors of consumers in Asia
(Lee 1991). Thus, we combine these two models to interpret
the determinants of leftover generation in public caterings and
restaurants in the context of Confucian culture. Here, we in-
clude face saving and group conformity to represent Chinese
Confucian culture.
Face is defined as a person’s judgment of his/her place in
the social network and is regarded as the most important mea-
surement of an individual’s social status in Confucian culture
(Jin et al. 2012). It is also regarded as a key determinant in
explaining consumer behaviors (Redding and Michael 1983;
Stover 1974). Though it works universally, the concept of face
has a greater influence in Chinese daily life than it does for
Americans. In Chinese culture, almost everything is connect-
ed to face and every behavior represents giving, receiving,
saving, or losing face (Li and Su 2007). Face saving refers
to behaviors that an individual performs to enhance or main-
tain his/her position (Ho 1976). According to Lee (1991),
BKorean consumers’ attitude is significantly influenced by
Confucian culture because they are under strong social
pressures,^ and it is the same in the Chinese context.
Chinese consumers think highly of how they are evaluated
by other people, especially in public situations (Yang 1981;
Ho 1976). They may feel that they are saving or enhancing
face when they get more respect or envy from other people
and feel that they lose face if they are criticized or laughed at in
public situations (Wang et al. 2017). In Chinese society, peo-
ple love to invite guests and friends for dinner to develop or
maintain interpersonal contact. Having dinner together is al-
ways regarded as an important social event (Chen 1990).
Serving a meal is thought to be an important instrument in
China to renew and strengthen the relationship that hosts wish
to build with their guests (Chen 1990). In the context of a
hosted dinner, having more than enough food conveys the
information that the host is giving respect and face to the
guests by indicating that the host has made careful preparation
for a bountiful dinner. In this way, the hosts’ social status can
be guaranteed by gaining face through preparing or ordering
large quantities of food. When individuals are asked about
their impression of a hosted dinner, Bso much food^ is an
immediate recall o fmany diners (Chen 1990). On the other
hand, if there is not enough food served, the host will feel a
loss of face and be in an embarrassing situation. Concerning
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
the uneaten food after meals, the hosts would be reluctant to
pack the uneaten food with doggy bags, because doing this
may make them lose face in the presence of the guests. The
same thing also happens in Western countries. In the theories
of Bthe ‘good’ provider identity^ and Bthe ‘good’ mother
identity,^ feelings like face saving exist in the West.
(Graham-Rowe et al. 2014)stated that in the UK, the desire
to be a Bgood^ parent, Bgood^ host, and Bgood partner^ may
lead to more food purchasing, cooking, and serving than nec-
essary, which results in more leftover food. (Stancu et al.
2016) indicate that asking for a doggy bag may make the
consumers feel immediate shame in the Czech Republic.
Thus, we develop our hypotheses as follows:
H4a: Attitude toward food leftover reduction is negative-
ly influenced by face saving.
H4b: The intended meal size is positively influenced by
face saving.
H4c: The intention of packing uneaten food is negatively
influenced by face saving.
Group conformity, attitude, and intention
Group conformity is another important feature in the
Confucian culture of China. The concept refers to group pres-
sure an individual feels or perceives which requires individ-
uals to keep in line with a group norm, and it is often regarded
as a characteristic of collectivist cultures (Bond and Smith
1996; Li and Su 2007). In Confucian culture, individuals
should be consistent with the collective to facilitate and en-
hance the group’s harmony. By doing so, they can be regarded
as a member of the group (Li and Su 2007). To some extent,
group conformity and subjective norm seem similar in that
they both assess the influences from other important people.
In fact, subjective norm measures the perceived influence or
pressures of other important people and does not analyze the
outcome, while conformity assesses both the pressure and
accordingly the pressure’s outcome in behavior (Ajzen and
Fishbein 1975). The influence of group conformity on indi-
vidual behaviors has been certified to be diversified, either
significant (Malhotra and McCort 2001; Li and Su 2007) or
insignificant (Chung and Thorndike Pysarchik 2000). In the
context of food consumption in China, with the implementing
of the clean your plate campaign, more and more people rec-
ognized the problem caused by leftover food and acted on the
call to reduce food leftovers. They tried to order meals of
moderate size and pack the uneaten food in leftover containers
for later consumption. A new social norm governing leftover
reduction behavior has formed, at least to some extent. Since
collectivist consumers are more concerned about other peo-
ple’s perceptions than individualist consumers (Lee and Green
1991), here we expect that this kind of new social norm will
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3
influence the consumers’ attitudes, intentions, and behaviors
toward food leftover. Specifically, we expect that consumers
will order meals with moderate size and pack the uneaten
food. Based on this discussion, we develop the following
hypotheses:
H5a: The attitude toward food leftover reduction is pos-
itively influenced by group conformity.
H5b: The intended meal size is negatively influenced by
group conformity.
H5c: The intention of packing uneaten food is positively
influenced by group conformity.
Furthermore, the research team collected demographic data
of the respondents and analyzed factors affecting leftover gen-
eration. Following the outcome of previous studies, we sup-
pose that the effects of demographic factors such as gender
(female) and age will significantly and negatively influence
leftover generation, while education will have a positive cor-
relation and monthly income a negative correlation.
