Sustainability in Coal and Mineral Mining Operations is need-of-the-hour

We define sustainability in mining as mining and mineral development that meets the growing
needs of all communities while maintaining a healthy environment and vibrant economy for
present and future generations.

The Criteria in Sustainability in Mining can be applied to mineral exploration and mining
projects/operations as follows:

Health and Safety: The project/operation is acting to ensure the health and safety of workers
and the community.
Effective Engagement: The relationships with those affected by a project/operation are
characterized by integrity and trust.
Respect for Indigenous Peoples: The project/operation respects the rights, culture and values of
Indigenous Peoples.
Environment: Actions are being taken to ensure the maintenance and strengthening of
environmental integrity over the long term within the region of influence of the project/operation.
Full Mine or Operation Life Cycle: A full mine or operation life cycle perspective is being applied
for planning and decision making that spans exploration through post-closure.
Resource-use Efficiency: The project/operation is seeking to minimize resouce inputs—energy,
water, reagents, supplies, etc.—while also minimizing contaminant outputs to air, water and
land.
Continuous Learning and Adaptation: The uncertainty inherent in mining operations is
recognized, and a commitment to continuous learning is displayed.
Benefits: The project/operation is enhancing the potential for creating economic, social and
cultural benefits for the local community or region.
The importance of sustainable development principles has been increasing within the mining
sector over the past two decades. Early work focused mainly on mining metals and commodities
other than coal and energy fuels. Because sustainability, however, is an important consideration
for all human endeavors now, the coal industry has become active in sustainability efforts. A
number of global coal mining companies have embraced sustainability as a key aspect of
corporate philosophy.

Continued production of minerals and fossil energy fuels may not fit into commonly understood
definitions of sustainability. Mineral and energy extraction and reclamation operations do,
however, contribute significantly to sustainability through the benefits they provide to society,
when they are conducted in a manner that supports sustainable economies, social structures
and environments throughout all phases of mining, including closure.

Significant progress can also be made through the inclusion of sustainability concepts in the
original design of the operation, as well as in ongoing operations. Innovative engineering,
mining and reclamation operations can be optimized through consideration of environmental
and economic sustainability goals, side-by-side with traditional technical mining engineering
considerations.

It is widely recognized that coal is and will continue to be a crucial element in a modern,
balanced energy portfolio, providing a bridge to the future as an important low cost and secure
energy solution to sustainability challenges. In response, the global coal and energy
production industries have begun a major effort to identify and accelerate the deployment and
further development of innovative, advanced, efficient, cleaner coal technologies. A
number of coal producers are also involved in sustainable development activities,
including economic support of communities and regions, environmental restoration and social
well-being.

The designer of, specially, coal mining operations needs to simultaneously consider legal,
environmental and sustainability goals along with traditional mining engineering parameters as
an integral part of the design process. The role of coal in the global energy supply mix makes
this of primary importance. There is a need for research into the parameters for mining design
that allow the building of models for optimization, the relationships between those parameters,
and the desired outcomes that the system is being optimized to produce. In addition to
quantifying the economic viability of the operation, a number of sustainability goals should be
built into the model and the relative importance of those goals determined.

Differential Energy blasting technology

The trial of Dyno Nobel’s Differential Energy blasting system at a U.S.gold mine was a major
success; improving fragmentation, reducing fumes and increasing ore production.

Dyno Nobel’s proprietary Differential Energy explosive delivery technology allows mine
operators to precisely vary the characteristics of the bulk explosive in the borehole to match
rock properties and address specific needs. The system is delivered through specially designed
bulk trucks using proprietary down-the-hole automatic gassing technology with Dyno Nobel’s
Titan® ΔE 1000 bulk explosive.

In the trial, the blasting technicians were able to precisely load three different energy density
segments into the borehole. The aim was to optimise the energy distribution by placing the
higher energy profile at the bottom of the blasting hole, normal energy profile in the middle and
lower profile energy at the top.
The trial showed Differential Energy increased overall shovel productivity by 8%, reduced
powder factor by 18%, eliminated the need to dewater wet drill holes and reduced all visible
NOx after-blast fumes over traditional blasting methods.

Double-Primer placement in a borehole for better fragmentation in rock blasting:

A primer usually consists of a detonator which is inserted into booster for initiation of column
charge in blasthole. The position of a primer in a blasthole plays an important role in
fragmentation and rock fracture, as energy output (Detonation pressure), stress distribution etc.,
depend on its placement.

It has been experienced, when two primers are placed at different positions in a blasthole and
they are initiated simultaneously, shock-wave collision takes place. In other words, the double-
primer placement is based on the principle of shock wave collision. When two shock waves
collide each other, the final pressure is greater than the sum of the initial two pressures. Stress
analysis indicates that this should be favorable to rock fracture and fragmentation in blasting.

Generally, in the case of double-primer placement, one primer is placed at the bottom of the
borehole and other placed at the middle of the borehole.

Experiments showed that, the amplitude of stress waves in rock mass due to two-primer
placement in a blasthole was much greater than the double of the amplitude of the waves
caused by one single primer in a similar blasthole. These experiments indicate potential
applications of a two-primer placement in rock blasting.

When electronic detonators came into being, shock collision theory was used to improve
fragmentation.

Detonation waves and P-wave velocities, densities and wave impedance of several rock
materials
Detonation Velocity (m/s) P-wave velocity (m/s) Density (kg/m3) Impedance (106 kg
m-2 s-1)
Explosives
ANFO 3200 —— 900 2.9
Emulsion 5200 —— 1200 6.2
Dynamite (Low velocity) 2500 —— 1450 3.6
Dynamite (High velocity) 5500 —— 1450 8.0
Rock Materials
Basalt (Dense) —— 5560 2761 15.4
Granite (Dense) —— 5230 2800 14.6
Hematite —— 6820 5070 31.8
Sandstone —— 2640 2182 5.8
Limestone (Massive) —— 2380 2250 5.4
Concrete —— 4580 2220 10.2
To take advantage of the concept, the blaster would select an explosive with a lower impedance
value (lower density, lower velocity) when attempting to blast rock with a lower impedance value
(lower density, lower velocity) and, conversely select a higher impedance explosive to blast rock
with a higher impedance value.

While impedance approximating will assist you in achieving better blasting results, the structure
of the rock (joint systems, etc.) will play a very important part and will usually have a greater
effect on blast results. Study the rock structure carefully. Consider it in your blast designs and
then select your explosives to match the rock.

Blast Induced Ground Vibration

The energy released at the blast site is sufficient to cause permanent changes to the rock mass.
This area is typically less than 35 hole diameters. For example, a 3-inch diameter hole would
cause fracturing that extends out approximately 105 inches or almost 9 feet. Outside of this area
the energy is elastic, so that the particles of the Earth are not permanently deformed or
displaced. After the energy passes the particles return to their original resting position.

As particles of the Earth are displaced, these particles impact other particles which impact other
particles, and as this process continues, the energy is transmitted away from the blast site. This
transmission of energy flows as a wave. An analogy would be the effect of dropping a stone into
a pool of water. At the point of impact, the water is displaced sufficiently to produce individual
droplets that separate. Past the impact point, the energy can be seen travelling away as waves.

As the energy travels outward from the source, it diminishes or attenuates. With increasing
distance, the affected area greatly increases and the energy becomes widely dispersed. In
general, the amplitude of the vibration can be expected to decrease by approximately two-thirds
for every doubling of the distance.

Frequency of Vibration:
Frequency is used to describe the oscillating nature of the vibration. We tend to talk about a
vibration as being composed of cycles. Frequency is mathematically determined by taking the
inverse of the time it takes to complete one cycle. This value is commonly expressed in Hertz
(cycles per second). The red highlight in the image represents one cycle that lasts about 0.2
seconds. The frequency of this cycle would be 1 divided by 0.2 seconds which equals 5 Hertz
(Hz). Frequency plays an important role in how individuals perceive ground vibration and how
structures react to ground vibration.

Human Perception on Ground Vibration:

Beginning in the 1930s, research was conducted with volunteers to determine sensitivities to
vibrations. Although people are sensitive to sounds and vibrations, it is difficult to quantify
perceptions. Inside a structure, people will feel the building shake and hear the objects around
them rattle such as windows and knick-knacks on walls. When an event is perceived, some
people will say that they felt very strong vibrations, even if the vibration was too low to be felt
outside. The reactions of people are best understood when observed in their own homes during
times of real-life events. These reactions may not be the same as those of volunteers under
controlled conditions.

