Seismic Raves: Tremor Observations from an

Electronic Dance Music Festival

David N. Green and David Bowers

David N. Green and David Bowers

AWE Blacknest

INTRODUCTION OBSERVATIONS

Repetitive signals of sustained amplitude are observed both in Seismic signals have been observed during two Glade festivals,
music and seismology; in music this is often described as the on the weekends of 14–16 July 2006 and 20–22 July 2007. Both
rhythm, whereas in seismology such signals are often labeled as festivals generated signals recorded at Wolverton station (WOL),
tremor (e.g., Chouet 1996). Tremor is generated by a variety of which is composed of two broadband, three-component seis-
sources including volcanoes, glaciers, and hydroelectric plants mometers: one Güralp CMG-3TD seismometer located in
(for examples, see Ferrick et al. 1982) and is often characterized a subsurface vault and one Güralp CMG-3TB seismometer
by narrowband spectral features that maintain their amplitude, located at a depth of approximately 30 m within a borehole. In
sometimes for periods of hours or days (so-called harmonic addition, for the 2007 festival a Güralp CMG-3ESPC broad-
tremor). In this paper we present observations from an unusual band three-component seismometer was installed in a dedicated
anthropogenic source of seismic tremor, generated at an inter- seismometer pit within the grounds of AWE Blacknest; this
face between music and seismology: an electronic dance music seismometer is referred to as BNST within this paper. WOL is
festival.
Music festivals, popular in the summer months across the N
United Kingdom, provide a meeting point for thousands of
Brimpton
enthusiasts to listen to live music. Many of these festivals con-
centrate on a particular genre of music; e.g., dance, folk, rock, or
world. Previously observed vibrations from rock music festivals
have been attributed to large crowds in confined spaces jump- 0 1000 m Wasing
ing up and down in time to the music, although seismograms BNST Estate
were not recorded (Erlingsson and Bodare 1996; Browitt and
Walker 1993).
Heath
Electronic dance music, characterized by strong repeti-
Ashford Hill End
tive rhythms, is the focus for the Glade electronic dance music
festival that has been held in the Berkshire countryside for one
weekend a year from 2004 to 2007 (see figure 1). The festival
consists of a number of music stages and tents, each of which
51 21’N
o
specializes in particular subgenres of electronic dance music. In
2007, approximately 8,500 people enjoyed the festival over the
weekend of 20–22 July. To amplify the music to a level suit-
able for an outdoor concert, the power output of the public
address (PA) systems ranged from 2 to 26 kW; the loudspeakers
are powerful acoustic sources that are coupled into the ground Kingsclere
through their stands. WOL
In this paper we present observations of harmonic tremor
1 15’W 1 10’ W
o o
associated with the electronic dance music festival. We attempt
to explain the temporal and frequency content fluctuations
▲▲ Figure 1. Sketch map showing relative locations of the instru-
and analyze the mode of wave propagation that generates the
ments and festival site. The positions of the two stations, WOL and
observed seismic signals. We argue that seismograms recorded
BNST, are indicated by black circles. The festival is held on the
during the Glade festival are consistent with ground excitation
Wasing Estate (dark shading), with the main arena at the southeast
by the loudspeaker equipment and provide an explanation for
of the site. Local communities are shaded, with major roads given
why electronic dance music is a near-ideal driving mechanism
as lines. There is little topography, with less than 100-m difference
for generating such vibrations.
in altitude between the site and either of the seismometers.