All the hypotheses and the research framework are demon-
strated in Fig. 1.
Methodology design
Questionnaire development
All seven constructs were adopted and adapted from related
literature. The questionnaire was designed as follows. Firstly,
a brief introduction of the survey is stated and then questions
concerning demographic characteristics are presented. Then,
the standard TPB variables excluding subjective norm and
factors concerning Confucian culture are presented in the sec-
ond and third parts. We use five-point Likert scales to measure
Fig. 1 Research framework and hypotheses. Note: the sign +/− indicates
the expected direction
14924
the two items representing the constructor leftovers, and all
the other constructs are measured by seven-point Likert scales.
Constructs and their sources are displayed in Table 1.
The questionnaire was drafted in English and then two
scholars translated it into Chinese, with one being an expert
in environmental protection and the other in English transla-
tion. The Chinese questionnaire was checked by two other
scholars to make sure that the translation was clear and
understandable.
Then, a pilot study was conducted with 30 question-
naires distributed to people eating in caterings. We mod-
ified the questionnaire according to their feedback and
recommendations. Then, we gave the modified edition to
another two scholars to check and correct accordingly,
yielding the final version of the questionnaire with 19
items of 7 constructs.
Scope of study
In this study, we chose Chengdu as target city due to the
following considerations. Firstly, as a megacity in southwest
China, Chengdu faces severe municipal waste and food waste
problems. According to the BAnnual Report on Prevention
and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste in
Large and Medium-sized Cities^ released by China’s
Ministry of Environmental Protection, Chengdu ranks the
fifth in the quantity of municipal solid waste generation in
2015 of all the 246 mega- and medium-sized cities, with a
total quantity of 4.7 million t. About 1000 t of kitchen waste
are produced in the city of Chengdu each day.3 Most of the
food waste produced in commercial places will be transported
to the food waste treatment center located in Luodai town of
the Longquanyi district in Chengdu. The great quantity of
food waste has put great pressure on the local environment
and government. Secondly, Sichuan (the province in which
Chengdu is located) is renowned for delicious dishes and the
catering industry is booming alongside the economic devel-
opment. According to the data of the Third National
Economic Census of Chengdu, there are 41 thousand entre-
preneurs in the food catering industry, with 60.5 thousand
employees.4 Food waste produced in these caterings and res-
taurants imposes great pressure on the local environment and
local environmental management. Lastly, Chengdu has been
awarded the BNational Civilized City^ title and is one of the
46 pilot cities that were selected to implement compulsory
solid waste separation in 2017 by the Ministry of Housing
3 2011). These results indicate that the data was acceptable
Ministry of the Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China.
Annual Report on Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid
Waste in Large and Medium-sized Cities (2016, in Chinese). Available at:
http://www.zhb.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/qt/201611/t20161122_368001.htm .
Accessed 17-09-12
4
Chengdu bureau of statistics, the Third National Economic Census of
Chengdu (in Chinese).
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of
China (MOHURD). Since more than 50% of the municipal
solid waste is composed of food leftovers and kitchen gar-
bage, it is important to identify the key factors of leftover
generation and how the traditional Confucian culture influ-
ences the behavior.
Sampling procedure
A convenience survey technique was used here. To get reli-
able results, we used both online and offline methods. We
used a popular platform dealing with surveys (https://www.
sojump.com/) from June 10 to July 15, 2017. We posted the
questionnaire on the platform and designed a reward
mechanism providing a random bonus to the participants. At
the same time, we gave the questionnaires to people eating at
caterings and restaurants in Chengdu. To encourage the
customers to participate in the survey, we gave some gifts to
the participants. We observed the quantity of leftovers on the
table, as well as whether or not the customers packed the
uneaten food in doggy bags in caterings while we waited for
the consumers to finish the questionnaire. Finally, we got 657
questionnaires, consisting of 511 online and 146 onsite. We
discarded 168 incomplete and invalid questionnaires.
Since all the data were collected from a single source at the
same time, there might be common method bias (CMB),
which would be a threat to the validity of the study,
Harman’s one-factor test was used to analyze the possible
CMB. The result shows that it divided the items into five
factors, with all the eigenvalues above one and accounting
for 62.91% of the variance. The first factor accounts for
23.13% of the variance, conforming to the threshold of 30%.
Hence, we can draw the conclusion that there is not an issue of
the common method bias in our research. Furthermore, the
Mann-Whitney U test was employed to test the potential dif-
ferences between the data collected through the online and
offline ways, and the result indicated that there was no signif-
icant difference between them (P = 0.061). This indicates that
the two survey methods used have no significance on the
results and it is appropriate to combine two sets of data into
a single sample.
The next step was to test the normality of data using
skewness and kurtosis indices. The results were that the
kurtosis index was between − .880 and 0.647, and skew-
ness index between − 0.544 to 1.094, conforming to the
suggested thresholds of three and ten, respectively (Kline
for further path analysis.
Regarding the sample size, the sample-to-item ratio
equaled 25 (475/19 = 25), which was above the recommended
threshold of ten cases per item (Kline 2011). Generally, our
sample fits the recommended a priori conditions.
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933 14992
5
Table 1 Questionnaire design

