4.

0 Advantages of Thermoelectric Cooling

4.1 The use of thermoelectric modules often provides solutions, and in some cases the ONLY solution, to many difficult thermal management problems where a low to moderate
amount of heat must be handled. While no one cooling method is ideal in all respects and the use of thermoelectric modules will not be suitable for every application, TE coolers
will often provide substantial advantages over alternative technologies. Some of the more significant features of thermoelectric modules include:
No Moving Parts: A TE module works electrically without any moving parts so they are virtually maintenance free.
Small Size and Weight: The overall thermoelectric cooling system is much smaller and lighter than a comparable mechanical system. In addition, a variety of standard and
special sizes and configurations are available to meet strict application requirements.
Ability to Cool Below Ambient: Unlike a conventional heat sink whose temperature necessarily must rise above ambient, a TE cooler attached to that same heat sink has the
ability to reduce the temperature below the ambient value.
Ability to Heat and Cool With the Same module: Thermoelectric coolers will either heat or cool depending upon the polarity of the applied DC power. This feature eliminates the
necessity of providing separate heating and cooling functions within a given system.
Precise Temperature Control: With an appropriate closed-loop temperature control circuit, TE coolers can control temperatures to better than +/- 0.1°C.
High Reliability: Thermoelectric modules exhibit very high reliability due to their solid state construction. Although reliability is somewhat application dependent, the life of typical
TE coolers is greater than 200,000 hours.
Electrically “Quiet” Operation: Unlike a mechanical refrigeration system, TE modules generate virtually no electrical noise and can be used in conjunction with sensitive
electronic sensors. They are also acoustically silent.
Operation in any Orientation: TEs can be used in any orientation and in zero gravity environments. Thus they are popular in many aerospace applications.
Convenient Power Supply: TE modules operate directly from a DC power source. Modules having a wide range of input voltages and currents are available. Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) may be used in many applications
Spot Cooling: With a TE cooler it is possible to cool one specific component or area only, thereby often making it unnecessary to cool an entire package or enclosure.
Ability to Generate Electrical Power: When used “in reverse” by applying a temperature differential across the faces of a TE cooler, it is possible to generate a small amount of
DC power.
Environmentally Friendly: Conventional refrigeration systems can not be fabricated without using chlorofluorocarbons or other chemicals that may be harmful to the
environment. Thermoelectric devices do not use or generate gases of any kind.

2.0 Basic Principles of Thermoelectric Modules & Materials

2.1 THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS: The thermoelectric semiconductor material most often used in today’s TE coolers is an alloy of Bismuth Telluride that has been suitably
doped to provide individual blocks or elements having distinct “N” and “P” characteristics. Thermoelectric materials most often are fabricated by either directional crystallization
from a melt or pressed powder metallurgy. Each manufacturing method has its own particular advantage, but directionally grown materials are most common. In addition to
Bismuth Telluride (Bi Te ), there are other thermoelectric materials including Lead Telluride (PbTe), Silicon Germanium (SiGe), and Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb) alloys that may be
2 3

used in specific situations. Figure (2.1) illustrates the relative performance or Figure-of-Merit of various materials over a range of temperatures. It can be seen from this graph
that the performance of Bismuth Telluride peaks within a temperature range that is best suited for most cooling applications.
APPROXIMATE FIGURE-OF-MERIT(Z)FOR VARIOUS TE MATERIALS

Figure (2.1) Performance of Thermoelectric Materials at Various Temperatures

2.1.1 BISMUTH TELLURIDE MATERIAL: Crystalline Bismuth Telluride material has several characteristics that merit discussion. Due to the crystal structure, Bi Te is highly
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anisotropic in nature. This results in the material’s electrical resistivity being approximately four times greater parallel to the axis of crystal growth (C-axis) than in the
perpendicular orientation. In addition, thermal conductivity is about two times greater parallel to the C-axis than in the perpendicular direction. Since the anisotropic behavior of
resistivity is greater than that of thermal conductivity, the maximum performance or Figure-of-Merit occurs in the parallel orientation. Because of this anisotropy, thermoelectric
elements must be assembled into a cooling module so that the crystal growth axis is parallel to the length or height of each element and, therefore, perpendicular to the ceramic
substrates.
There is one other interesting characteristic of Bismuth Telluride that also is related to the material’s crystal structure. Bi Te crystals are made up of hexagonal layers of similar
2 3

atoms.
While layers of Bismuth and Tellurium are held together by strong covalent bonds, weak van der Waals bonds link the adjoining [Te¹] layers. As a result, crystalline Bismuth
Telluride cleaves readily along these [Te¹][Te¹] layers, with the behavior being very similar to that of Mica sheets. Fortunately, the cleavage planes generally run parallel to the
C-axis and the material is quite strong when assembled into a thermoelectric cooling module.
2.1.2 Bismuth Telluride material, when produced by directional crystallization from a melt, typically is fabricated in ingot or boule form and then sliced into wafers of various
thicknesses. After the wafer’s surfaces have been properly prepared, the wafer is then diced into blocks that may be assembled into thermoelectric cooling modules. The blocks
of Bismuth Telluride material, which usually are called elements or dice, also may be manufactured by a pressed powder metallurgy process.
2.2 THERMOELECTRIC COOLING MODULES: A practical thermoelectric cooler consists of two or more elements of semiconductor material that are connected electrically in
series and thermally in parallel. These thermoelectric elements and their electrical interconnects typically are mounted between two ceramic substrates. The substrates serve to
hold the overall structure together mechanically and to insulate the individual elements electrically from one another and from external mounting surfaces. After integrating the
various component parts into a module, thermoelectric modules ranging in size from approximately 2.5-50 mm (0.1 to 2.0 inches) square and 2.5-5mm (0.1 to 0.2 inches) in
height may be constructed.

