Electrochemical Treatment

Methods
Dr. Eveliina Repo
Lappeenranta University of Technology
eveliina.repo@lut.fi
What is electrochemistry?

Short definition:
Electrochemistry deals with the charge transfer at
the interface between an electrically conductive
(or semi-conductive) material and an ionic
conductor (e.g. liquids, melts or solid electrolytes) as
well as with the reactions within the electrolytes and
the resulting equilibrium
What is oxidation?
When a molecule/ion loses electrons
(becomes more positive)
Whatever is oxidized is the reducing agent

What is reduction?
When a molecule/ion gains electrons
(becomes more negative)
Whatever is reduced is the oxidizing agent
 • E0 is for the reaction as written
• The more positive E0 the greater the
tendency for the substance to be
reduced
• The half-cell reactions are reversible
• The sign of E0 changes when the
reaction is reversed
• Changing the stoichiometric
coefficients of a half-cell reaction
does not change the value of E0

http://highered.mheducation.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=jpg::::::/sites/dl/free/00236546
66/650262/Standard_Reduction_Potential_19_01.jpg::Standard%20reduction%20potentials
 Cell potential

Half reactions: Cell reaction:

Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

Cell potential:
E0cell = E0Zn Zn2+ + E0Cu2+ Cu = +0,76 V + 0,34 V = 1,1 V Positive: spontaneous

Electrolysis: forcing a current through a cell to produce a chemical change

for which the cell potential is negative:

Zn2+ + Cu Zn + Cu2+ E0cel = -1,1 V

Gibbs energy and Nernst equation

Gibbs energy and Nernst equation

G G RT ln(Q) G nFE n = electrons

transferred

nFE nFE RT ln Q

RT T = 25 oC 0.0591
E E ln Q E E ln Q
nF n

C D
A B C D Q
A B
Example: Electrochemical cell

Calculate the cell potential at 25 oC for the following

reaction:

2 Al + 3 Mn2+ 2 Al3+ + 3 Mn Eocell = 0.48 V

[Mn2+] = 0.50 M [Al3+] = 1.50 M

From half reactions: n = 6

2 Al 2 Al3+ + 6 e- 3 Mn2+ + 6 e- 3 Mn2+

2
0.0591 Al 3 0.0591 1.502
E E ln 3
0.48 ln 0.47V
n Mn 2 6 0.503
Electrochemical water/soil treatment
Benefits of electrochemical Methods:
technologies: Electrochemical oxidation
Environmental compatibility Electrocoagulation
Versatility Electrochemical reduction
Energy efficiency Indirect electro-oxidation with
Safety strong oxidants

Selectivity Electrodeionization

Amenability to automation Capacitive deionization

Cost effectiveness Photo or ultrasound assisted

electrochemical methods
Less chemicals used
Electro kinetics
 Electrocoagulation
Generation of coagulant species in situ by electrolytic oxidation of sacrificial anode materials

The metal ions spontaneously undergo

hydrolysis in water (depending on the pH)
Sacrificial aluminum or iron anodes are the
most common:
Al – 3e- Al3+
Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)3 (at alkaline conditions)

Fe – 2e- Fe2+
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2 (at alkaline conditions)

These metal ions are effective coagulants for

the pollutants
Hakizimana, J. N., Gourich, B., Chafi, M., Stiriba, Y., Vial, C., Drogui, P., & Naja, J. Hydrogen gas released at the cathode helps
(2017). Electrocoagulation process in water treatment: A review of to float the formed flocs out of the water
electrocoagulation modeling approaches. Desalination, 404, 1-21.
 Coagulation/flocculation
Coagulation is the step where
colloidal particles are destabilized.
Flocculation is the step where
destabilized colloidal particles are
accumulated into aggregates.
• Coagulants: cause the
neutralization of pollutants
repulsive forces between pollutant
species disappear

• Flocculants: cause the

aggregation of the destabilized
colloidal particles
Microfloc formation
• Coagulant is always added before
flocculant Floc formation

SNF FLOERGER: coagulation flocculation http://www.snf.us/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Coagulation-Flocculation.pdf

Electrocoagulation

Factors affecting electrocoagulation

1) Current density
2) Charge loading
3) Presence of salts in electrolyte
solution, such us NaCl
4) pH
5) Temperature
6) Electrode position
7) Cell design

Akbal, F., & Camc , S. (2011). Copper, chromium and

nickel removal from metal plating wastewater by
electrocoagulation. Desalination, 269(1), 214-222.
 Electrocoagulation

Different kind of cell designs have been applied

Batch and continuous Wang, Hung & Shammas, Handbook of Environmental

Hakizimana, J. N., Gourich, B., Chafi, M., Stiriba, Y., Vial, C., Drogui, Engineering, Advanced physicochemical treatment
P., & Naja, J. (2017). Electrocoagulation process in water treatment: technologies, Humana Press Inc. 2007
A review of electrocoagulation modeling approaches. Desalination,
404, 1-21.
Electrocoagulation
Advantages Disadvantages
Nonspecific method
Need for maintenance
Address drinking water and
wastewater Electrode passivation over
Combines oxidation, coagulation and time
precipitation (results in lower capital
costs [5]) Need for high-conductivity
water
Reduced need for chemical reagents
(replaced by either Al or Fe Lack of systematic reactor
electrodes and electricity) design
Reduced operating cost
Reduced risk of secondary pollution
Low sludge production
Without moving parts
Low energy requirements
Hakizimana, J. N., Gourich, B., Chafi, M., Stiriba, Y., Vial, C., Drogui, P., & Naja, J.
Solar power can be used (2017). Electrocoagulation process in water treatment: A review of
electrocoagulation modeling approaches. Desalination, 404, 1-21.
Electrocoagulation
Effluents treated by electrocoagulation:
1) Suspended solids
2) Oil and grease
3) Colloids in natural waters
4) Algae and micro-organisms
5) Organic dyes
6) Municipal wastewater treatment
7) Heavy metals removal