Constructs Items Measurement items Source

Group conformity (GC) GC1 Do most people who are important to me support the Lee (1991)
Bclean your plate^ campaign?
GC2 Are you influenced by others’ behavior to participate
in the Bclean your plate^ campaign?
GC3 The decision to practice Bclean your plate^ campaign
would be influenced by whether doing this would
make me fit in with other people.
Face saving (FS) FS1 Whether practicing Bclean your plate^ would improve
my reputation to the people who are important to me.
FS2 Whether I feel ashamed when people who are important
to me see me practicing Bclean your plate.^
FS3 Whether I think practicing Bclean your plate^ would
improve my status to whom are important to me.
Attitude (ATT) ATT1 Having leftovers is bad/good [reversed measurement]. Lorenz et al. (2017)
ATT2 Having leftovers makes me feel satisfied/unsatisfied.
ATT3 Having leftovers makes me feel happy/unhappy.
Meal size (MS) MS1 I would feel embarrassed if my guests ate all the food Visschers et al. (2016)
I had prepared for them.
MS2 I like to provide a large variety of foods at banquet so
that everyone can have something he likes.
MS3 When I am preparing for a dinner, I like to buy more
food than is necessary since I am a generous host.
Uneaten food packing (UFP) UFP1 I am willing to pack the food leftovers in the near future. Francis et al. (2004)
UFP2 I will try to pack the food leftovers in 6 months.
UFP3 I plan to pack the food leftovers in 6 months.
Perceived behavioral control (PBC) PBC1 It is difficult to me to guarantee that only small Visschers et al. (2016)
amounts of food are discarded when dining out
[reversed measurement].
PBC2 It is hard for me to prepare meal from leftovers.
Leftovers (LO) LO1 Please index for visually estimated leftovers for dining Connors and Rozell (2004)
out in the near 6 months (leftover equivalent to
portion of a meal: 1: none, 2 = 0–1/4, 3:1/4–1/2;
4:1/2–3/4, 5: more than 3/4.
LO2 How regularly do you think food is thrown away Russell et al. (2017)
n your household? 1 = never, 5 = most mealtimes

Data analysis We first used the measurement model to check the validity and
reliability of the construct and then used the structural model
Demographic analysis to test the related hypotheses.

The demographic data of the participants is shown in Table 2.

Measurement model: reliability and validity
Among the respondents, 56% were female, 87% were be-
tween 21 and 60 years old, and 22% had a high middle school
We first checked the reliability and validity of the model.
education or below.15% of all the respondents had a monthly
Cronbach’s alpha values and composite reliability values were
income below 3500 RMB, which was in accordance with the
used to test the construct reliability (Fornell and Larcker
demographic features in the city of Chengdu.5
1981a). The results demonstrate that the Cronbach’s alpha
Partial least squares (PLS) structural equation analysis was
values range from 0.72 to 0.86, conforming to the recom-
used to test the hypotheses. SPSS23.0 and Smart-PLS 2.0
mended value of 0.6 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988). At the same time,
were used to conduct the data analysis. In PLS, there are
the composite reliability values range between 0.88 and 0.93,
two models: the measurement model and the structural model.
all above the threshold of 0.70 (Amaro and Duarte 2015).
Thus, the reliability has been verified well. We further test
5
Chengdu Bureau of Statistics, Chengdu statistical yearbook(2016, in the discriminant and convergent validity. The values of factor
Chinese) loadings range from 0.83 to 0.94, all above the recommended
14926 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933

Table 2 Demographic data of the

respondents Variable Categories Frequency Percent (%)

Gender Male 208 43.79

Female 267 56.21
Age Under 20 30 6.32
21–40 156 32.84
41–60 257 54.11
60 and above 32 6.74
Education Senior high school or below 104 21.89
College or bachelor degree 292 61.47
Master’s degree or Ph.D. 79 16.63
Monthly income Less than 3500 67 14.11
(RMB) 3501–5500 306 64.42
5501–7500 77 16.21
More than 7501 25 5.26
Total 475

benchmark of 0.70 (Hair et al. 1998). The values of average
variance extracted (AVE) range from 0.70 to 0.86, all of them
significantly higher than the threshold of 0.50 (Fornell and
Larcker 1981b). Moreover, the correlations between con-
structs are all below 0.77. The square roots of AVE values
are higher than the correlations, ensuring the discriminant va-
lidity (Chin et al. 1997). To sum up, the model displayed
adequate reliability and validity. The calculated values of re-
liability and validity are shown in Table 3. Tables 4 and 5
displays the construct correlations and square roots of AVEs.
Model testing
We used structural analysis to estimate the path coefficients by
using Smart-PLS 2.0. In PLS, this study sets 5000 sub-samples
and uses the bootstrapping procedure to test the significance of
the path coefficients. Moreover, dummy variables were includ-
ed for sociodemographic features (age, monthly income, edu-
cation, and gender) to test their effects on leftover generation.
The results of the path analyses and sociodemographic analy-
ses are presented in Table 5.