546  Seismological Research Letters  Volume 79, Number 4  July/August 2008 doi: 10.1785/gssrl.79.4.546

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 150
WOL Z−cmpt
PSD estimate (m2s−2/Hz)
100
50
0 ond mode would be generated by seismic vibration at the festi-
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Frequency (Hz)
▲▲ Figure 2. Comparing power spectral densities in 2006 and 2007.
All data are from the broadband borehole seismometer, WOL, for
the hour 23:00–00:00 on the respective Saturday evenings (15 July
2006 and 21 July 2007); power estimates are given in red for 2006
and in black for 2007. Note the similarity in the frequency band
for which signals are detected and the similar power amplitude
estimates for both years.
located 7.8 km from the festival site, whereas BNST is located at
a distance of approximately 1.6 km (figure 1).
Over the weekends that the festival was held, harmonic sig-
nals were observed at WOL; the amplitude spectra consist of a
number of sharp peaks within the 2–3 Hz passband (figure 2).
The signals recorded at the surface and borehole seismometers
are extremely similar in both amplitude and phase. For the 2007
festival, the closer station to the festival, BNST, clearly recorded
signals throughout the duration of the festival, with many sharp
spectral peaks observed during the periods of maximum sig-
nal amplitude in the late evening and early morning (figure
3). Spectral analysis of the BNST seismic records also reveals
second harmonics of the signal between 4 and 5 Hz, which are
not observed at WOL (figure 4). This observation is indicative
of a repetitive nonsinusoidal signal generation and is similar to
spectral characteristics observed from ripple-fired quarry blasts
(e.g., Kim et al. 1994).
The frequencies of the signals are stable over periods of
hours, although some of the recorded spectral peaks vary
smoothly over time (see figure 3). For the 2007 festival the sig-
nals begin at 12:00 British Summer Time (BST) on the three
days of the festival and cease at 04:00 BST on the Saturday and
Sunday mornings and at 20:00 BST on the Sunday evening.
These times coincide with the curfews stipulated as conditions
of the site license (West Berkshire Council 2007).
The amplitudes of the individual spectral peaks vary over
time. In 2007 the largest signals occurred between 22:30 and
00:00 BST on the Saturday evening, with the decrease in ampli-
tude at 00:00 observed in both the spectrograms and the band-
pass-filtered seismograms (figure 5). This is coincident with the
cessation of music on the two main festival stages, which have
the most powerful loudspeaker systems. We also note that not
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all the spectral peaks observed at BNST are recorded at WOL.
For the spectral peaks that are recorded at both stations, the
spectral power ratio between the recordings at the two stations
2006 is peak dependent (e.g., figures 4 and 5).
2007
PROPAGATION MODE DETERMINATION
Because the source of the tremor is a music festival, two modes
of propagation should be considered for the observed seismic
signals: air-coupled surface waves or surface waves propagating
exclusively in the subsurface. The first mode would be generated
by an atmospherically propagated sound wave, coupling into the
shallow subsurface along the source-to-receiver path; the sec-
val site. Both seismic and infrasonic tremors have been recorded
previously (e.g., Neuberg et al. 1999; Garces et al. 2003).
The key discriminant between the two modes is their
wavespeed. Air-coupled surface waves can propagate only with
speeds very close to the speed of sound in air (e.g., Ewing et al.
1957, p. 234), approximately 0.335 kms–1, whereas surface wave
velocities are usually observed with wavespeeds greater than
1 kms–1. Bonner et al. (2001) tabulate wavespeeds determined
for short-period Rayleigh waves (Rg) as being between 0.9 and
3.7 kms–1 for various geological environments. Rg is a suitable
seismic phase for consideration in this study, as it is excited by
shallow seismic events and is exclusively observed at local and
regional distances (e.g., Kafka 1990). Therefore, if it can be
shown that the wavespeed of the propagating waves is signifi-
cantly greater than 0.34 kms–1 we can reject the hypothesis that
the signals are air-coupled surface waves.
Determining wavespeeds for these continuous narrow-
band low-amplitude signals is problematic because it is difficult
to identify distinct phases at both stations that can be attrib-
uted to transient seismic events at the festival site. However,
the amplitude of the tremor signals filtered in the 2.1 to 2.8 Hz
passband exhibit variations on timescales of between 1 and 5
minutes, which are observed at both stations.
Taking the filtered n-sample length seismograms at BNST
and WOL, SB(t) and SW(t), signal envelopes are calculated from
the absolute value of the analytic signals. The cross-correlation
of these envelopes, EB(t) and EW(t), provides cross-correlation
coefficient values, rB,W for a series of timelags, l
∑
n
( E B ,i − E B )( EW ,i +1 − E W )
rB ,W (l ) = i =1
,
∑ ∑
n n
i =1
( E B ,i − E B ) 2
i =1
( EW ,i +1 − E W )
2
where EB,i is the ith sample of the signal envelope for station
BNST, EW,i+l is the (i – l)th sample of the signal envelope for
station WOL, and the overbar represents the mean value of
the signal envelope. rB,W is a measure of the similarity between
the shape of the signal envelopes, i.e., rB,W is a maximum at the
timelag for which the two envelope functions, EB,i and EB,i+l , are
most similar. The timelag at maximum correlation, lmaxc, is then
used to calculate an approximate wavespeed, v, using
Seismological Research Letters  Volume 79, Number 4  July/August 2008  547
 (A) Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
3

2.8
Frequency (Hz)
2.6

2.4

2.2

2
06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18
19th 20th 21st 22nd
Date and Hour (BST) July 2007

(B)
3
Frequency(Hz)