Human response to blasting is subjective, as two people will react differently to the same
vibration event depending on where they are in a structure, their frame of mind and their
personality. Unfavorable reactions to vibrations may often result in complaints. When residents
feel a blast, they may become concerned about damage to their home.
The threshold peak particle velocity of ground vibration perception is about 0.51 mm/s (0.02
in/s) for most people. This is 1/100 of the limit of 50 mm/s (2 in/s) commonly used for
construction blasting or in reference to below the chart bounds.

Structure Response on Blast Induced Ground Vibration:

Residential structure response to blast vibration has been researched extensively (Example:
USBM RI 8507 and RI 8896). And frequency is a very important component of ground vibration
because it affects how structures respond. The general types of response within a structure
caused by external vibrations are:
• Foundation Structure Response or the structure vibration below the ground level is equal to
the incoming ground vibrations.
• Whole-Structure Response or the racking motions, of the above ground part of the building,
that respond to frequencies of 4 Hertz to 12 Hertz.
• Mid-Wall Response or motions within individual panels or components of the above ground
part of the building, normally out of plane with walls, responsive to frequencies of 12 Hertz to 20
Hertz.

In the whole structure response, the above ground portion of the structure is free standing, and
moves more than the below ground portion because the foundation is fixed. Differential motions
between the upper and lower corners cause racking responses. Mid-wall responses are typically
responsible for window rattling, picture tilting, etc.

When the vibration frequency closely matches a natural or fundamental frequency of a structure
or structural component, the structure or component will tend to respond more vigorously and
the incoming ground vibrations are amplified in the upper portion of the structure. Alternatively, if
the ground vibration frequency does not match the natural frequency, very little seismic energy
transfers into the structure, and there will be little, if any, response.

BLAST INDUCED GROUND VIBRATION, SCALED DISTANCE, USBM PREDICTOR

EQUATION and REGRESSION ANALYSIS

When blast holes are under or over charged and absence of proper free face a great deal of
liberated energy is wasted and converted into ground vibration, as explosion energy is not
utilized in fragmenting / breaking of rock and throw.
Broadly speaking, the key factor that controls the amount and type of blast vibration produced is
EXPLOSIVES ENERGY CONFINEMENT and THE DISTANCE OF THE STRUCTURE FROM
THE BLASTING SITE.
On this basis the concept of Scaled Distance equation has been developed:
Distance of Structure from blast site

Scaled Distance = —————————————————-

√ Max. Charge wt. Per (8 ms) delay interval

Relationship of Scaled Distance with Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) on Log scale

Regresion

REGRESSION ANALYSIS (CRITERIA FOR LIMITING SAFE VIBRATION LEVEL):

Now the prime objective is to determine the maximum charge to be fired per (at least 8 ms)
delay interval, in order to keep PPV within the safe limit. Following are the procedures involved:

Measurement of PPV with different scaled distances.

Plotting these values on a Log – Log scale as described in figure.
The value of site constants K and B are to be determined by extrapolation of straight line
plotted as described above.
Using propagation straight line, safe scaled distance to be determined to keep PPV below safe
limit (on the basis of threshold limit prescribed by DGMS, India).
From the determined safe scaled distance above, the maximum charge per delay can be found
out for various distances for a particular site.
Besides peak particle velocity, the Frequency is one of the most important factors controlling
the response of structures.
VIBRATION FREQUENCY

Frequency is dependent on site geology, distance of the blast, delay sequence and condition of
available free face of the blast.
It has been observed that, presence of buffer in front of face holes develop low frequency
waves.
The effect of frequency generated during blasting relates to the condition of structural response
and also can allow higher peak particle velocities with higher frequency.
It has also been observed that, the ground motion frequencies are relatively high when solid or
tough rock is present; frequency is relatively low when transmission medium is medium-hard /
softer strata and frequency is considerably low when there is presence of void beneath.
Thus, allowable peak particle velocity reduces considerably when there are void or
underground workings beneath the structures in question.

THRESHOLD VALUE OF GROUND VIBRATION (DGMS)

DGMS_G_Vibration

Controlling Vibration damage and Airblast from Blasting:

Vibration Damage Control Criteria

The U.S. Bureau of Mines recommends the following:

Particle velocities of less than 51mm./s (2.0 in./s) show little probability of causing structural
damage.
If there is at least 8 ms. (millisecond) separation between detonations, the vibration effects of
individual explosions are not cumulative.
Particle velocity is still the best single ground motion description.
Damage potential for low-frequency blasts (< 40 Hz) is considerably higher than that for higher
blasts (> 40 Hz).
Practical safe criteria for blasts that generate low frequency ground vibrations are 19 mm./s
(0.75 in./s) for modern gypsum board partition houses and 12.7 mm./s (0.50 in./s) for lath and
plaster interiors. For frequencies above 40 Hz, a safe particle velocity maximum of 51 mm./s
(2.0 in./s) is recommended for all houses.
Human reactions to blasting can be the limiting factor. Vibration levels can be felt that are
considerably lower than those required to produce damage.
Controlling Airblast

Excessive airblast is controlled by ensuring that all charges are properly confined. Excessive
airblast is generated by the same poor confinement conditions that cause flyrock. Conditions
that cause high over-pressure levels:

Inadequate stemming
Mud or weak seam venting
Inadequate burden confinement
Poor blasting timing
Focusing by wind or temperature inversions
Uncovered detonation cord
Overloading
Air blast from detonating chord trunklines can be significantly reduced if it is covered with at
least 20 cm. (8 in.) of dirt or sand. Non-Electric shocktube blasting is much safer and controls
Air-blast.

Surface wave intelligent profiling system (Swips) to improve drilling and blasting practices in
Mines

Scientific equipment supplier and software developers based in Canada have developed the
surface wave intelligent profiling system (Swips) – a revolutionary and patented Technology to
the mining industry that enables the users to visualize and characterize the physical and
mechanical properties of solids – for the rapid characterisation of geological structures beneath
the earth’s surface to improve drilling and blasting practices.

Swips is a nonintrusive technology based on seismic surface waves that enable its user to
visualise, analyse and model the physicomechanical properties of solids. The system’s
maximum depth in optimised conditions is 500 m.

The Swips can be applied as a pathfinder to reduce drill holes in the prospecting phase. It can
also be used to do ore characterisation, blasting operation, blasting effect monitoring, mine
design monitoring and roof and slope monitoring, while geotechnical applications, include
building and structure evaluation.

LOW DENSITY, POROUS AMMONIUM NITRATE GRANULES (for ANFO) – Cost effective Low
Cost Technology:

Introduction: Ammonium Nitrate (AN) is well known for its Explosive qualities. Possibility of
conditioning it the form of small balls having a diameter usually between 1 and 3 mm renders it
very easy to use as a civil explosives employed in quarries, mines etc. It is usually mixed with
94.0% AN and 6.0% FO by weight. The presence of Hydrocarbon has for effect of sensitize the
nitrate, i.e., to permit it to detonate more easily by the effect of sympathy with an initiating
explosives. To permit the absorption of hydrocarbon by the AN, these are made porous.
Generally, to create porosity in AN prilling is done by putting AN solution at the top of Prilling
tower then recovering AN prill at the lower part of the tower . The required porosity is obtained
during drying by elimination of water.

Granulation process of producing low density porous ammonium nitrate – In this process a
granulator, which is a rotary drum, and a fluid bed are employed for production of porous
granules. The process comprise of spraying Ammonium Nitrate solution in this granulator and
effecting a combined cycle of granulation and drying, which causes formation of pores in the
mass of granules. The drying is then terminated in a drier and product thereafter screened and
cooled. The granules thus formed are spherical in shape, smooth, hard and porous and do not
breakdown easily during handling. This process has particular advantages in preparing granules
for use in ANFO composition.

∗ Main advantages :

¢ – No more prilling tower,

¢ – Less air to scrubber and better pollution control,

¢ – Lower Capital Investment.