Table 3 Measurement of
reliability and validity Construct Items Factor loading Cronbach’s α value Composite reliability AVE

Group conformity (GC) GC1 0.86 0.84 0.90 0.76

GC2 0.88
GC3 0.86
Face saving (FS) FS1 0.87 0.84 0.91 0.76
FS2 0.88
FS3 0.86
Attitude (ATT) ATT1 0.88 0.82 0.89 0.74
ATT2 0.84
ATT3 0.86
Meal size (MS) MS1 0.86 0.79 0.88 0.70
MS2 0.83
MS3 0.83
Uneaten food packing LP 0.84 0.86 0.91 0.78
(UFP) LP 0.90
LP 0.90
Perceived behavioral PBC1 0.94 0.84 0.93 0.86
control (PBC) PBC2 0.92
Leftovers (LO) LO1 0.88 0.72 0.88 0.78
LO2 0.89

AVE average variance extracted

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
Table 4 Means, standard deviations, and correlations
Constructors Means SD FS
Attitude (ATT) 4.89** 1.30** 0.74
Face saving (FS) 4.53** 1.06** − 0.63**
Group conformity (GC) 4.81** 1.37** 0.59**
Leftovers (LO) 1.96** 1.04** − 0.4**
Leftovers packing (LP) 5.17** 1.28** 0.72**
Meal size (MS) 4.61** 1.23** − 0.6**
Perceived behavioral control (PBC) 4.15** 1.33** 0.68**
The italicized diagonal elements are the square roots of AVEs
**P < 0.01
Overall, the final structural model reached a good fit to the
empirical data. The adjusted R squared values for attitude,
uneaten food packing, meal size, and leftovers are 0.53,
0.74, 0.48, and 0.24, respectively, indicating good power in
explaining the variance, conforming to a meta-analytic review
by Armitage and Conner (2001) and the result of the study of
Lorenz et al. (2017). Also, the standardized root mean square
residual (SRMR) is 0.059, which is lower than the recom-
mended threshold of 0.08 (Steelman et al. 2014). All the data
indicate a good fit to this proposed model.
Table 5 shows the results regarding the hypotheses. We
find that ten out of 12 hypotheses were statistically supported.
Firstly, concerning the constructs attitude and perceived
behavioral control, the coefficient between attitude and meal
size is significantly negative (β = − 0.196 t = − 3.316,
p < 0.001), and that between attitude toward uneaten food
packing is significantly positive (β = 0.215, t = 5.153,
p < 0.001); thus, H1a and H1b are supported. The coefficient
between perceived behavioral control and meal size is signif-
icantly negative (β = − 0.229, t = − 4.356, p < 0.001) and that
between perceived behavioral control and uneaten food pack-
ing is significantly positive (β = 0.353, t = 7.245, p < 0.001);
thus, H2a and H2b are confirmed. The coefficient between
meal size and leftovers is positive but not significant; hence,
H3a is rejected. In contrast, the coefficient between uneaten
food packing and leftovers is negatively supported (β = −
0.455, t = − 7.383, p < 0.001), thus H3b is confirmed.
Secondly, concerning the constructors related to Confucian
culture, the coefficients between face saving and attitude (β =
− 0.463, t = − 12.747, p < 0.001), and between face saving and
uneaten food packing (β = − 0.312, t = − 8.351, p < 0.001) are
both significantly negative, so H4a and H4c are supported.
The coefficient between face saving and meal size, however,
is positive but not significant (β = 0.026, t =
.050).2s1o, p > 0
H4b is rejected.
Lastly, concerning the other constructor from Confucian
culture, the coefficients between group conformity and atti-
tude (β = 0.407, t = 11.077, p < 0.001), group conformity and
meal size (β = − 0.336, t = − 7.144, p < 0.001), and group
14992
7
GP LO MS LP ATT PBC
0.76
− 0.4** 0.76
0.51** − 0.31** 0.78
− 0.72** 0.6** − 0.48** 0.78
0.46** − 0.61** 0.32** − 0.64** 0.70
− 0.59** 0.54** − 0.34** 0.77** − 0.59** 0.86
conformity and uneaten food packing (β = 0.154, t = 4.87,
p < 0.001) indicate that these were significantly correlated.
Thus H5a, H5b, and H5c are supported.
Some of the demographic variables also have significant
results. The path coefficient from monthly income to leftover
generation is statistically significant and in the expected direc-
tion (β = 0.137, t = 2.488, p < 0.01). This result is consistent
with the conclusions of Stuart (2009) and Parfitt et al. (2010).
Educational level has a significantly positive relationship with
the leftover food generation (β = 0.1, t = 1.979, p < 0.05),
which shows that the higher the education level, the less left-
over food is generated (Stuart 2009).
Mediating effect testing
As demonstrated in Fig. 1, the intended meal size and uneaten
food packing are indirectly impacted by group conformity and
face saving, where attitude acts as a mediator. Tests of
mediating effects were carried out following the proposal of
Baron and Kenny (1986) in three steps. Firstly, the indepen-
dent variable should significantly influence the dependent var-
iable. Secondly, the relationship between the independent var-
iable and the mediator should be significant. Thirdly, the in-
dependent variable, the mediator, and the dependent variable
are simultaneously included in the regression analysis. If the
mediator significantly influences the dependent variable while
the independent variable does not significantly influence the
dependent variable, we can decide that there is a full mediating
effect. If both the mediator and independent variable influence
the dependent variable significantly, we can draw a conclusion
that there is a partial mediating effect. The process and the
judgment criteria of the three steps are also listed in Table 6.
The results of the mediation effect are seen in Table 7, and
they demonstrate that attitude partially mediates the relationship
between the constructs of Confucian culture and behavior in-
tentions. Both group conformity and face saving have signifi-
cant indirect impacts on the meal size. Specifically, an increase
in face saving may not necessarily lead to a larger intended
meal size and lower intention to pack uneaten food. Also, an
14928 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933