2.5

1.5
18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00
Time (BST), 21st−22nd July 2007
▲▲ Figure 3. Spectrograms showing the 2007 Glade festival signals. Blue colors represent low power, red colors represent high power. (A)
provides an overview of the BNST data between Thursday 19 July 2007 and Sunday 22 July 2007. The music at the festival started at midday
each day beginning on Friday. Thursday was included to show the background traffic noise that occurs at this site due to the proximity to
a busy road; note the reduction of this noise over the weekend. The triangles above the plot indicate the music curfew times across the
weekend. It is observed that the narrowband signals between 2 and 3 Hz stop at these times. (B) shows the signal detail for Saturday night
into Sunday morning of the same weekend. The narrowband features are continuous, although some frequency shifts of the spectral lines
are observed over time.

DW − DB In figure 6 we show the cross-correlation waveform with

v= , respect to timelag, rB,W(l), averaged over the time windows con-
l maxc tained within the hour between 23:00 and 00:00 on Saturday
21 July, chosen because this hour had the highest amplitude
where DW and DB are the distances from the festival to WOL signals at both stations. We also make a comparison with an
and BNST respectively. To focus on amplitude variations occur- hour when the festival loudspeakers were inactive. Three obser-
ring on timescales of between 1 and 5 minutes and to provide a vations are immediately obvious. The first is that the cross-cor-
consistency check for the results, the data envelopes were split relation structure is significantly more pronounced when the
into windows of 600-s length with an overlap of 75% for the festival signals occur, compared to periods when the festival is
calculations. inactive; this demonstrates that the correlation structure is a

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 0
Normalised PSD estimate
−2
0
−2
10
log
−4
1.5
▲▲ Figure 4. Comparing power spectral densities for WOL and BNST. All data are from the hour 23:00–00:00 on Saturday evening, 21 July
2007. Note that the dominant spectral peaks are recorded at both stations, although additional peaks are observed at BNST. Note the
prominent second harmonics (4 to 5 Hz) recorded at BNST only.
consequence of the signal. The second observation is that the
correlation structure has a periodicity on a timescale of approxi-
mately 2 seconds. This is associated with a 2-s modulation of
the signal, which is independent of the filter used. The mod-
ulation causes cycle-skipping in the results. Fortunately, the
longer-period amplitude modulations are dominant, leading to
the third observation that the cross-correlation is a maximum
at a timelag of 8.1 s, i.e., the waveform at WOL lags behind the
waveform at BNST by 8.1 s. Given that the difference in fes-
tival to seismometer distances is approximately 6.2 km, this is
equivalent to a seismic wavespeed of 0.8 kms–1.
Because the calculated speed (0.8 kms–1) is significantly
greater than that of an acoustic wave (which would have
required a timelag of 18.5 s), we can reject the hypothesis that
the mode of propagation is an air-coupled wave, and therefore
we suggest that the recorded seismic energy propagates exclu-
sively in the subsurface.
Another aspect of the propagation mode can be deduced
by studying the polarization of the seismic motion at the two
stations. In the 2.2- to 2.4-Hz passband, horizontal power is at
a maximum along the radial direction oriented away from the
festival site, for both stations. At BNST the power in the radial
component is six times greater than that on the transverse,
while at WOL this amplitude factor is three. At both stations
the vertical component has approximately the same power as
the radial. These observations suggest that the seismic wave has
a nearly circular particle motion directed radially away from the
festival, consistent with a Rayleigh wave.
DISCUSSION
The observation of a continuous narrowband signal, with associ-
ated harmonics, suggests that the seismic source is a nonsinusoi-
dal function that is regularly repeated over time. In the simplest
case this can be thought of as a series of impulses with a regular
time separation. The dominant frequency of the narrowband
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BNST
WOL
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Frequency (Hz)
signal is the reciprocal of this impulse time separation. A syn-
thetic example of such a series is illustrated in figure 7 and shows
that the complex signal shown in figure 3 can be interpreted as
the summation of a number of simple, time-dependent impulse
series. Each impulse series generates a series of harmonic lines.
Any fluctuation in the frequency of the harmonic line can be
explained by a change in the time separation of the impulses in
the series. A decrease in the impulse time separation will cause
the dominant frequency to increase and vice versa. We note that
in reality the observed seismogram does not appear as a series of
impulses; the source function has been convolved with both the
earth and instrument responses. Also, at each music stage there
are a number of active speakers. When considered together
these speakers act as a spatially extended source, further compli-
cating the seismic source signature.
A number of sources at the music festival could have
produced the harmonic signals including onsite generators,
heavy machinery, the audience, and the loudspeaker systems.
The dancing of the audience is unlikely to have generated the
observed signals. The rapid onset of the signals at midday, the
continuous signal over 16 hours, and the sudden drop in signal
power at midnight is inconsistent with the behavior of a large
number of people at such a gathering. It is highly unlikely that
a large proportion of the attendees started dancing in time with
the music at the start of the festival; many people would have
not yet been on the site. Also, if the signals were the result of
the crowd dancing, it is unlikely that the signal amplitudes
would mirror the power output of the speaker systems. Indeed,
it might be thought that after midnight, when two of the stages
were closed, the signal would increase as the dancers were con-
centrated at fewer locations and now dancing to the same music,
and therefore at the same speed. Onsite generators and machin-
ery are also unlikely to vibrate at the low frequencies observed.
Therefore, we propose that the sources of the seismic signals are
the loudspeaker systems that broadcast the music.
Seismological Research Letters  Volume 79, Number 4  July/August 2008  549
 (A) 30
Stage Sound
Power (kW) 20

