Physics 106 Lecture 9

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

SJ 7th Ed.: Chap 13.1 to 2, 13.4 to 5

• Historical overview
• Newton’s
N ’ inverse-square
i l
law off gravitation
i i
ƒ Force
ƒ Gravitational acceleration “g”
• Superposition
• Gravitation near the Earth’s surface
• Gravitation inside the Earth (concentric shells)
• Gravitational potential energy
ƒ Related to the force by integration
ƒ A conservative force means it is path independent
ƒ Escape velocity

Gravitation – Introduction
Why do things fall?
Why doesn’t everything fall to the center of the Earth?
What holds the Earth (and the rest of the Universe) together?
Why are there stars, planets and galaxies, not just dilute gas?

ƒ Aristotle – Earthly physics is different from celestial physics

ƒ Kepler – 3 laws of planetary motion
motion, Sun at the center
center. Numerical fit/no theory
ƒ Newton – English, 1665 (age 23)
• Physical Laws are the same everywhere in the universe (same laws for legendary falling
apple and planets in solar orbit, etc).
• Invented differential and integral calculus (so did Liebnitz)
• Proposed the law of “universal gravitation”
• Deduced Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
• Revolutionized “Enlightenment” thought for 250 years
ƒ Reason ÅÆ prediction and control, versus faith and speculation
ƒ Revolutionary view of clockwork, deterministic universe (now dated)
ƒ Einstein - Newton + 250 years (1915, age 35)
ƒ General Relativity – mass is a form of concentrated energy (E=mc2), gravitation is a
distortion of space-time that bends light and permits black holes (gravitational collapse).
ƒ Planck, Bohr, Heisenberg, et al – Quantum mechanics (1900–27)
ƒ Energy & angular momentum come in fixed bundles (quanta): atomic orbits, spin,
photons, etc.
ƒ Particle-wave duality: determinism breaks down.
ƒ There should be a “graviton” (quantum gravity particle). No progress yet.
ƒ Current Issues
ƒ Dark Matter – Luminous mass of galaxies is too small to explain stars’ orbits.
ƒ Dark Energy and inflation – Possible anti-gravity at long range fuels accelerating
expansion of the universe, and also early Big Bang.

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 Gravitation – Basic Concepts
Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force that
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
G m1m2
For a pair of masses: | F12 | = 2
r12
• Inertial mass:
ƒ Measures resistance to acceleration, e.g.: F = ma.
ƒ Measures response to gravitational acceleration - a field.

• Gravitational mass:
ƒ Mass is the source of the gravitational acceleration field - always
ƒ Gravitational mass measures strength of a gravitational field produced.

• Duality/Equivalence:
ƒ Every bit of mass acts as both inertial and gravitational mass with the same value
of m in each role.

• Gravitational Force
ƒ No contact needed: “action at a distance”.
ƒ Cannot be screened out, unlike electrical forces.
ƒ Always attractive unlike electrical forces (except for “dark energy”, maybe).
ƒ Very weak compared to electrical forces. Too small to notice between most human-
scale objects and smaller (e.g., p+ and e- ).

Gravitation is long range, has cosmological effects over long times.

But it is a weak force on the human scale.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

G 3rd law pair of
forces Force on Gravitational Constant
m1
F21 m2 due to m1 G=6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2
G
G F
r12 12 G G m1m2
Displacement
m2
F12 = − 2
r̂12
from m1 to m2
r12 Unit vector
• Force is between pairs of point masses
• Symmetric in m1 & m2 so F12 = - F21 G along r12
r12
• Not screened or affected by other bodies
Easy to miss between masses near a
r̂12 ≡ G = −r̂21
•
third large mass (e.g. on Earth surface)
r12
IF m2 IS REMOVED, IS ANYTHING AT POINT 2 DIFFERENT BECAUSE m1 IS STILL AT POINT 1?
FIELD transmits the force (no contact, action at a distance)
G G G Gm
Acceleration field F12 ≡ m2g12 ⇒ g12 = − 2 1 r̂12
r12

Inverse square law: A=4πr2

as sphere grows field field at location
Earth (or force) r of m2 due to m1
x area is constant

2
 Finding the Value of G
• Henry Cavendish first
measured G directly (1798)
• Two masses m are fixed at the
ends of a light horizontal rod
(torsion pendulum)
• Two large masses M were
placed near the small ones
• The angle of rotation was
measured
• Results were fitted into
Newton’s Law

G=6.67x10-11 N.m2/kg2
G versus g:
• G is the universal gravitational constant, the same everywhere
• g = ag is the acceleration due to gravity. It varies by location.
• g = 9.80 m/s2 at the surface of the Earth

Why was the Law of Gravitation not obvious (except to Newton).