∗ Results :

¢ – Final product humidity : 0.25%

¢ – Density : 0.7 – 0.8 gm/cc

¢ – Granulometry : 90% between 1.7 and 2 mm

¢ – Oil absorption : 8%

Precautions to be taken when charging with dry blasting agents such as ANFO
Should not be used in the presence of excessive water unless external protection in the form of
a rigid cartridge or plastic borehole liner is used.
Close control must be exercised in ingredient mixing to maximise energy release and minimise
toxic fume generation.
The charge diameter must exceed the critical diameter, preferably with good safety margin.
Adequate priming is essential. When in doubt, over-priming is recommended, as heavy priming
overcomes many unfavourable field conditions. In marginal situation, the addition of boosters up
the borehole will assist propagation.
When using electric blasting detonators, approved equipment should be used for pneumatic
loading and precaution against static electricity should be adopted. The use of non-conductive
protective plastic tubing increases static electric hazards by insulating charge from the ground.
Possible hazards of ANFO’s reactivity with rock, particularly rock with high sulphide content
should be investigated.
Even an Oxygen-Balanced mixture can produce noxious fumes, if insufficient detonation occurs
because of water deterioration, separation of ingredients, poor confinement, insufficient
compaction, inadequate charge diameter or inadequate initiation. These conditions also cause
poor powder performance. The use of plastic borehole liners can increase fume production.
Low air-gap sensitivity of dry blasting agents such as ANFO makes them susceptible to misfires
caused by charge separation.
Holes loaded with dry blasting agents such as ANFO should not be allowed to stand for
excessive periods after loading because of their susceptibility to water deterioration and
segregation of liquid fuels.
Note: A Blasting Agent is defined as a chemical compound / mixture which contain no ingredient
which is an explosive and cannot be initiated by a No.8 detonator in unconfined state (in the
open air).

These advantages of a blasting agent make it very favourable and safer in respect of
transportation, storage and handling – i.e., safety can be maintained by using blasting agent. In
fact, Ammonium Nitrate (AN) is the most common blasting agent.

On the other hand, Explosives are a chemical mixture which give very fast “Reduction-
Oxidation” reaction upon detonation, involving fuel (such as carbon and hydrogen) and oxidising
agent (such as AN). In the explosion process fuels are oxidised and oxidising agents are
reduced.

Earthing of ANFO loaders used underground:

The pneumatic loading of ammonium nitrate based explosive generates electrostatic

charge at a significant rate. Without effective controls, charge accumulation on the
delivery hose can rapidly exceed energy levels capable of initiating explosive devices.

Requisite practice for safeguarding against this hazard is to prevent charge from
accumulating by providing an efficient discharge path to ground through the use of
semiconductive hosing and effective earthing of the loader.

Although non-electric initiating techniques are less susceptible to static than equivalent
electrical systems, they are not to be regarded as immune and the requirements should
be applied equally to all blasting systems.

Hoses : Semiconductive loading hose is necessary to:

provide an adequate discharge path to ground for static charge generated during
operation of the loader, and
present a sufficiently high resistance to extraneous ground currents that may be
present and transmitted to the blast hole via the hose.
Fully conductive hose is hazardous. To safeguard against unsatisfactory replacement, semi-
conductive hose should be readily identifiable. Hose conductivity is known to vary with age and
usage. Periodic replacement or testing is necessary to ensure safe values are
maintained.

Earthing : The discharge path to ground is not complete unless the loader is effectively
earthed. Earthing may be effected by connecting a flexible electrical cable between
metal parts that are in electrical contact with the loader hose and an electrode in fixed
contact with the ground. The cable, electrode and connections must be reliable,
appropriate for the environment and afford the required resistance. The total resistance
between the loader hose and ground should not exceed 1 MΩ.

Certain materials, including galvanised steels, zinc, copper and alloys of these materials
can form impact sensitive explosive compounds in the presence of ammonium nitrate;
such materials should be avoided to use with ANFO.

Electrodes : Earthing provided by physical contact of the loader with ground, contact of
the hose within the borehole, and any chains or similar arrangements trailing on the
ground below vehicles are regarded as supplementary earthing and not sufficiently
reliable.

Rock bolts may also be used as grounding electrodes, provided an effective connection
can be made and periodic sample testing in that area of the mine has shown that the
ground conductivity levels afforded do not exceed 1 MΩ.

The use of water lines, compressed air lines, wire covered hoses, rail or permanent
electrical earthing systems as a means of earthing is prohibited.

New generation Safer and Eco-friendly Primary Explosives, ‘Nickel Hydrazine Nitrate (NHN)’,
likely to replace ASA in Commercial Detonator manufacturing:
Nickel Hydrazine Nitrate (NHN) is evolving as a new generation high energy material, which is
likely to replace Lead Azide & Lead Styphnate (ASA) as primary explosives used for detonator
manufacturing. Nickel hydrazine nitrate, a chemical that is 30 per cent less sensitive compared
to conventional chemicals ASA.

NHN is a thermally and hydrolytically stable solid, easily prepared from available raw materials.
Its preparation liquor can be used repeatedly, which means no waste-water pollution in
industrial manufacture. NHN is not sensitive to impact, friction, or electrostatic charge, but is
more sensitive to flame. It is demonstrated that NHN is suitable as a replacement for lead azide
as an intermediate charge in commercial detonators.

On the other hand, detonators are usually made with the composition of ASA. These chemicals
are highly sensitive to friction/impact and are thus more prone to accidental explosions.

As NHN is a less sensitive and eco friendly primary explosives, substitute for ASA as a primary
explosive can be used in varied detonator applications, specially, for use in blasting in mines
and construction industry.

Perimeter blasting (Contour blasting) in Tunnels and construction activities using Electronic
Detonators:

In all excavation profile is very important, more so, for tunneling. A good profile in excavation,
means lesser back-break. Moreover, in construction blasting or in tunneling, good profile implies
that the fractures induced into the host rock by blasting of contour shots donot exceed design
limits, thus restricting operation of supporting, spraying and waterproofing to be bare necessary.

The contour is improved by designing the blast, specially the contour shots as follows:

* Making sure that holes are accurately parallel at the fullest extent

* Narrowing hole spacing to bare minimum

* Using detonating cord or explosives of a type specially suitable for the purpose, loaded in
diameter substantially smaller than the holes

Blasting theory provides another useful hint – to obtain a profile coinciding as much as possible
with design profile, simultaneous firing of all contour shots. Generally, in tunnel contour shots
are primed with high delay numbers which fire with substantial scattering. Only Electronic
Detonators can provide real simultaneity in firing of contour shots, to achieve better profile.
Since simultaneity in explosion is the essential prerequisite for quality of contour blasting, it may
be economical to use Electronic Detonators for the purpose.
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting – Blast Fragmentation Models on Monte Carlo-based Simulator
increases understanding of the effects of Rock Mass and Explosive properties.

Rock fragmentation is considered the most important aspect of production blasting because of
its direct effects on the costs of drilling and blasting and on the economics of the subsequent
operations of loading, hauling and crushing.

Over the past decades, significant progress has been made in the development of new
technologies for blasting applications. These technologies include increasingly sophisticated
computer models for blast design and blast performance prediction.

Apart, rock fragmentation depends on many variables such as rock mass properties, site
geology, in situ fracturing and blasting parameters and as such has no complete theoretical
solution for its prediction. However, empirical models for the estimation of size distribution of
rock fragments have been developed.

Blast fragmentation models based on Kuz–Ram fragmentation model on Monte Carlo-based

simulator are quite effective in understanding of the effects of Rock Mass and Explosive
properties. System can predict the entire fragmentation size distribution, taking into account
intact and joints rock properties, the type and properties of explosives and the drilling pattern.

This understanding translate into improvements in blasting operations, its corresponding costs
and the overall economics of open pit mines and rock quarries.

1. General guidelines of Charging and Blasting in Hot Strata condition:

* Select the number of holes properly so that the total blasting operation should not
exceed 2 hour from charging of first hole.

* Measure the temperature of the holes almost constantly till the commencement of
blasting operation.

* Use water at least 12 hour before blasting to flush hot holes till the temperature comes
down below 80oC.

* Record the temperature of holes at a regular interval of time.

* Use a mixture of Bentonite, Sodium Silicate and Water in holes which do not retain
water to seal micro-fractures and cracks. Guar gum upto 5 percent may also be used for
the purpose.

* Only slurry or emulsion explosives, preferably bulk explosives to be used for hot-hole
blasting purpose.
 * It is preferred that explosives charging may be started near the initiation point first, (i.e.,
load explosives in the sequence in which the blast will be fired first). This allows the
pattern to be quickly charged, tied up and fired in the event of a change in conditions.

* Where possible hottest holes to be loaded last.

* Detonating fuse as initiation system only should be used. Shock tube and detonators
should not be used down-the-hole.

* Adequate non-combustible stemming material should be available near the collar of

each hole prior to commencing of charging operation, for fast accomplishing charging
operation.

* Punctured holes are to be plugged at bottom before charging. Air-bags may be used
for the purpose.