10

0
(B)
18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00
Vel. (nm/s)

2000
0
−2000
BNST
3
Frequency(Hz)

2.5

1.5
18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00
Time (BST), 21st−22nd July 2007
(C)
Vel. (nm/s)

10
0
−10
WOL
3
Frequency(Hz)

2.5

1.5
18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00
Time (BST), 21st−22nd July 2007
▲▲ Figure 5. A comparison of the signals at WOL and BNST with the power output of the music stages. (A) shows the wattage and opera-
tional duration of the PA systems at eight of the stages of the Glade music festival in 2007 (West Berkshire Council 2007). Each stage is
represented by a different colored bar. The two lower panels show the seismograms filtered between 2 and 2.8 Hz and the spectrograms
at (B) BNST and (C) WOL. Blue colors represent low power, red colors represent high power.

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 Rg Acoustic
(Slow) Wave

0.6

Correlation Coefficient
0.4

0.2

−0.2

−20 −10 0 10 20
Maximum Correlation Time Lag (s)

▲▲ Figure 6. Correlation analysis for propagation mode determination. The filtered seismogram envelopes at BNST and WOL for the hour
starting at 23:00 21 July 2007 were split into 10-minute windows with an overlap of 75%. The corresponding windows at the two stations
were cross-correlated with one another; the mean of all windowed cross-correlation estimates is shown as the solid line. The method was
repeated for an hour of background noise from 05:00 on 22 July 2007 and plotted as the dotted line for comparison. The triangles indicate
the expected timelags if the energy propagated as shallow surface waves (Rg [slow] equivalent to 0.9kms–1, Bonner 2001) or as acoustic
waves (= 0.335kms–1).

The evidence for signal generation by the loudspeaker sys-
tems is threefold: consistent frequencies, temporal shifts in fre-
quency, and amplitude variations. The frequencies of between 2
and 3 Hz are equivalent to the tempo of the repetitive rhythms
that underpin electronic dance music. Table 1 provides a com-
parison of various subgenres of dance music and their tempo
range and equivalent frequencies. Therefore, we propose that
each time the loudspeakers emit a beat, the reaction causes the
loudspeaker to vibrate. Each of these vibrations can be consid-
ered as an impulse, coupled seismically into the ground through
the loudspeaker’s stand. Note that each subgenre in table 1 is
provided with a range of tempos; this is because the beat does
not stay static indefinitely. As the DJs controlling the music mix
one composition into the next, they make adjustments to the
tempo allowing the rhythms to merge and form one continuous
piece of music. Such changes in tempo are observed throughout
the seismic records, and these changes provide another piece of
evidence in favor of the music, and therefore the loudspeakers,
as generating the observed signals. The third piece of evidence
is the variation in signal amplitude; the large variations occur at
the times of the music curfews and at midnight, when the most
powerful loudspeaker systems stop playing.
The number of different harmonic lines occurring simul-
taneously in the seismic signal (e.g., figure 3) can be explained
by the different stages at the festival, on which different music
is played. Each stage concentrates on a different subgenre of
music at any one time, so the loudspeakers at each stage gener-
ate impulse series with various dominant frequencies.
A similar mechanism has been suggested for the genera-
tion of volcanic tremor, with repetitive earthquakes providing
the regular seismic impulses. Indeed, these earthquakes have
been termed “drumbeats” by Matoza et al. (2007), indicat-
ing the reciprocity of this comparison. Episodes of tremor at
the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat, are the result of low-
frequency earthquakes occurring repetitively at a single source
location with extremely regular time separations of between
0.31 and 1.0 s (Powell and Neuberg 2003). As the time separa-
tion between earthquakes decreases, the spectra exhibit increas-
ing peak frequencies; this is analogous to the situation where
the tempo of the music at the festival increases.
The calculated wavespeed of 0.8 kms–1 is slow for seismic
waves, but it excludes the possibility of an air-coupled seismic
wave solution. The superficial geology of the region local to
the source consists of gravel beds of up to 100 m in thickness
underlain by clay and chalk (Hopkins 1978). The gravels are
often water-saturated. Such geological features are associated
with very low seismic wavespeeds (Mavko et al. 1998). Because
the source is at the surface, we would expect that fundamental
surface waves, e.g., Rg, may be efficiently generated (e.g., Kafka
1990). Such waves are consistent with the observed power ratios
between the vertical and radial seismic components. Also, as the
frequency of the observed seismic waves is high (2–3 Hz), the
seismic displacement will be greatly influenced by the seismic
wavespeeds in the upper few hundred meters (see, for example,
displacement eigenfunctions calculated by Kafka 1990, figure
3). Therefore, the combined effects of seismically slow, shal-

