Renewable Energy:

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves,
and geothermal heat.] Renewable energy often provides energy in four important
areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-
grid) energy services.

Considering that the major component of greenhouse gases (GHGs) is carbon dioxide, there
is a global concern about reducing carbon emissions. In this regard, different policies could
be applied to reduce carbon emissions, such as enhancing renewable energy deployment
and encouraging technological innovations. In addition, supporting mechanisms, such as
feed-in tariffs, renewable portfolio standards and tax policies, are employed by
governments to develop renewable energy generation along with implementing energy use
efficiency for saving energy.

Many countries have started to install facilities that use renewable energy sources for
power generation. The importance of alternative energy sources comes together with
climate change challenges associated with the excessive use of fossil fuels. There are three
primary motivators that stimulate the growth of renewable energy technologies: energy
security, economic impacts and carbon dioxide emission reduction. The term “alternative
energy” refers to any form of energy other than the conventional sources of energy,
including hydropower. In recent years the focus has been on renewable energy sources.

When talking about clean technologies, there are two primary concepts of energy
technologies: energy supply technologies, which refers to alternative sources of renewable
energy (e.g., wind and solar power), and energy efficiency technologies, or those
technologies which are hired to enhance energy use efficiency, (e.g., combined heat and
power (CHP), virtual power plants (VPP) and smart meters). It should be noted that
transforming the energy sector and replacing conventional energy with renewable energy is
evolutionary associated with technological change and forming markets indicate that the
transforming process for certain forms of renewable energy, such as wind and solar, will
happen after 2020, even if the growth rate of consumption is strongly increasing over the
next decade. Also, renewable energy markets are not easily formed due to cost
disadvantages and the subsidizing of fossil fuels. strongly increasing over the next decade.
Also, renewable energy markets are not easily formed due to cost disadvantages and the
subsidizing of fossil fuels.

Conclusion:

Due to negative and irreversible externalities in conventional energy production, it is

necessary to develop and promote renewable energy supply technologies. Power
generation using renewable energy sources should be increased in order to decrease the
unit cost of energy and to make them compatible with a competitive alternative to the
conventional energy sources. Two main solutions may be implemented to reduce CO2
emissions and to overcome the problem of climate change: replacing fossil fuels with
renewable energy sources as much as possible and enhancing energy efficiency regardless
of type. In this review, we considered hydro, wind, solar and geothermal sources, because
of their significant contribution to power generated by renewable sources.

Following the drastic increase in oil price and its impacts on both coal and gas prices, a large
amount of investment has been made over recent years in renewable energy. These
advancements in technology have enabled countries to produce renewable energy in larger
quantities and more cost effectively. Due to negative and irreversible externalities
associated with conventional energy extraction and consumption, it is necessary to promote
and develop renewable energy supply and consumption. The IEA forecasts positive
developments in renewable energy sources. They act as substitutes for fossil fuels and
reduce emissions. In the short term, some renewable technologies may not be comparable
to conventional fuels in the scope of production costs and transmission, but they could be
comparable if we consider their associated positive externalities, such as their
environmental and social effects. Also, it should be noted that economies of scale could play
a key role in reducing the unit cost of production. Transmission and distribution costs and
technologies do not differ much among the conventional and renewable energy sources. In
this review we have presented detailed facts about the main renewable energy supply
technology developments, including hydro, wind, solar, and geothermal in detail and other
sources such as biomass, ocean waves and tides in brevity. The emphasis has been on
current production capacity and the estimated capacity, as well as development costs which
are sunk. We have also presented empirical findings from comparative studies of alternative
energy technologies. Hydro power is the largest renewable energy source for power
generation around the world. Despite its large energy generation contribution, its
development is difficult due to a high initial fixed investment cost and environmental and
population relocation costs. Hydro power is attractive due to a combined supply of water
for agriculture, household, recreation and industrial use. Additionally, it can store water and
energy that can be used for both base and peak load power generations. The availability of
funding, political and market risks, resource allocation priorities and local environmental
concerns are considered to be barriers to the development of hydro power capacity. The
installed wind power capacity has also been increasing, especially in countries like China, the
US, Germany and Denmark. Advantages of wind power plants include the installation as
turnkey contracts within a short period, a lower investment compared to nuclear and
hydroelectric plants, economies of mass production, an absence of fuel costs and low
operation and maintenance costs. The problems associated with the use of wind power
include intermittency of wind energy and an added cost for power transmission to users.
Generation cost is dependent on location, feasibility and the minimum required speed for
wind turbines. China has developed its own solar power capacity, decreasing the cost of
generation due to the availability of cheap labor and public subsidies. Another source of the
reduced costs is in advances and the high efficiency in concentrated solar power
technologies in the US. The negative effects include land, material and chemical use and
impacts on buildings’ aesthetics. The performance is dependent on location. Geothermal
energy has been used throughout history for bathing, heating and cooking. The geothermal
gradient and permeability of rocks determines its economic implementation feasibility.
Unlike wind and solar power, geothermal is continuously available through the year,
although technology has some negative environmental effects.
Bio Technology:

In 1919, Hungarian agricultural engineer Karl Ereky foresaw a time when biology could be
used for turning raw materials into useful products. He coined the term biotechnology to
describe that merging of biology and technology.