Table 5 Path coefficients of the

structural model Path Path coefficient T value Hypothesis Results

ATT → MS − 0.196 − 3.316*** H1a Supported

ATT → LP 0.215 5.153*** H1b Supported
PBC → MS − 0.229 − 4.356*** H2a Supported
PBC → LP 0.353 7.245*** H2b Supported
MS → LO 0.031 0.543 H3a Not supported
LP → LO − 0.455 − 7.383*** H3b Supported
FS → ATT − 0.463 − 12.747*** H4a Supported
FS → MS 0.071 1.49 H4b Not supported
FS → LP − 0.312 − 8.351*** H4c Supported
GC → ATT 0.407 11.077*** H5a Supported
GC → MS − 0.336 − 7.144*** H5b Supported
GC → LP 0.154 4.87*** H5c Supported
Income → LO 0.137 2.488**
Gender → LO 0.026 0.643
Age → LO − 0.025 − 0.575
Education → LO 0.098 1.979*

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

increase in group conformity may not definitely guarantee a
smaller meal size and higher intention to pack leftovers.
Discussion, conclusions, and limitations
Discussion
The results for perceived leftover generation (i.e., the respon-
dent’s perception of how much food is left over) suggest that
the perceived quantities of leftovers can be predicted by un-
eaten food packing. This correlation conforms to the previous
studies of Sirieix et al. (2017), Wang et al. (2016), and Yamada
et al. (2017). According to Yamada et al. (2017), providing
doggy bags for clients to pack food leftovers is a useful meth-
od to reduce the food leftovers released to landfill. Sirieix et al.
(2017) pointed out that people may feel immediate shame
when they ask for doggy bags to pack the leftovers to take
home, but the shame may be conquered by the anticipated
regret and guilt of wasting food so, in the end, they would
prefer to use the containers to reduce leftovers (Sirieix et al.
2017). This result was verified in Beijing by Y. Wang et al.
(2016), who certified that packing uneaten food after a meal
can significantly reduce the leftovers released into garbage in
Beijing. Packing uneaten food is also a workable method
worldwide, as evidenced by the BNo-leftovers Promotion
Premise^ in Japan (Yamada et al. 2017) and clean your plate
campaign in China. However, the path coefficient from meal
size to leftover generation is not significant, though positive,
and this does not support most previous studies (Lorenz et al.
2017; Mahon et al. 2006). In these studies, differences in
portion size were found to determine food consumption and
leftovers (Dinis et al. 2013; Hermans et al. 2012). Here in our
analysis, we replaced plate portion with meal size because

Table 6 The process of mediation effect analysis

Step IV → DV IV → M IV + M → DV Measures Mediating effect

IV → DV M → DV

Step 1 Insignificant Ended NO mediating effect

Significant Continue with step 2
Step 2 Insignificant Ended NO mediating effect
Significant Continue with step 3
Step 3 Insignificant Significant Full mediating effect
Significant Significant Partial mediation

Baron and Kenny (1986)