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 dt = 0.48s
A

dt = 0.47s 0.43s

B
dt = 0.41s
C

3
C
Frequency (Hz)

2.5 B

A
1.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (hours)
▲▲ Figure 7. A synthetic spectrogram for a seismogram composed of three independent impulse series, A, B, and C. Above the spectro-
gram, schematics of the three impulse series are given, indicating the time separation between individual impulses. Four phenomena
observed in the data (e.g., figure 3) are modeled: the sharp cut-off of the signal associated with the cessation of the impulses, the individual
frequency bands associated with different tempo impulse series (A and C), the steady increase of spectral line frequency associated
with an increased tempo of the impulse function (B), and the increased power associated with an increased impulse amplitude (A). The
spectrogram is calculated from the time series equal to A + B + C + noise; the noise amplitude has a standard deviation of 0.3 times the
magnitude of series C’s impulses. Blue colors represent low power, red colors represent high power.

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 TABLE 1
Tempos of common electronic dance music subgenres.
These are approximate bounds, and can be subjective.
Values are taken from Roberts (2003).
Tempo Range
(beats per minute Equivalent
Subgenre [bpm]) frequency (Hz)
Ambient 60–100
Breakbeat 90–130
House/Garage 120–135
Techno 120–160
Two-step 140–160
Drum and Bass 160–180
Tech Step >180
low geology and efficient generation of high-frequency surface
waves may be expected to result in a slow seismic wavespeed for
the seismic waves radiating from the music festival.
Although many music festivals worldwide generate loud
music, we found no previously documented observations of fes-
tival-generated tremor. One reason for this may be the type of
music played; many festivals are dedicated to rock music rather
than the electronic dance music that is the focus of the Glade
festival. The temporally extended signals within a narrow fre-
quency band that are required for identifying the signals on the
spectrograms are a characteristic of electronic dance music. The
repetitive nature of the music is the key to tremor generation,
suggesting that the Glade festival may be regarded as a superior
source for such signals.
CONCLUSIONS
We present seismic observations of a tremor signal associated
with an electronic dance music festival. The frequency con-
tent, amplitude variations, and temporal duration of the signals
indicate that the seismic source is likely to be associated with
the generation of music at the loudspeakers. The dominant fre-
quencies observed (2–3 Hz) are equivalent to the tempo of the
music (120–180 bpm), i.e., the separation of the drumbeats.
Cross-correlations of the signal envelopes at two stations allow
us to determine an approximate seismic propagation speed of
0.8 kms–1, constraining the mode of propagation to shallow
subsurface seismic waves. Therefore, we propose that the most
likely seismic source is the vibration of the festival loudspeakers
coupling into the ground at the festival site. The signals indicate
that given the correct ground conditions, manmade vibrations
from a nondedicated seismic source can be clearly identified as
tremor at distances of several kilometers. The required charac-
teristic of the source is that the vibration is repetitive in nature;
electronic dance music is a good example of such a source.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Mr. T. Budd and Mr. K. Kennett for assistance in
instrument deployment. The comments of one anonymous
reviewer and the SRL editor, Dr. Luciana Astiz, helped improve
the manuscript.
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dgreen@blacknest.gov.uk
(D.N.G.)
Seismological Research Letters  Volume 79, Number 4  July/August 2008  553