* Combination of Bulk-Loading Emulsion explosives, Detonating Fuse with ‘Top-Priming’

of Booster is preferred. These primers are applied shortly before blasting time, at the top
of the explosives charge, where the emulsion is relatively cooler.

* After primers are put, stemming and firing are done as quickly as possible, without
wasting any time.

Precaution:

Water gas – Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, both highly
flammable, and is produced in a reaction between hot carbon and water (while putting
water on hot coal for quenching purpose). The chemical equation for this is:

C + H2O = CO + H2.

It is highly explosive over a wide range of concentrations (4% to 74%).

Use of Explosives & Blasting in mining and civil is profitable not only in time and cost savings,
but in terms of energy and the reduction of air emissions – As compared to Mechanical means:

In recent years, various research works have been published that reflect concern about carbon
dioxide emissions. These studies have made clear that the use of explosives is three times
more profitable in terms of energy consumption than digging, for example.

The below table, obtained from a variety of bibliographical sources published in recent years,
shows how this comparison provides information that is both curious and surprising.
As the table above shows, energy savings from the use of explosives in blasting compared with
excavation and grinding by mechanical means are really significant. Even more so are the
financial savings this represents. But perhaps the most interesting aspect is the importance of
the use of explosives in terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The table shows how the
use of energy materials reduces carbon dioxide emissions by up to 8 times compared with
excavation by mechanical means and up to 40 times compared with rock grinding by the same
means.

Thus the use of explosives should be recognized as a form of energy with low pollution levels
and, its use should be promoted. If all public works used explosives, carbon dioxide emissions
to the atmosphere would be significantly reduced. Their use should therefore be given priority
for environmental reasons.

ulk Emulsion Explosive Enhances Blast Efficiency in UG Metal Mines:

Repumpable Bulk Emulsion Explosive or Underground Bulk System (UBS) as it is generally

called, can increase blast performance, reduce costs and enhance safety in Metalliferous
Underground Mining operations.

In UBS, the nonexplosive emulsion is transported as a chemical to the mine site, stored in silos
or tanks at the shaft head or underground and is then sensitised and pumped into the blast-
holes using a specialised delivery unit.

The emulsion explosive is a high-energy product, designed to fire in underground holes and is
viscous so that it can be charged into up-holes without running back out.

The emulsion is classified as non-explosive so there is no need for special magazines or secure
storage facilities either on surface or underground.

The emulsion is sensitised and becomes an explosive only when it is pumped into a blast-hole.

The emulsion can be transported using regular mine equipment without requiring specially-
licensed explosives vehicles, and shaft time can be used in efficient way, since the emulsion
can be transported at the same time as other materials.
Additional advantages are gained by the fact that the emulsion is waterproof. Where a mine is
wet or faces are mined down-dip, most holes will contain water after drilling. When using an
emulsion explosive, holes do not need to be dewatered.

Bulk explosive fills the cross-sectional diameter of each hole, resulting in better utilisation of
energy and efficient transfer of the shockwave into the rock mass.

Labour productivity is also increased when using bulk emulsions in underground, due to its
quick and easy transportation and short charging times.

Thus, reduction in overall mining costs with efficiency through drill pattern expansion, improved
breakage, reduced manpower requirements and accurate explosive charging for precision
blasting.

Applications:

* Hard rock underground blasting

* Ring blasting and underground bulk blasting

* Shaft sinking

* Tunnelling in hard rock

CRITERIA FOR LIMITING SAFE VIBRATION LEVEL:

Now the prime objective is to determine the maximum charge to be fired per (at least 8 ms)
delay interval, in order to keep PPV within the safe limit. Following are the procedures involved:

Measurement of PPV with different scaled distances.

Plotting these values on a Log – Log scale as described in figure.
The value of site constants K and B are to be determined by extrapolation of straight line
plotted as described above.
Using propagation straight line, safe scaled distance to be determined to keep PPV below safe
limit (on the basis of threshold limit prescribed by DGMS, India).
From the determined safe scaled distance above, the maximum charge per delay can be found
out for various distances for a particular site.
Besides peak particle velocity, the Frequency is one of the most important factors controlling the
response of structures.

A Note on Velocity of Detonation (VOD), Strain Energy (SE) and Gases or Bubble Energy
(BE)of Explosives
Detonation velocity is the speed at which the reaction front moves forward through a cylindrical
charge. Given that the VOD is the only measurable magnitude related to an explosive that can
be given a number with certainty, it is easy to comprehend why it has been overemphasized as
an indication of explosive strength. VOD is a function of the explosive configuration, hole
diameter and confinement. Hole diameter and confinement are generic environment variables
for any given blast. The same explosive in different environments will manifest different VODs.In
their literature, manufacturers usually quote the unconfined VOD of a small sample of explosive
in a small diameter.Rather than strength, VOD gives a relative indication of the energy
partitioning between shock and heave. The higher the VOD, the higher the shock component in
relation to the total energy. While low VOD explosives will shift the energy partition towards a
higher proportion of heave. In any case, the VOD would have to be measured in a real borehole
situation in order to be meaningful. In-hole VOD measurements differ greatly from the values
quoted in standard literature.

Understanding theory of detonation of explosives – The self-sustained shock wave produced by

a chemical reaction was described by Chapman and Jouquet as a space. This space of
negligible thickness is bounded by two infinite planes – on one side of the wave is the unreacted
explosive and on the other, the exploded gases as shown in thefigure below:

There are three distinct zones:

a) The undisturbed medium ahead of the shock wave,

b) A rapid pressure at Y leading to a zone in which chemical reaction is generated by the shock,
and complete at X,

c) A steady state wave where pressure and temperature are maintained.

This condition of stability condition for stability exists at hypothetical X, which is commonly
referred to the Chapman- Jouquet (C-J) plane. Between the two planes X and Y there is
conservation of mass, momentum and energy.

Velocity of detonation (VOD) of explosive is function of Heat of reaction of an explosive, density

and confinement. The detonation pressure (unit in N/m2) that exists at the C-J plane is function
of VOD of explosives. The detonation of explosives in cylindrical columns and in unconfined
conditions leads to lateral expansion between the shock and C-J planes resulting in a shorter
reaction zone and loss of energy. Thus, it is common to encounter a much lower VOD in
unconfined situations than in confined ones.

In fact, selection of Explosives for Mining activities are governed by Properties of rock mass,
Degree of fragmentation and displacement desired. Most important properties of Explosives are:
Strain or Shock Energy (SE) and Gases or Bubble Energy (BE) produced, water resistance,
density, Velocity of Detonation (VOD) and Critical Diameter. The SE / BE ratio influences mode
of failure and varies with explosives composition and Velocity of Detonation. The VOD provides
the shattering action needed for maximum fragmentation. Detonation impedance which is a
measure of the relative ability of different explosives to transmit their pressure to stress wave in
a given rock is product of Density and VOD.

The performance of an explosive not only depends on its total energy but also on rate at which it
is released. The VOD of an explosive controls its rate of energy released. It also influences the
energy partitioning with respect of Shock and Heave (Gas) energy of explosives.

Thus, faster VODs are appropriate in strong rock where a shattering effects are required, and
slower VODs are applicable where heaving effects are more desirable than a rock shattering
effect.

Energy Partition in Explosives and Rock fragmentation:

Energy partition is defined as the ratio of the shock energy to the bubble energy, or gas energy,
of an explosive formulation.

It is desirable to be able to control the energy partition of an explosive in order to adjust the
degree of gas energy to shock energy, in order to customize the explosive properties for the
type of blasting to be conducted.

It is preferred that the explosive formulation, which is meant for tough rock, have an energy
partition of between 1.30 and 1.60, and more preferably between 1.40 and 1.55.

Blasting is a critical part of most mining operations. The primary function of blasting is to
fragment and move rock. For decades, attempts have been made at increasing the efficiency of
blasting to reduce costs and increase production.
Explosive energy is broken down into five primary components: rock fragmentation, heave,
ground vibration, air blast, and heat. Fragmentation and heave are considered beneficial
components while the remaining are considered waste.

Thus, it is imperative that the blasting energy should properly utilize in rock breakage,
movement of blasted muck, and with suitable fragmentation to ensure that the loading, hauling
and subsequent operation or processing are accomplished at the minimum possible cost. To
accomplish this task it has been confirmed that, stemming is the prime source for the
confinement and explosive energy confined with properly within rock mass and to avoid or
minimize the wastage of premature explosive energy from stemming column.