IV independent variable, M mediator, DV dependent variable
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
Table 7 Results of the mediation effect
IV M DV IV → DV
Face saving Attitude Meal size 0.524***
Group conformity Attitude Meal size − 0.535***
Group conformity Attitude Leftover packing 0.556***
Face saving Attitude Leftover packing − 0.875***
IV independent variable, M mediator, DV dependent variable
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001
Chinese diners employ a group dining system. We found that
the effect of meal size on leftover generation is not significant.
A possible reason is that after the implementation of the clean
your plate campaign, intentions to order big size meals de-
creased, and at the same time, packing uneaten food will re-
duce the leftover food as well.
Concerning the determinants of meal size, our results show
that attitude, PBC, and group conformity significantly and
negatively influence the intended meal size. This suggests that
a positive attitude toward leftover reduction and powerful
control over personal intention to reduce leftovers have come
into effect with the spread of concern for the environment
(Walker and Cox III 2006; Nel and Casey 2003). Moreover,
the significantly negative effect of group conformity on meal
size provides insight into the Confucianism. In Confucian
dynamism, the concept of Bnot spending more than
necessary^ is one of the key principles (Hofstede and Bond
1988). Under the social value of Bthrift,^ conspicuous con-
sumption is taboo and being moderate is favored in all things
(Hofstede and Bond 1988). Adopting these concepts, people
form the collective norms to be inconspicuous and to order
only the food which is needed. Contrary to our hypothesis, the
effect of face saving on meal size is not significant, though it is
in the expected direction. The reasons may be as follows.
Firstly, with its rapid urbanization, economic development,
and political transformation, modern China has changed
Confucian dynamism and its ethical culture (Koivupuro
et al. 2012). In the case of food leftover generation, with the
development of the economy and deterioration of the living
environment, the public is paying more attention to environ-
mental protection and now people generally prefer not to order
excessive food for public caterings. In our offline convenience
survey, most people stated that when they ordered food in
public caterings (i.e., catered events), they start by estimating
the quantity needed according to the number of the partici-
pants, so they do not order too much food. This rule in meal
ordering works best when the attendees are family members
and close friends because the need for face saving is not a
serious consideration in these cases. Secondly, the insignifi-
cant effect of face saving on meal size may be the outcome of
14992
9
IV → M IV + M → DV Mediating
IV → DV M → DV
− 0.776*** 0.161** − 0.468*** Partial
0.556*** − 0.345*** − 0.335*** Partial
0.566*** 0.189*** 0.648*** Partial
− 0.776*** − 0.466*** 0.527*** Partial
the provisions and prohibitions regulated by the CPC Central
Committee since 2013 (http://www.panzhihua.gov.cn/
sdztjyhdzl/xxzl/tjxxpm/438127.shtml). In the BEight rules,^
BSix bans,^ and BOpposing four social customs,^ combating
extravagance and waste is a key proposition (Wang et al.
2016). Recreational activities using public funds are strictly
prohibited and civil servants are forbidden to accept invita-
tions to dinners paid for by companies and individual stake-
holders. The committee advocates thrift and fighting waste as
well. With the implementation of these rules, large-scale en-
tertaining and banquets have diminished and people do not
need to order huge meals to show respect to public servants
and save their own face. Hence, large-sized meals have be-
come much less common. Thirdly, since small portion/half-
sized dishes were encouraged by MCPRC and CNTA (2014),6
the consumer has options to order more dishes as a half-por-
tion, which will make the table full of dishes while the overall
amount of food remains not excessive. In this case, people can
save their face by providing numerous dishes to show their
generosity and status, yet the meal size (total quantity of food)
remains moderate.
Concerning the determinants of intention of leftover pack-
ing, face saving is significantly and negatively related to un-
eaten food packing, which is partially in accordance with pre-
vious research (Leung 2015).We believe this is the case be-
cause people told the surveyors that they were more reluctant
to pack the leftovers in the presence of guests other than fam-
ily members (Wang et al. 2016). They regard packing leftover
food as a face-losing behavior, possibly conveying the impres-
sion that they have lower status and even are being cheap
(Chen 1990). Our survey showed that attitude and PBC have
a significantly positive influence on uneaten food packing,
conforming to the studies of Walker and Cox III (2006) and
Nel and Casey (2003). This indicates that the positive attitude
toward environmental protection and leftover reduction will
6
Ministr of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China and China National
Tourism Administration, Advocating thrift and opposing extravagance in the
catering industry, Jan. 29, 2013 (In Chinese). Availaible at: http://www.
mofcom.gov.cn/article/b/xxfb/201302/20130200020576.shtml. Accessed on
17–10-23.
14930
result in a higher probability of packing leftovers. However,
the relationship between group conformity and uneaten food
packing intention is not significant, though it is positive. This
indicates that the social norm of packing leftovers is not yet
well formed and packing leftovers is more of an individual
norm than a group norm or social norm (Piron 2006).
The results also suggest that both face saving and group
conformity have significant influences on attitude, with face
saving being significantly negative and group conformity be-
ing significantly positive. The results support the hypotheses
and are in accordance with previous studies (Lee 1991;Chung
and Thorndike Pysarchik 2000; Jin and Hye Kang 2011; Jin
and Kang 2010) which found that face-saving significantly