Biotechnology, the use of biology to solve problems and make useful products. The most
prominent area of biotechnology is the production of therapeutic proteins and other drugs
through genetic engineering.

People have been harnessing biological processes to improve their quality of life for some
10,000 years, beginning with the first agricultural communities. Approximately 6,000 years
ago, humans began to tap the biological processes of microorganisms in order to make bread,
alcoholic beverages, and cheese and to preserve dairy products. But such processes are not
what is meant today by biotechnology, a term first widely applied to the molecular and
cellular technologies that began to emerge in the 1960s and ’70s. A fledgling
“biotech” industry began to coalesce in the mid- to late 1970s, led by Genentech, a
pharmaceutical company established in 1976 by Robert A. Swanson and Herbert W. Boyer to
commercialize the recombinant DNA technology pioneered by Boyer, Paul Berg, and Stanley
N. Cohen. Early companies such as Genentech, Amgen, Biogen, Cetus, and Genex began
by manufacturing genetically engineered substances primarily for medical and environmental
uses.

For more than a decade, the biotechnology industry was dominated by recombinant DNA
technology, or genetic engineering. This technique consists of splicing the gene for a
useful protein(often a human protein) into production cells—such as yeast, bacteria, or
mammalian cells in culture—which then begin to produce the protein in volume. In the
process of splicing a gene into a production cell, a new organism is created. At first,
biotechnology investors and researchers were uncertain about whether the courts would
permit them to acquire patents on organisms; after all, patents were not allowed on new
organisms that happened to be discovered and identified in nature. But, in 1980, the U.S.
Supreme Court, in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty, resolved the matter by ruling that “a
live human-made microorganism is patentable subject matter.” This decision spawned a wave
of new biotechnology firms and the infant industry’s first investment boom. In 1982
recombinant insulin became the first product made through genetic engineering to secure
approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Since then, dozens of
genetically engineered protein medications have been commercialized around the world,
including recombinant versions of growth hormone, clotting factors, proteins for stimulating
the production of red and white blood cells, interferons, and clot-dissolving agents.

Biotechnology medicines, often referred to as biotech medicines, are large molecules that are
similar or identical to the proteins and other complex substances that the body relies on to
stay healthy. They are too large and too intricate to make using chemistry alone. Instead, they
are made using living factories—microbes or cell lines—that are genetically modified to
produce the desired molecule. A biotech medicine must be injected or infused into the body
in order to protect its complex structure from being broken down by digestion if taken by
mouth.

Fields of Bio Technology

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care
(medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other
products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for
example:

Bioinformatics (also called "gold biotechnology") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses

biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as
well as analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to
as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of
molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the
information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role
in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and
forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
 Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and
industrial applications.] This branch of biotechnology is the most used for the industries
of refining and combustion principally on the production of bio-oils with photosynthetic
micro-algae.
 Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example
would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another
example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the
presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce
more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An
example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the
need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether
or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally
friendly is a topic of considerable debate.[19] It is commonly considered as the next phase
of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using
technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant,
towards biotic and abiotic stress, plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly
fertilizers and the use of bio pesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of
agriculture. On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology
involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste.
 Red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical
and pharmaceutical industries, and health preservation. This branch involves the
production of vaccines and antibiotics, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs
and new diagnostics of diseases. As well as the development of hormones, stem
cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests.[19]
 While biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied
to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful
chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either
produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White
biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to
produce industrial goods.
 "Yellow biotechnology" refers to the use of biotechnology in food production, for
example in making wine, cheese, and beer by fermentation.[19] It has also been used to
refer to biotechnology applied to insects. This includes biotechnology-based approaches
for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients
 or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various
other approaches.
 Grey biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the
maintenance of biodiversity and the remotion of pollutants.
 Brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and deserts. One
application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental
conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture
techniques and management of resources.
 Violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around
biotechnology.
 Dark biotechnology is the color associated with bioterrorism or biological weapons and
bio warfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in
humans, livestock and crops.

Different kinds of meters

 Accelerometer, physical, acceleration

 Ammeter, electrical, Amperage, current
 Anemometer, wind speed.
 Caliper, distance
 Calorimeter, heat
 DNA sequencer, molecular biology
 Dynamometer, torque/force
 Electrometer, electric charge, potential difference
 Electroscope, electric charge
 Electrostatic analyzer, Kinetic energy of charged particles
 Ellipsometer, optical refractive indices
 Eudiometer, gas volume
 Gravimeter, gravity
 Hydrometer
 Inclinometer, slope
 Interferometer, optics, infrared light spectra
 Magnetograph, magnetic field
 Magnetometer, magnetic flux
 Manometer, air pressure
 Mass spectrometer, compound identification/characterization
 Micrometer, distance
 Microscope, optical magnification
 NMR spectrometer, chemical compound identification, medical diagnostic imaging
 Ohmmeter, electrical resistance/impedance
 Oscilloscope, electric signal voltage, amplitude, wavelength, frequency, waveform
shape/pattern
 Seismometer, acceleration
 Spectrogram, sound frequency, wavelength, amplitude
 Spectrometer, light frequency, wavelength, amplitude
 Telescope, light magnification (astronomy)
 Thermometer, temperature measurement
 Theodolite, angles, surveying
 Thermocouple, temperature
 Voltmeter, voltage