Rock breakage by Detonation and Interaction of explosive energy with rock:

Rock fragmentation by blasting is achieved by dynamic loading introduced into the rock mass.
The explosive loading of rock can be separated into two phases, the shock wave and gas
pressure phase (Fig. A).

The detonation of an explosive charge in a blast hole gives rise to a strong initial shock wave
which then decays into stress waves, P- and S-Waves, in the surrounding rock mass, initially as
compressive strain waves radiating from the blast hole. In a plane normal to the axis of the blast
hole, the stress wave can be considered to have radial and tangential components of stress
(Fig.B). The high pressure to which the rock is exposed shatters the area around the blast hole,
the crushed zone, and exposes the space beyond that to high tangential strains and stresses.
The crushing continues until the stress has been attenuated to below the dynamic compressive
strength of the rock. When the compressive wave meets a free surface it is reflected back to the
hole as a tensile wave and a shear wave. If the tensile stress, of the reflecting wave, is greater
than the dynamic tensile strength, spalling will occur.
The gas pressure phase is a much slower, quasi-static, process than the shock wave phase,
which takes place within a few milliseconds. Even if the stress caused by the explosive gases is
much lower than the stress caused by the shock wave, it can still fracture the rock mass due to
the lower loading rate. The explosive gas pressurise the borehole and applies a radial
compressive stress, sufficiently large to initiate and propagate cracks. The high pressure gas
penetrates the primary radial cracks, and natural cracks, and extend them further, the free rock
surface in front of the blast hole yields and is moved forward. This is how the rock is broken in
rock blasting. Thus, fragmentation of rock by blasting is a rapid disintegration of rock. In blasting
practices the rock is exposed to both low loading rate, “static”, and dynamic loading.

For rocks there is a huge different between the intact rock strength, here rock strength, and the
rock mass strength, which consists of both intact rock and the discontinuities within the rock
mass. The mechanical behaviour of rocks spans over a wide range of scale, from microscopic
cracks to regional fault systems. Dependent on the issue in consideration different properties of
the rock mass controls the strength.

As discussed, on detonation of an explosive charge, the rock immediately surrounding the

blasthole is crushed, owing to explosion pressure because of shock energy. The outgoing shock
wave, after passing through the crushed zone, travels at between 3000 m/s to 5000 m/s and
sets up tangential stresses that produce radial cracks. The pressure produced by the expanding
shock wave from the blast source is compressive. The extent of the shock zone around blast
hole is nearly 2 to 4 times the radius of blast hole. When the shock wave reaches a free face, it
then reflects back toward the blasthole at a lower pressure but in the form of a tension wave
through the rock transition zone (Fig.- B). The extent of this zone is 20 to 50 times the radius of
blast hole.

The crack density in the transition zone controls the distribution of the fragment size. The
explosives with high VOD induces more stress in transition zone thereby increasing crack
density. The increase in crack density reduces fragment size. Therefore, it is necessary to use
explosives having suitable VOD, in order to get optimize the fragmentation in a mine. It has
been observed that, by using pumpable bulk emulsion explosives in place of ANFO, cost of
secondary blasting, mucking and crushing is reduced considerably in a hard rock open-pit
mining.

Crater Theory in Blasting:

Crater theory defines an optimum burden or distance to a free face at which a spherical
explosive charge is buried and produces the greatest volume of broken and excavatable rock.
This distance is unique based on rock type and explosive type. The theory also defines the
critical depth or spherical charge buried depth at which surface disturbance is barely detectable,
resulting in slight surface mounding and minor cracking.

In a series of experiments it was discovered that a spherical charge broke a much greater
volume of rock than a cylindrical charge of the same mass. A spherical charge is defined as a
charged that has a ratio of charge diameter to charge length less than 1:6.

If a sufficient number of tests are carried out involving detonation of a fixed amount of charge at
various depths in the rock, then the strain energy factor can be calculated from the following
empirical equation:

Where, E = strain energy factor, which is a constant for a given combination of explosives

B = Critical distance in metres (the depth where a full crater forms, that is, a conical cavity
whose sides meet the horizontal surface at 45 deg.).

Q = Charge weight, kg

It follows that when an explosive charge of constant mass and shape is placed at different
distances from a flat free face and detonated, the amount of rock blasted is related to the depth
of burial of the charge.

Determination of Explosive Strength by Underwater Detonation:

Since the 1970s, the underwater detonation test increasingly has been applied for determination
of the strength of explosives, especially those that are not cap-sensitive.

The test is of particular importance because it enables the determination of strength of

explosives that cannot detonate completely when a charge mass in less than 10gm (that means
that they could not be tested by ballistic mortar or lad block test).

By this method, the strength of an explosive is determined on the basis of measurable forms of
energy released by underwater detonation – Shock wave energy and Bubble energy.

The method is based on the detonation of an explosive charge by means of a detonator or via a
booster at a defined depth under the water surface, and on recording the Shock wave-time
profile and Bubble-pulse period at a given distance from the explosive charge.

From shock wave-time profile, the Shock wave Energy is calculated, whereas from bubble-pulse
period the Bubble Energy is calculated.
The sum of the shock wave energy and bubble energy gives the TOTAL ENERGY of the
explosives.

EXPLOSIVES AND BLASTING ECONOMICS:

The economic analysis of the use of explosives is an important part of blasting operations in
mining and construction. Explosives are energy, and the efficient use of this energy is a major
factor in keeping rock blasting costs under control. High-energy explosives enhance
fragmentation, which ultimately produces a positive effect on production costs. The degree of
fragmentation or movement obtained is directly related to the type of operation and amount of
explosive energy applied to the surrounding rock. Analysis of the cost of explosives requires
that the effects of explosive energy be placed into proper perspective within the entire drilling,
blasting, handling and processing operation. This relationship is illustrated in the following
figure:

Efficient blast designs combined with the proper choice of explosive can produce better
fragmentation with associated lower operating costs compared to blast designs and explosives
used under adverse conditions. As a result, the efficient use of explosives, along with the proper
borehole diameter selection, is the keys to a successful blasting program.

Cost of Explosives Energy- The only way to evaluate accurately the cost of explosives, is to
examine the effects of blasting and to determine the optimum degree of fragmentation. In most
cases, the productivity rate is influenced by the degree of fragmentation. To obtain well-
fragmented rock by blasting, explosive energy must be well distributed throughout the rock. To
be effective in rock blasting, this energy must be applied at the proper millisecond delay interval
to allow for optimum rock movement.

The type and cost of explosives will vary from one operation to another, dependent upon many
conditions. The geologic formation, such as hard seams, cap rock, hard bottom, or large toes,
dictates the use of high-energy explosives. Water-filled boreholes require the use of water-
resistant products at a premium cost. The cost of a product upgrade to cope with wet conditions
is an obvious input. Other variables, such as the size of mucking equipment and drilling
equipment, fragmentation tolerance, and production demands, will also influence the choice of
explosives.

Although a significant recurrent expense, the cost of explosives is usually only a small
percentage of the total costs encountered in breaking, moving, and processing rock and ore.
The small difference in the cost of a higher energy explosive is insignificant compared to a
decrease in production caused by insufficient fragmentation.

ENERGY FACTORS OF EXPLOSIVES CHARGED IN BOREHOLE FOR BLASTING:

The energy factordescribes the energy distribution within a given unit of rock. Energy
distribution within a shot is measured by the energy factor, which compares the explosive
energy to a quantity of rock broken. The explosive energy distribution within the entire blast is
then evaluated along with its resulting fragmentation and its effect on operating costs. Blasting
analysis next becomes a function of the energy factor, explosives cost, fragmentation results,
and subsequent production.

Proper energy distribution is important in obtaining the desired fragmentation and movement of
the bottom or toe portion of the shot. Energy distribution becomes an important factor when wet
holes are encountered, as cartridged explosive products must be smaller than the borehole
diameter to allow for easier loading. The resulting decrease in the diameter of the explosives
column, reduces the amount of explosive energy within the borehole. The blaster must use
higher energy explosives to balance the lost energy.

Necessary explosive energy adjustments at the borehole can be made to compensate for
excessive toe, hard bottom, or cap rock. In addition, higher energy explosives can be
substituted for lower energy explosives to increase the energy distribution within the rock,
thereby increasing fragmentation. However, if fragmentation was satisfactory before the
introduction of additional explosive energy, the improved energy distribution within the shot will
allow for an expansion of the drilling pattern, with resultant decrease in overall drilling costs.