influenced the Chinese consumers’ attitudes and purchase
intentions. Son et al. (2013) also certified that compared to
Indian consumers, face saving is more effective in forming the
Chinese consumers’ attitudes and promoting their behavior.
This indicates that thoughts of face saving may positively
influence meal size and negatively affect the people’s attitude
toward food leftover reduction. While considering the variable
group conformity, the results in this paper conform to previous
studies of Khare (2011) and Banerjee (2008), indicating that
group conformity is an important factor to explain the collec-
tivist nature and behavior in Confucian consumers both in
Confucian societies and people from the West. In the context
of leftover food reduction, the positive norms held by the
group or collectives may enhance individual attitude toward
leftover reduction. We also tested the mediation effect of atti-
tude on the relationship between face saving, group conformi-
ty, and behavior intentions, i.e., meal size and uneaten food
packing. The attitude toward fewer leftovers partially medi-
ates the effect of the individuals’ perceptions of Confucian
Culture, i.e., face saving and group conformity, on behavior
intention, i.e., leftover packing and intended meal size.
Furthermore, we tested the influence of demographic char-
acteristics on leftover generation. We found that monthly in-
come and education level both significantly influence the left-
over generation. The results that monthly income is positively
correlated with leftover generation conform to previous stud-
ies of Stuart (2009), Parfitt et al. (2010), and Koivupuro et al.
(2012). According to Stuart (2009) and Parfitt et al. (2010),
affluent families waste more food than low-income house-
holds since they have a higher capacity to pay. Also, studies
in Finland revealed that people who tend to buy discounted
food due to a shortage of money end up wasting less
(Koivupuro et al. 2012). The positive effect of education level
over leftover generation conforms to previous studies specif-
ically in household residual waste (Schneider and Obersteiner
2007; Koivupuro et al. 2012; Secondi et al. 2015). Previous
studies done in Australia and EU countries indicated that the
higher the education level, the larger the amount of avoidable
food waste generated. The positive correlation between edu-
cation and leftover generation may be more the result of
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
education level than income. Generally, people with higher
level of education are likely to have more income, which gives
them a higher capacity to pay for food, thus resulting in more
food leftover (Secondi et al. 2015).
Conclusions and implications
Considering the pressure of food security and environmental
protection, food leftover reduction in the dining-out situation
has been regarded as a promising solution. This study re-
searches the effects of Confucian culture on leftover genera-
tion behavior using a new model made by combining Lee’s
modified Fishbein model and the TPB model. The results
verified that the proposed model is a useful framework for
predicting consumer behavior in a Confucian culture (Khare
2011; Banerjee 2008).The empirical results reveal that uneat-
en food packing can significantly reduce the food leftovers,
supporting the previous study of Sirieix et al. (2017), Wang
et al. (2016), and Yamada et al. (2017). The results also con-
firmed that the consumers’ attitude and perceived behavioral
control influence the meal size and uneaten food packing sig-
nificantly as hypothesized (Nel and Casey 2003; Walker and
Cox III 2006). Moreover, we found that face saving and group
conformity influence attitude, which conforms to the previous
studies (Lee 1991; Banerjee 2008; Khare 2011). Furthermore,
we find that education level and monthly income positively
increase food leftovers. Lastly, attitude partially mediates the
effect of face saving and group conformity on behaviors relat-
ed to food leftover. It is important to note that an increase in
face saving and group conformity may not guarantee the ap-
plication of leftover reduction behaviors, and an increase in
behavior adoption may rely on a combination of Confucian
culture factors and attitude.
Based on the results of this study, the following suggestions
can be made to the Chinese government and the catering in-
dustry. Firstly, the government should enhance the publicity
about the bad effects of food leftover on the environment and
food safety. In our study, attitude and perceived behavioral
control both have significant effects on meal size and uneaten
food packing, and this expands the findings of Mahon et al.
(2006). Hence, to build positive attitudes toward leftover food
reduction, the government should strengthen the publicity
about the effects of leftover food on the environment to stim-
ulate positive attitudes. Furthermore, courses and activities
providing knowledge and techniques concerning leftover re-
duction, so as to enhance the perceived behavioral control,
should be offered in schools at all levels because today’s youth
will control and manage the future world (Zsóka et al. 2013).
Secondly, the government should strengthen promotion of
the Chinese tradition of thrift. In our analyses, consumer atti-
tude was negatively influenced by face saving (b = − 0.463,
t = 12.75, p < 0.001) and positively affected by group confor-
mity (b = 0.407, t = 11.077, p < 0.001). This confirms the
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:14919–14933
powerful effects of Confucian culture on attitude formation. In
practice, the government should strengthen publicity the
Chinese tradition of frugality and punish extravagance and
waste. In the catering industry, posters concerning food left-
over reduction should be used as a vehicle for propaganda,
and they should be posted in prominent positions in reception
areas and canteens. Through education and public propagan-
da, individuals may attach more importance to environmental
protection than to face saving. More importantly, consumers
can form group conformity expectations to support frugality
and combat waste, thus leading to a positive attitude and be-