How big are gravitational forces between ordinary objects?
G m1m2 1 Newton is about the force needed to
| F12 |= 2 support 100 grams of mass on the Earth
r12
m1 m2 r12 F12
1 kg
1 kg sandwich 1 meter 6.67x10-11 N.
a liter of soda
100 kg 100 kg
1 meter 6.67x10-7 N.
a person another person

106 kg 106 kg 100 meters 0.67 N.

a ship another ship still hard to detect

Conclusion:
C l i
• G is very small, so…need huge masses to get perceptible forces
Does gravitation play a role in atomic physics & chemistry?

9.1x10-31 kg 1.7x10-27 kg 5x10-11 meter

4x10-47 N.
electron proton orbit radius

3
Superposition:
The net force on a point mass when there are many others nearby is the
vector sum of the forces taken one pair at a time
G G G G G G m2
Fon 1 = ∑ Fi,1 = F2,1 + F3,1 + F4,1 r12
i≠1 G
F21 G
All gravitational effects are between r13 m3
m1 G
pairs of masses. No known effects F31
depend directly on 3 or more masses. G G
r14
F41
m4 m4
m2 = m3
Example: G
r'
m4 = m5
G G K G
m2 r m1 r m3 Fon = m1 gat = 0 by symmetry
m1 m1
Gm
G gi,1 ≡ a gi,1 = - 2 i
r' r1,i
m5

For continuous mass G G

distributions, integrate Fon 1 = ∫ 1
d F
mass dist

Numerical Example: y

Find net force on m1 due to m2 and m3 m2

• Use superposition
• Basic forces at right angles a
G G F12
∑ Fi, j
m3 2a
Fnet , j = x
F13 m1
i≠ j

4
 Superposition for a triangle

‰ 9.1. In the sketch, equal masses are placed at the vertices of an

equilateral triangle, each of whose sides equals “s”. In which
direction would the top-most chunk of mass try to accelerate
(ignore the Earth’s gravity) with the bottom two held in place?

s s
A) B) C) D) E) a = 0
+
s m
m

‰ 9
9.2.
2 Another chunk of mass is placed at the exact center of the
triangle in the sketch. In which direction does it tend to accelerate?

G G
Fnet , j = ∑ Fi, j
i≠ j

Shell Theorem: superposition for masses with spherical symmetry

1. For a test mass OUTSIDE of a uniform spherical shell of mass, the

shell’s gravitational force (field) is the same as that of a point mass
concentrated at the shell’s mass center
m
r m r
x x

Sa e for
Same fo a solid
olid sphere
he e (e.g.,
(e Earth,
Ea th Sun)
S ) via
ia nested
e ted shells
hell
m r
r r
x x
x
+ +
2. For a test mass INSIDE of a uniform spherical shell of mass, the
shell’s gravitational force (field) is zero

m • Obvious by symmetry for center

x x
• Elsewhere, need to integrate over sphere

3. For a solid sphere, the force on a test mass INSIDE includes only
the mass closer to the CM than the test mass.

m • Example: On surface, measure acceleration g a

x distance r from center
4
• Example: Halfway to center, ag = g/2 Vsphere = πr 3
3

5
Gravitation near the surface of the Earth:
What do “g” and “weight = mg” mean?
m
• Earth’s mass acts as like a point mass me
at the center (by the Shell Theorem)
h • Radius of Earth = re
• Object with mass m is at altitude h…
re …above the surface, so r = re+h
• Weight
g W = mag with acceleration g given by
y
Newtons Law of Gravitation (any altitude)
me
G G me
ag = − r̂ at any altitude
(re + h) 2
When m is “on or h << re or, in other words re + h ≈ re
near the surface: G G me 2
g ≡ ag ≅ where g ≅ 9.8 m/s
re2

Example: Use the above to find the mass of the Earth, given:
• g = 9.8 m/s2 (measure in lab) g re2 9.8 x 6370 x 103
•G= 6.67x10-11 m3/kg.s2 (lab)
⇒ me = =
G 6.67 x 10-11
• re = 6370 km (average - measure)
me = 5.98 x 1024 kg

Altitude dependence of g

ƒ Weight decreases with

altitude h
ƒ The work needed to
increase Δh declines, since
weight decreases

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 Free fall acceleration

9.3 What is the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration at a point that is

a distance 2re above the surface of the Earth, where re is the radius
of the Earth?

a) 4.8 m/s2
b) 1.1 m/s2
c) 3.3 m/s2
d) 2.5 m/s2
e) 6.5 m/s2

G me
ag = at any altitude
(re + h) 2

g = 9.8 m/s 2

Gravitational “field” transmits the force

ƒ A piece of mass m1 placed somewhere creates a “gravitational field” that
has values described by some function g1(r) everywhere in space.
ƒ Another piece of mass m2 feels a force proportional to g1(r) and in the same
direction, also proportional to m2. G G G m1m2
Concepts
p for g-fields:
g
F12 = m2g1 (r ) = − 2
r̂12
r12
ƒ No contact needed: “action at a distance”.
ƒ Acceleration Field created by gravitational mass transmits the force as a
distortion of space that another (inertial) mass responds to.
ƒ Gravitational field is “Conservative” (i.e. can have a potential energy function).
ƒ g cannot be screened out, unlike electrical fields.
ƒ g is always attractive (except cosmologically, maybe), unlike electrical fields.
G
ƒ The field g1(r) is the gravitational force per unit mass G Fg GM
g= = − 2 rˆ
created by mass m1, present at all points whether or not m r
there is a test mass m2 located there
ƒ The gravitational field vectors point in the direction of
the acceleration a particle would experience if placed in
the field at each point.
Field lines help to visualize strength and direction.
ƒ close together Æ strong field,
ƒ direction Æ force on test mass