Improved production rates and consequent cost reduction in digging, hauling, crushing, or
moving rock are the major benefits obtained from the efficient application of explosive energy.
There are other benefits from better fragmentation, such as reduced secondary blasting,
reduced power consumption at the crusher, and less wear and maintenance on equipment with
less down time.

Explosive efficiencyis the ratio of the amount of energy released to the calculated
thermochemical energy. Emulsions are highly efficient explosives, due primarily to their
microscopic particle size. In contrast, explosives with varying particle size, such as ANFO or
water gels, will not have a uniform burning rate, and therefore, will not be as efficient. Studies
comparing the calculated thermo-chemical energy to the measured energy by the under-water
bubble energy technique have shown that the emulsions released 93 percent of the calculated
thermo-chemical energy. Water gels with varying particle sizes achieved only 55 to 70 percent
of their calculated thermo-chemical energy. The explosive efficiencies of ANFO, and particularly
of high-density ANFO, range from 50 to 80 percent of their calculated energies. As a result,
emulsion explosives are not only thermo-chemically efficient, but are cost-efficient as well.
Drillability and Blastability are the geological influences in hard rock drill and blast:

The drillability is not only decisive for the wear of tools and equipment but is – along with the
drilling velocity – a standard factor for the progress of excavation works and blasting
performance. The estimation of drillability in predicted rock conditions might bear an extensive
risk of costs. Therefore, an improved prediction of drilling velocity and bit wear would be
desireable. The drillability of a rock mass is determined by various geological and mechanical
parameters.

Drilling velocity is dependent on a lot of geological parameters: Those principal parameters

include jointing of rock mass, orientation of schistosity (rock anisotropy), degree of interlocking
of microstructures, porosity and quality of cementation of clastic rock, degree of hydrothermal
decomposition and weathering of a rock mass. Drilling bit wear increases with the equivalent
quartz content. The equivalent quartz content builds the main property for the content of wear-
relevant minerals. For various groups of rock types different connections with the equivalent
quartz content could be detected. In sandstone bit wear is also dependent on porosity or the
quality of the cementation.

Rock Blastability: The term “Blastability” is used to indicate the susceptibility of the rock mass to
blasting and is closely related with the powder factor.

The static compressive RC and tensile RT strengths are initially used as indicative parameters
of the suitability of the rock for blasting. The Index of Blastability was defined (Hino, 1959) as
the relationship ‘RC/RT’, the larger the value, the easier the fragmentation.

An attempt to relate blastability to rock and rockmass properties has been reported Lilly (1986).
The blastability index (BI) is defined as:

Where, RMD = Rockmass description, JPS = Joint plane spacing, JPO = Joint plane orientation,
SGI = Sp. Gravity influence and H = Hardness (Moh’s scale of hardness).

Rating of different parameters is given in following tables. ANFO powder factor and Energy
factor consideration has been given with BI in the graph (as per field data).

Note: A BI value of 100 refers to a massive, extremely hard, iron-rick cap rock. It has a Sp.
gravity of 4. Soft, friable shale has an index around 20.

Ref: Lilly,P.a., (1986), An empirical method of assessing rock mass blastability, Proc. Large
open pit mining conf. (J.R.Davidson ed.), The Aus. IMM, Parkville, Victoria, October pp. 89-92.

Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

The Rock Mass Rating(RMR) System is a geomechanical classification system for rocks,
developed by Z. T. Bieniawski between 1972 and 1973.It combines the most significant geologic
parameters of influence and represents them with one overall comprehensive index of rock
mass quality, which is used for the design and construction of excavations in rock, such as
tunnels, mines, slopes and foundations.

Definition:

The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the RMR system:
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material

Rock quality designation (RQD)

Spacing of discontinuities

Condition of discontinuities

Groundwater conditions

Orientation of discontinuities

Each of the six parameters is assigned a value corresponding to the characteristics of the rock.
These values are derived from field surveys and laboratory tests. The sum of the six parameters
is the “RMR value”, which lies between 0 and 100.

Below is the classification table for the RMR system.

RMR Rock quality

0 – 20 Very Poor

21 – 40 Poor

41 – 60 Fair

61 – 80 Good

81 – 100 Very good

Rock Mass Rating RMR has found wide applications in various types of engineering projects
such as tunnels, slopes, foundations, and mines. It is also adaptable for knowledge-based
expert systems. Engineers informally classify rock structure into two general classifications:
continuous homogenous isotropic linear elastic (what most geotechnical engineers would like to
see) and discontinuous in homogenous anisotropic non-elastic (what most in-situ rock masses
actually are). A rock mass rating system provides a method of incorporating some of the
complex mechanics of actual rocks into engineering design.

Moreover, the system was the first to enable estimation of rock mass properties, such as the
modulus of deformation, in addition to providing tunnel support guidelines and the stand-up time
of underground excavations.

Recently, after over 40 years of use, renewed attention was paid to the RMR System because
of its applications to the assessment of rock mass excavability (RME) and, especially, its direct
correlation with the specific energy of excavation (SEE) for TBMs used effectively to detect
changes in tunneling conditions, in real time, thus serving as a warning of adverse conditions as
construction proceeds.

STRENGTH OF EXPLOSIVES:

1. Absolute Weight Strength (AWS) : This is the measure of the absolute amount of Energy (in
Calories) available in each gm. of explosive.

Example:

Absolute Weight Strength (AWS) Type of Explosives

a. 680 cal/gm Emulsion blasting agent A
b. 912 cal/ gm ANFO (94:6)
c. 550 cal/gm Slurry column charge
d. 620 cal/ gm Slurry prime charge
e. 1080 cal/ gm Ammonium gelatin dynamite
2. Absolute Bulk Strength (ABS) : This is the measure of the absolute amount of Energy (in
Calories) available in each cubic centimeter of explosive. It is obtained by multiplying the AWS
by density of the explosives.

3. Relative Weight strength (RWS) : This is the measure of the energy available per weight of
explosives as compared to an equal weight of ANFO. It is calculated by dividing AWS of the
explosives by AWS of ANFO and multiplying by 100.

Example

a. Emulsion blasting agent A = 680 / 912 x 100 = 75 %

b. ANFO = 912 / 912 x 100 = 100 %

c. Slurry column charge = 550 / 912 x 100 = 60.30%

d. Slurry prime charge = 620 / 912 x 100 = 67.98%

e. Ammonium gelatin dynamite = 1080 / 912 x 100 = 119%

4. Relative Bulk Strength (RBS): This a measure of the energy available volume of explosives
as compared to equal volume of Bulk ANFO at a density of 0.81 gm/cc. It is calculated by
dividing the ABS of an explosive by the ABS of Bulk ANFO and multiplying by 100.

Example

a. Emulsion blasting agent A = (680 cal/gm x 1.25 gm/cc) / (912 cal/gm x 0.81 gm/cc) x
100 = 115 %

b. ANFO = (912 cal/gm x 0.81 gm/cc) / (912 cal/gm x 0.81 gm/cc) x 100 = 100 %

c. Slurry column charge = ( 550 cal/gm x 1.15 gm/cc) / (912 cal/gm x 0.81 gm/cc) x 100 =
85.62 %

d. Slurry prime charge = (620 cal/gm x 1.16 gm/cc) / (912 cal/gm x 0.81 gm/cc) x 100 =
97.35 %

e. Ammonium gelatin dynamite = (1080 cal/gm x 1.20 gm/cc) / (912 cal/gm x 0.81 gm/cc) x
100 = 175%

Four basic surface firing patterns

The firing pattern is a tool to break and fragment a mass of rock in the most effective way for
further handling and treatment in the mining or quarrying process. Although there are a lot of
different patterns used in the industry, most of them are derived from the following four basic
designs:

1. Row by Row – This firing pattern can be applied in a pure Row-by-Row initiation sequence
with delay times only between rows or in a pattern with short delay times between holes and
long delay times between rows so there is no interaction between the rows. This design requires
at least one free face.

2. Chevron – In a Chevron firing pattern the delays between holes and rows are chosen so that
the firing sequence results in a V-formation. By using different delays, the angle of the V-
formation can be modified. The Chevron design requires at least one free face.
3. Echelon – The Echelon firing pattern is simply one half of a Chevron pattern. Echelon pattern
requires at least two free faces.

4. Diamond – Diamond firing pattern is used for box cuts, sump blasts and other applications
where there are no free faces parallel to the blast holes. The broken rock will be displaced
upwards, with an increased risk of fly-rock.