havior toward leftover food reduction.
Thirdly, this study indicated that face saving significantly
decreases the consumers’ intention to pack uneaten food,
while group conformity positively influences that intention
and negatively affects the meal size ordered. Hence, the
government should advocate the virtues of thrift in
Confucianism. Moreover, the government should continually
enforce the regulations of Eight rules, Six bans, and Opposing
four social customs, which can demonstrate concepts to the
masses Wang et al. (2016) and constitute new social norms
and group conformity in food leftover reduction. In the
catering industry, when measures are proposed and analyzed,
Confucian culture factors such as face saving and group con-
formity should be regarded as important factors to be taken
into consideration. Some possible measures are as follows. (1)
Small- or half-sized menu items should be provided to con-
sumers. When the number of participants is fewer, consumers
can order half-sized dishes to reduce food leftovers. For a
banquet with few participants, the host can keep and save
his face by ordering large quantities of small-sized dishes. In
this situation, compared to ordering fewer large-sized dishes,
the host can order more small-sized dishes to make the dining
table full of dishes and plates. By ordering more plates, the
host can show his generosity to the guests and save his face,
while the total quantity of food provided still remains adequate
and moderate. (2) Restaurants should inform customers of the
volume of the dish through providing more specific informa-
tion on the menu. For instance, pictures on the menu should
include information about the dish such as flavor, ingredients,
calories, and allergens (Yamada et al. 2017). Further, the res-
taurant could provide full-size plastic models of the food
(100% size of the dishes) to visually show the quantity. By
doing so, the consumers can order what is fit and adequate for
their needs and reduce food waste. (3) Restaurants should
provide packing service for the customers. The restaurant
should provide facilities such as doggy bags and lunch boxes
to the customers but far more than that can be done. Our
research confirmed that packing leftovers may be an undesir-
able behavior for the host when considering face saving (Chen
1990). The host may feel ashamed and thus reluctant to ask for
doggy bags, especially in the presence of guests. In this situ-
ation, the restaurant should provide doggy bags to the host
14931
when the guests are absent, or help the host pack the uneaten
foods and give it to the host when the guests have left (Stancu
et al. 2016). Having the food servers box the leftovers for the
customers may be more acceptable and workable, because
customers generally do not want to waste food but they
hesitate to ask the food servers for leftover containers
because this kind of behavior is regarded as face losing.
Seiter and Weger (2018) and Stancu et al. (2016) have indi-
cated that the customers like to give much bigger tips to food
servers when the servers box the leftovers, which indicates
that this kind of service is applicable in catering and restaurant
settings.
Limitations
Although our research has some interesting findings, it is im-
portant to highlight its limitations. Firstly, the research data
comes from consumer self-reporting, which could bias the
results. It is known that there is a gap between adoption
intention and actual adoption behavior. Ajzen and Fishbein
(1980) and an analogous problem may occur with leftover
food generation. Since we only consider the individual’s
self-perceived leftover food generation behavior, our results
may be biased compared to objective measurements of left-
over generation. For example, previous study indicates that
the perception of portion sizes does not necessarily align with
objective portion size measurement (Wansink and Van
Ittersum 2013;Wansink et al. 2005). Later research could use
field and technical measurements to identify the actual pro-
portion of meal size to leftovers and analyze the differences
between the self-report survey and the actual measurement.
Secondly, the low proportion of valid participants could cause
bias. In this sample, 182 invalid questionnaires were discarded
because of missing values for the main variables or identical
answers for all different variables. The reason may be that in
our online and onsite surveys, anonymity was assured and we
could not collect the socio-demographic information at the
time of distributing the questionnaires. Hence, we could not
identify who had provided invalid responses. Moreover, the
offline survey was administered in canteens and restaurants
when people were at the table, where time is somewhat tight
for them to finish the questionnaire. Thus, to enrich the con-
clusions in further research, researchers should increase the
proportion of offline surveys and check the questionnaire right
after it is finished. Then, the surveyors could remind the re-
spondents of the missing values. Thirdly, the measurement
items were all adapted from previous studies. Since there are
few studies concerning the behavioral intention of packing
uneaten food, items of this construct were adapted from stud-
ies in pro-environmental behavior which may not be
completely appropriate for this situation. For example, the
reference frame of intention of packing uneaten food seems
a long period, which could affect the results. In future
14932
research, we will shorten the described time period to Bduring
your next visit to a restaurant^ in these items. Lastly, the sam-
ple is a convenience sample made only in Chengdu, China,
which may restrict the generalizability of the findings. In fu-
ture research, we could better generalize the conclusions by
collecting data from more regions.
Funding information This work was supported by the National Social
Science Foundation of China (Grant Number 15CGL043) and the Social
Science Foundation annual project of Sichuan province (Grant Number
SC16XK047). The authors would like to express their gratitude to the
survey respondents who gave usable answers and for the valuable com-
ments of the anonymous reviewers.
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