7
Gravitational Potential Energy ΔU
ΔU = mgΔh fails unless ag is constant – force depends on r
Work done by G G
Definition: dW ≡ Fg • d r = − dUg potential
gravity on a test
energy
mass m moved
change
through dr force varies displacement
along path

Choose: gravitational potential = zero at R = ∞ where the force = zero

i.e.: U(R) = Æ 0 as R Æ ∞.
Mass M creates the g-field. Integrate along a radial path from R to infinity

∞ ∞G G ∞ GmM
ΔU ≡ − ∫ dW = − ∫ Fg • d r = − ∫ dr GmM
R R R r2
∞ dr GmM ∞ Ug = −
= − GmM∫ 2 = |R R
Rr r
ƒ The gravitational potential energy between any two particles Note:
varies as 1/R. The force varies as 1/R2 NOT R 2
ƒ The potential energy is negative because the force is
attractive and we chose the potential energy to be zero at infinite
separation.
ƒ Another form of energy (external work or kinetic energy) is converted
when the potential energy and separation between masses increase.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Mutual potential energy of a system of many particles

Utotal = ∑ Uij (rij ) shared, sum over

all possible pairings
all pairs
The total gravitational potential energy of the system is the
sum over all pairs of particles.
Gravitational potential energy obeys the superposition principle

Example m2 3 possible pairs

r12 r23 ⎧⎪ Gm m Gm1m3 Gm2m3 ⎫⎪
1 2
Utotal = U12 + U13 + U23 = − ⎨ + + ⎬
m1 r13 m3 ⎪⎩ r12 r13 r23 ⎪⎭

The slope of the

G potential
G energy curve is related to the force.
Recall: dW ≡ Fg • d r = − dUg

Slope of potential
force due to
G dUg energy function
gravitation Fg = − (derivative,
dr gradient)
minus

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 Gravitational Potential Energy, cont

• As a particle moves from A to B, its

gravitational potential energy changes by ΔU

• But the mechanical energy remains constant,

i d
independent
d t off path,
th so long
l as no other
th
force is acting
Emech = K + U(r )

• Graph of the gravitational

potential energy U versus r for
an object above the Earth’s Emech2
surface
• The potential energy goes to
zero as r approaches infinity
• The mechanical energy may be Emech1
positive, negative, or zero

Conservation of mechanical energy with gravitation

• Emech determines whether motion is bound, free, or at escape threshold

Emech is constant FREE

Emech = K + Ug (r ) Ug=0 r1 r2 r

Gmem
Ug (r ) = − always negative Emech
r
KE1

Turning
U(r1) point r2
For Emech < 0, particle is bound and KE2 = 0
cannot escape. It cannot move beyond
a turning point (e.g., r2) BOUND
For Emech > 0, particle is free. It can Gme
E

reach r = infinity and still have some KE Ug = −

r
left
Emech = 0 iis the
h escape condition.
di i A G dUg
particle at any location r would need at
Fg = −
dr
least KE = -Ug(r) to move off to the right The tangent to the potential
and never return. energy graph measures the
How much energy does it cost per kilogram to gravitational force
escape completely from the surface of the Earth?
Gme x1
Ug = - = 17.4 KWH/kg
re

9
Escape speed formula – derivation and example
Escape condition for object of mass m from the surface:
1 2 Gmem
Emech ≡ K + Ug = 0 = mv esc -
2 re
The mass m cancels:
1 2 Gme 2Gme
0 = v esc - v esc = = 2gre
2 re re

Example: Find the escape speed from the Earth’s surface

g = 9.8 m/s2 re = 6370 km
v esc = 2x 9.8x 6.370x106 = 11,100 m / s ≈ 7 mi/s
Example: Jupiter has 300 times the Earth’s mass and 10 times
the Earth’s diameter. How does the escape velocity for Jupiter
compare to that for the Earth?
2.G.m jup 2.G.me .300
v jup = = = 30 v e ≈ 5.5 v e
rjup re .10

How much does g vary across objects near the earth’s surface?

dr ~ size of object Optional

O ti l
Topic
depends on ratio
of object size to
Earths radius

conclusion:
can treat g as
constant

10
When is it valid to approximate Ug by mgΔh?

Optional
Topic

Answer: when Δh << re

11