Figure (2.2) Schematic Diagram of a Typical Thermoelectric Cooler

2.2.1 Both N-type and P-type Bismuth Telluride thermoelectric materials are used in a thermoelectric cooler. This arrangement causes heat to move through the cooler in one
direction only while the electrical current moves back and forth alternately between the top and bottom substrates through each N and P element. N-type material is doped so
that it will have an excess of electrons (more electrons than needed to complete a perfect molecular lattice structure) and P-type material is doped so that it will have a
deficiency of electrons (fewer electrons than are necessary to complete a perfect lattice structure). The extra electrons in the N material and the “holes” resulting from the
deficiency of electrons in the P material are the carriers which move the heat energy through the thermoelectric material. Figure (2.2) shows a typical thermoelectric cooler with
heat being moved as a result of an applied electrical current (I). Most thermoelectric cooling modules are fabricated with an equal number of N-type and P-type elements where
one N and P element pair form a thermoelectric “couple.” The module illustrated in Figure (2.2) has two pairs of N and P elements and is termed a “two-couple module”.
Heat flux (heat actively pumped through the thermoelectric module) is proportional to the magnitude of the applied DC electric current. By varying the input current from zero to
maximum, it is possible to adjust and control the heat flow and temperature.

The Peltier Effect and Thermoelectric Cooling

The Peltier effect is the phenomenon that a potential difference applied across a
thermocouple causes a temperature difference between the junctions of the different
materials in the thermocouple.

This effect is the opposite of the Seebeck effect (named after the scientist who
discovered it in 1821). The Seebeck effect is that if different metals are connected in
two separate places, and the intersections are kept at different temperatures, then a
potential difference between the "junctions" (the intersections) will result.
 Later, in 1834, Jean Peltier found that the opposite of the Seebeck effect is also
true: that a potential difference (and thus a current) can cause a temperature
difference, regardless of what the ambient temperature is.

Since the hot junction can be placed outside of an insulated area, and the cold
junction can be placed inside the region, the Peltier effect can be used to cool a
region (or an object).

Peltier Elements (Thermo-electric coolers)

The method of thermoelectric cooling (using the Peltier effect) is useful because it
can cool an object without any moving pieces or other complex machinery that
isolates the cooler from its ambient surroundings. The devices that are constructed to
take advantage of this phenomenon are known as Peltier elements, or thermo-electric
coolers (TECs). The basic ideas from the simple Peltier elements can be connected in
series to construct far more complicated Peltier modules (also known as practical
TECs), which have greater cooling capabilities. However, the greatest temperature
difference between the heat sink and the cool region for a Peltier device is on the
order of 50°C.
Common uses for Pelier elements include cooling computer components, especially
the CPU.

The most common combination of materials in the thermocouples of Peltier

elements (TECs) are the two semiconductors Bismuth and Telluride. Generally, a
TEC has an array of cubes or pellets made of the semiconductors, each of which is in
contact with the radiators on the hot and cold side of the Peltier element. These cubes
are "doped" -- that is to say that extra impurities are added so that there are extra or
fewer free electrons in each cube. The semiconductor cubes with extra free electrons
(and thus carry mainly negative charge) are known as N-type semiconductors, while
those with few free electrons (and carry mainly postive charge) are P-type
semiconductors. The pairs of P and N semiconductor cubes are set up and connected
in an array so that the pairs have an electrical series connection, but a thermal parallel
connection. When a current is applied to this system (the TEC), the way the current
flows through the semiconductors induces a temperature difference, and causes the
heat-sink side of the Peltier element to heat up, and the cold side to cool (or cooling
whatever is in thermal contact with that side).

A Peltier element, with ceramic plates to partially

insulate
the inside from the outer environment.
An inside view of a TEC (Peltier element). <http://www.heatsink-guide.com/peltier.jpg>
<http://www.digit-life.com/articles/peltiercoolers/p6.gif>

The heat-sink side of the TEC gets very hot, so it is necessary to have a fan and/or
some sort of radiator to dissipate this heat. Otherwise, the entire TEC would begin to
heat up, and pieces would fuse together.
"Normal" Peltier elements are roughly a few centimeters thick and a few
millimeters or centimeters on a side. To obtain greater cooling abilities, the individual
elements are connected in stacks, or they can be connected in some combination of
series and parallel electrical connections.
A Peltier module with a fan and radiator to
dissipate heat from the heat sink.
<http://www.digit-
life.com/articles/peltiercoolers/p6.gif>

Laser
The Peltier
Vapor- Cooling
Effect and Magnetic
Home Compression and References
Thermoelectric Cooling
Refrigeration Optical
Cooling
Molasses
.
S H Price 26 March 2007 Physics 212 Web Project