FLY-ROCK ISSUES IN BLASTING:

Analysis indicates that lack of blast area security, flyrock, premature blasts, and misfires are the
four major causes of blasting-related injuries in surface mining operations. Flyrock and lack of
blast area security issues continue to pose problems for blasters.

Generally, flyrock is caused by a mismatch of the explosive energy with the geomechanical
strength of the rock mass surrounding the explosive charge. Factors responsible for this
mismatch include:

* Abrupt decrease in rock resistance due to joint systems, bedding layers, fracture planes,
geological faults, mud seams, voids, localized weakness of rock mass, etc.

* High explosive concentration leading to localized high energy density,

* Inadequate delay between the holes in the same row, or between the rows,

* Inappropriate blast design,

* Deviation of blast holes from its intended directions,

* Improper loading and firing practice, including secondary blasting of boulders and toe holes.

a) BURDEN: Insufficient burden is a primary cause of flyrock from a highwall face. Blasters
need to visually examine or laser profile the highwall face and search for zones of weakness,
backbreak, concavity, unusual jointing and overhang.
b) BLAST HOLE LAYOUT AND LOADING: Any deviation in the direction of a blast hole can
reduce or increase the burden. While loading a hole, blasters must frequently check the rise of
the explosives column to prevent overloading due to the loss of powder in voids, cracks, or
other unknown reservoirs. Such overloading will generate excessive release of energy.

c) GEOLOGY AND ROCK STRUCTURE: Sudden change in geology or rock structure can
cause a mismatch between the explosive energy and the resistance of the rock. It is prudent to
try to detect such changes in advance and adjust accordingly.

d) STEMMING: Stemming provides confinement and prevents the escape of high-pressure

gases from the borehole. The stemming should provide resistance to the escape of high-
pressure gases comparable for that of the burden. Improper or inadequate stemming can result
in stemming ejections. Insufficient stemming also causes violent fragmentation of the collar
zone resulting in flyrock and airblast.

e) DETONATOR FIRING DELAY: Critical elements of any blast design are firing delays
between adjacent holes in a row and also those between successive rows. The firing delay is a
function of the burden, spacing, hole depth, rock type, and the quantity of charge fired per delay.
Proper firing delay helps to achieve good fragmentation of the blasted material. It also reduces
ground vibration, air blast, and flyrock.

f) LACK OF BLAST AREA SECURITY: An analysis of blasting injuries indicates that several
factors are involved in causing injuries due to lack of blast area security. These factors are: (i)
failure to evacuate the blast area by employees and visitors; (ii) failure to understand the
instructions of the blaster or supervisors; (iii) inadequate guarding of the access roads leading to
the blast area, or the secured area; (iv) taking shelter at an unsafe location, or inside a weak
structure. Blast area security issues could be addressed by providing adequate training and
refresher courses to the blaster and other involved employees.

Influence of geology on OC blast performance

It is well known fact that, geology plays a very important role deciding performance in OC
blasting. OC blasting performance and its adverse effects, to a great extent depend on various
geological parameters such as, strata condition, dip, jointing, compressive strength, presence of
disturbances etc., of the site. Geology of the blasting site is one of the most important
uncontrollable factors to be considered for blast-design purpose. For deciding optimum
fragmentation, geological information of the site is needed. Geologic information also needed
during mine planning stage, before selection of drilling equipments as well. However, rock mass
information is utilized by explosive engineer most to improve blasting efficiency.

Blasting performance in relation to geology of blast site – For every successful blast, explosive
energy level and explosive distribution must be matched with geologic condition of the strata to
be blasted. Designing of initiation timing sequence must be done in relation to rockmass
response to explosive used. Information and understanding of geology of the blast site and its
strata condition needed to carryout these adjustments made by blast designer for achieving
better result. Experienced blasting engineers are aware of geologic conditions that affect the
blast results.

It has been recognised that, fragmentation is the most significant problem encountered by
blasting engineers. Generation of over-size is the universal problem in blasting. Sources of
generation of over-sizes are as given below, and their possible control measures:

(a) Hard massive boulder in the stemming zone: This problem can be addressed in several
ways, such as, placing small explosive decks in the stemming zone which help to overcome this
problem by proper distribution of explosive energy closer to the massive layers at the top,
satellite holes placed between the production holes also have the same effect of proper
distribution of explosive energy near hard strata, and reducing spacing and burden in some
case.

(b) Bedding plane slabs from within the blast: This problem causes when blast dimension, hole
burden and spacing are much larger than joint spacing. Explosive energy is dissipated within
the rockmass through weak bedding planes, so that areas between holes are not effectively
fragmented. This problem can be checked by reducing blast dimensions and substituting a
higher energy explosive product. This problem may also be aggravated because of insufficient
stemming, as the explosive gasses are not confined for a sufficient time they cannot produce
the expected breakage within the rockmass.

(c) Hard rock at / near intrusive dykes: Softer dyke rock absorbs the explosive energy. Explosive
energy is also being lost along the dyke contact, where open weathered fractures are common.
By reducing the blast dimensions or by substituting a higher energy explosive product this
problem can be minimized.

(d) Rock isolated from explosive energy by excessive over-break: Measures to reduce back-
break include, allowing more time before the last row of holes fires by proper delay timing
sequence, design blasts for more movement resulting in less confinement, or cushion blasting
the last row of holes.

Problem of unintentional and premature detonator firing in Mines

Frequently accidents in mines are caused by the unintentional premature firing of explosives
caused by extraneous electricity – stray current or voltage, static electricity or high-frequency
irradiation. Ideally, a detonator should be immune to any type of extraneous electricity but
unfortunately, this is not possible with conventional electric detonators.

Electronics safer than electrics: Now Electronic Detonator system has taken a huge step
forward to creating a safe environment with a solution that provides protection against all kinds
of extraneous electricity. Unlike conventional electric detonators, Electronic digital-coded
detonator system uses a built-in capacitor to fire the fuse head. Charging and firing are
controlled via an electronic system integrated into the microprocessor of each detonator. Only
when this chip receives a digital-coded signal can the capacitor be charged to the required firing
voltage. After charging the capacitor, an additional specific digital code must be delivered to the
detonator to release an electronic switch, allowing the capacitor to discharge and initiate the
fuse head.

Immune to inadvertent ignitions: Electronic detonator provides protection against accidents

caused by extraneous electricity:

* Safe against Radio Frequency (RF): unparalleled safety against high-frequency irradiation

* Safe against stray current and voltage: far superior to electric detonators

* Safe against static electricity: unaffected by electrostatic discharges, e.g. in the human body

* Safe against induced power caused by lightning: immune to stray current from a lightning
strike when the gun system is in the hole

Eco-friendly Pulse Powered “Plasma Rock Fragmentation” method

There is a great deal of interest in fragmentation of rocks in such areas as tunneling, quarrying
and mining. Conventionally, blasting by explosives is the usually employed method in
excavation work. Due to problems of vibration, noise, and scattering of stones, this method is
prohibited of use near important buildings and residential areas. The alternatives to this method
are breakage by such crushing machines as large breakers and by chemical substances.
However, such breakage methods are high in cost and the problems of decrease in breaking
performance were observed.

Plasma Blasting Technology (PBT) involves the production of a pulsed electrical discharge by
inserting a blasting probe in a water-filled cavity drilled in a rock, which produces shocks or
pressure waves in the water. These pulses then propagate into the rock, leading to fracture.

Compared with conventional blasting method such as rock drilling machines, the PBT
technology is friendlier to the earth, because it causes less vibration, noise, and dust, and uses
no chemical substances. In the blasting procedure, a reusable blasting electrode and a power
supply main body incorporating capacitors and other devices that are connected by a cable are
used.

Newly developed compact blasting equipment is suitable for blasting of platy structures and
boulder stones. Holes for blasting can be opened by hand-held tools. Therefore, the blasting
procedure is easy and simple. By creating more than one hole in linear orientation and
discharge at the same time, the object can be blasted as if it were cut.
This compact blasting equipment is suited for following applications.

* Blasting of thin, platy object (structures such as buildings and furnaces).

* Blasting of boulder stones. Digging of riverbed.

* Use in places where transportation of heavy load is difficult (such as mountains, slopes, and
high places).

* Flexible and imprompt blasting under various situations (such as recovery work in a time of
disaster).

* In the case where blasting like cutting is required, such as finishing of the blasted surface after
main excavation work.

The main features of the PBT technology are as follows.

* Low vibration, low noise.

* No scattering of stones.

* No chemical reaction.

* Discharge portion is reusable.

* Blasting in the sea is possible.

* No heavy machinery is required.

Patent for Eco-friendly ‘The Electro-Mining Technology’ for direct extraction of Copper granted:

Patents for the Electro-Mining process have been issued in Chile, South Africa and China and
are pending in the United States, Canada, Australia and Brazil.

As per conventional process of extraction of copper, copper bearing minerals are concentrated
from crushed ores by froth flotation or bioleaching. Heating this material with silica in flash
smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The process converts iron sulfides into oxides which
in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag which floats on top of the heated mass. The
resulting copper matte is then roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides. The cuprous oxide is
converted to blister copper upon heating. This step reduces the copper oxide to copper metal.
Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electro
refining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper.

The Electro-Mining Technology subject to the patent revolutionizes copper extraction

technology by bypassing nearly all of the traditional copper extraction process, which is
expensive, time consuming and environmentally unfriendly and extracts copper directly from
crushed raw material using an electrical and chemical process that allows the copper to diffuse
through the raw material and attach to a steel plate submerged in a chemical solution.

In other words, the technology extracts copper directly from crushed raw material using an
electrical and chemical process.

The process is more environmentally friendly as the chemical solution is contained in plastic
tanks, water and acid are recycled in a closed system.

Velocity of detonation (VOD) of Explosives and Dautriche method for measuring VOD

Velocity of detonation (VoD) of Explosives is the velocity at which the shock wave front travels
through a detonated explosive. If the explosive is confined before detonation, the pressure is
massively intensified. This results in explosive velocity that is higher than if the explosive had
been detonated in open air. Unconfined velocities are often approximately 70 to 80 percent of
confined velocities.

The Dautriche method for measuring detonation velocity: It involves the use of detonating cord
(detonating fuse), and is illustrated in following figure:

In essence, two ends of a piece of detonating cord are inserted some distance apart into a
column of high explosive, such as a stick of dynamite.
When the explosive is detonated, the shock wave propagates along its length, first encountering
and initiating one end of the detonating cord. Then, after the shock wave in the explosive has
propagated further, it encounters and initiates the other end of the detonating cord. At this time
there are two shock waves propagating along the detonating fuse, one from each end. If the
detonating fuse has been laid along the surface of a lead plate, the point where the two shock
waves eventually collide will be witnessed by the lead plate as a point of increased deformation.
If the VOD of the detonating cord, the distance between the points where the cord was inserted
into the explosive column, and the distance from the midpoint of the cord to the point of collision
of the two shock waves, are all known, then the unknown

VOD of the explosive column can be calculated using following equation:

Du = Df (d1/2d2)

Where Du is the unknown VOD of the column of explosive,

Df is the VOD of the detonating fuse,

d1 is the distance along the column of explosive between points of attachment of the detonating
fuse, and

d2 is the distance from the midpoint of the detonating fuse to where the shock waves meet.

The method is simple, no special equipment, but lower accuracy, only for the field of industrial
explosives testing. This method of VOD measurement is suitable for unconfined space where
the explosives are used in cartridge form.

GPS in Mining:
Global Positioning System (GPS) is useful in Mining including Mine and Ore Body Exploration,
Development, Production, Closure, Reclamation etc.

Drill & blast design, three-dimensional visualization and enhancement of safety: Mining
companies are increasingly looking at global positioning system (GPS) technology, coupled with
three-dimensional mine planning and visualization systems, to deliver increased productivity
and reduction in operating costs in drilling and blasting operations. Leveraging GPS into drill-
and-blast operations requires that a drilling plan be developed and imported into the GPS to
guide the operation to a planned and desirable outcome. State-of-the-art mine planning
software systems provide the engineer with a three-dimensional environment in which to design
and visualize drill-and-blast plans. GPS use in blasting applications is suitable for (a)
Establishing preblast survey house locations, (b) Determining blast locations and distances, (c)
Establishing spatial relationships, (d) Documenting explosive magazines.
Initiation Systems

1. Safety Fuse:

Uses – To initiate Non-Electrical Detonators or Ordinary Detonators

Ingredients: Black Powder

Properties: Safety fuse is a length of strong, flexible, rope-like product with a black powder core.
It is designed to be initiated with a specialty designed fuse lighter or match, burn its length at a
predetermined rate, and initiate a non-electric detonator. Safety fuse normally burns at a rate of
approximately 35- 45 sec/ft.

Construction: Safety fuse is constructed with various types/quantities of natural and man made
fibers and plastic. Safety fuse can usually be identified by its color, wax finish and other
manufacturing characteristics observed on its exterior. However, with the use of colored plastics
as a final covering, it may be misidentified.

2. Detonators

Initiator is a term that is used in the explosive industry to describe any devise that may be used
to start a detonation or deflagration.

Devices that are used to initiate high explosives are called Detonators and devises that start
burning or deflagration are called squibs or igniters.

Detonators are used for initiating high explosives and contain small amounts of a sensitive
primary explosive. Although they are manufactured to absorb a reasonable amount of shock
during handling and transportation, they should not be abused.

In general detonators consist of an ignition charge, intermediate charge, and a base charge.
Each charge in the train is selected and used to transition from heat to shock.

A. Non Electrical Detonators (Ordinary Detonators)

(i) Uses – To initiate other explosives, detonating cord and shock tube.

(ii) Ingredients – *Lead Azide, *Lead Styphnate, *PETN, *RDX

(iii) Properties – Non-electrical detonators or fuse caps are thin metal or paper cylindrical shells,
open on one end for the insertion of safety fuse, which contain various types of primary and
secondary explosives. They are sensitive to heat, shock and crushing and are designed to be
initiated with safety fuse or detonating cord. They are normally rated as #8 strength. All
detonators of this type are instantaneous and therefore, do not have a delay elements.

(iv) Construction Characteristics:

(a) Shell material – *Aluminium, *Copper, *Gilding metal

(v) Explosives- Contain approximately .65 grams of high explosives.

(vi) Markings- Each shell is marked with a high explosive statement which identifies it as a high
explosive and dangerous. Additionally, some of the manufacturers may place their company
logo on the shell. The color of the printing is determined by each manufacturer.

(vii) Length- Approximately 2 3/8 inches

(viii) Diameter- .292 inches

B. Electrical Detonators
(i) Uses – To initiate other explosives, detonating cord and shock tube.

(ii) Ingredients:

May contain one or more of the following:

*RDX PETN

*Tetryl Lead Azide

*Lead Styphnate DDNP/Diazo (Diazodinitrophenol)

*Additional proprietary mixes may be utilized for the ignition charge, match and delay elements.

(iii) Properties – Electrical detonators are similar to non-electrical detonators except they are
initiated by the application of electrical current through electrical wires. The current causes a
bridge wire or match elements to heat/function thereby, causing the ignition charge to explode
which in turn, causes a chain reaction to cause the base charge to be initiated. The wires are
secured into the detonator by a closure plug, crimped into the shell, which seals the explosive
from moisture. In addition to sensitivity from heat, shock and crushing, these products are
subject to extraneous electricity due to the presence of electrical wire.

(iv) Types – *Instantaneous, *Short period delay, *Long period delay, *Seismic, *Electronic
delay

C. ShockTubes Detonators
 ***

(i) Uses – To initiate boosters, detonating cord, other lengths of shock tubes and other
explosives. This type of initiation is common to the construction industry, the fire officer will
generally find this type of system stored in construction related magazines.

(ii) Ingredients – *HMX and Aluminium Powder

(iii) Properties- Shock tube is a small diameter plastic laminate tube coated with a very thin layer
of reactive material at one (1) pound per 100,000 feet of tube. When initiated, shock tube
transmits a low energy signal or propagation wave, at approximately 6,500 ft/sec from one point
to another. This shock wave is similar to a dust explosion and will propagate through most sharp
bends, knots and kinks in the tube. The detonation is sustained by such a small quantity of
reactive material, the outer surface of the tube remains intact during and after functioning.
Shock tube can be initiated by small shotshell-type primers, detonating cord or detonators.

(iv) Types- *Instantaneous, *Short period delay, *Long period delay, *TrunkLine Delay, *Down
The Hole Delay, *Connectors, *In-line delays, *Bunch blocks, *Lead in line

(v) Construction Characteristics – (a) Shell Aluminum, Diameter: .29 inches, Length: 2 3/8 to 4
inches; (b) Tube materials, Construction – Polyethylene, Surylyn; (c) Explosives- HMX,
Aluminium powder; (d) Length- 3 to 2500 feet, Diameter: 12 inches.