Just published:
Hakizimana, J. N., Gourich, B., Chafi, M., Stiriba, Y., Vial, C., Drogui, P., & Naja, J.
(2017). Electrocoagulation process in water treatment: A review of
electrocoagulation modeling approaches. Desalination, 404, 1-21.
 Municipal wastewater treatment

EC unit EC unit
Chemical for Chemical for
phosphorous phosphorous
precipitation CaO precipitation (Polymer)

Screening Settling Aeration Settling To the lake

Sand separation

Incoming
wastewater
Circulated sludge

(Polymer)
Excess sludge

http://www.waterworld.com/articles/iww/print/volume-13/issue-5/features/embracing-closed-loop-technology-for-recycling-
and-reuse.html

https://www.wateronline.com/doc/a-shocking-approach-to-wastewater-treatment-0001
 Treatment of the process water in oil re-
refining industry
Enhance organics
removal by EC
Rain water Sulfuric
Precipitation
COD: 11000 mg/L tank acid H2O2 chemical Lime

Stripped
Process Aeration Residence Coagulation
process
water feed tank tank tank
water

Flotation Activated Treated

Sand filter
pool carbon water tank
filters

Polymer
To municipal
water treatment
plant
Electroflotation
Tiny oxygen and hydrogen bubbles are formed at anode and
cathode, respectively, during water electrolysis
Bubbles attach to suspended matter float to the surface (DAF)
Graphite, titania or dimensionally stable anode (DSA) electrodes

Envirochemie designs and

produces water treatment plants
including Electroflotation systems

http://envirochemie.com/en/plants/flotation-
plants/electroflotation/
Electroflotation

Factors affecting
1) Size of the bubbles
2) Cell design and arrangement of the electrodes
3) Electrode materials
4) Operating conditions, such us current density and water conductivity
5) pH

Applications
1) Separation of oil and low-density suspended solids from wastewaters
2) Used e.g. in mining, dairy and restaurant wastewater treatment
Electrochemical oxidation (EO)
Indirect EO processes
Chlorine and hypochlorite generated anodically
Electrochemically generated hydrogen peroxide
Mediated EO where metal ions are oxidized on an anode to form high valence
reactive species, which attack pollutants or generate hydroxyl radicals

Direct or anodic oxidation

Generation of physically adsorbed “active oxygen” (adsorbed hydroxyl radicals)
or chemisorbed “active oxygen” (oxygen in the oxide lattice)
Physically adsorbed “active oxygen” causes combustion of organic pollutants
Chemisorbed “active oxygen” participates in the formation of selective
oxidation products
Electrochemical oxidation
Oxidants:
Hydroxyl radicals (direct
oxidation)
Ozone and H2O2 (indirect
oxidation)
Chlorine and hypochlorous acid
(indirect)
Electric field (direct)
Oxygen
Important parameters:
electrolyte solution (conductivity,
composition of ions)
current density (mA/cm2)
pH
pollutant concentration
electrode material
Formation potentials of different oxidants

2 H + + 2 e- H2 E0 = 0.0
2 H2O O2 + 4 e- + 4 H+ E0 = + 1.23
2 Cl- Cl2 + 2e- E0 = + 1.36
Cl- + H2O HOCl + 2 e- + H+ E0 = + 1.49
3 H2O O3 + 6 e- + 6 H+ E0 = + 1.51
2 H2O H2O2 + 2 e- + 2 H+ E0 = + 1.77
O2 + H2O O3 + 2 e- + 2 H+ E0 = + 2.07
H2O OH• + e- + H+ E0 = + 2.85
Reactions:

Different oxidation reactions on the surface of the anode

 Electrochemical oxidation
Moving electrodes or turbulence
promoters
Improved mass transport and
thus increased current density
Accommodation of large
electrode area in a small cell
volume
Improved mass transfer
coefficients and enlarged
specific electrode area are
provided by the use of three-
dimensional electrodes

Wang, Hung & Shammas, Handbook of Environmental Engineering,

Advanced physicochemical treatment technologies, Humana Press Inc.
2007
 Electrochemical oxidation

Electrodes should have following PbO2

characteristics:
BDD (boron-doped diamond)
sufficient catalytic activity
MMO (mixed metal oxide)
good stability
Graphite
high oxygen evolution overpotential
Pt
Oxygen evolution is a competitive
reaction in the process of anodic
oxidation of pollutants
BDD:

inert in tough conditions • large working potential window

high corrosion stability • high chemical stability even at strong

acidic or alkaline conditions
• non-poisoning of the surface
• effective for degradation refractory or
priority pollutants
Electrochemical reduction

For metal ion removal

Metal ions in the solution are reduced to elemental form at cathode
Suitable only for higher pollutant concentrations and as a pre-
treatment method before other methods
Recently many studies are focused on the CO2 reduction
Electro-Fenton

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is a weak oxidant alone in treating effluents

To improve this, H2O2 is commonly activated in acidic effluents with
Fe2+ (ferrous) ion as catalyst (Fenton´s reagent) to give homogenous
hydroxyl radicals as strong oxidant of organics

Fe2+ + H2O2 Fe3+ + •OH + OH-

In Electro-Fenton, H2O2 is directly electrogenerated at the cathode of the

cell from O2 gas reduction as follows:

O2(g) + 2H+ + 2e- H2O2 (E0 = 0,68 V vs. SHE)

Electro-Fenton

Main advantages of Electro-Fenton method:

The on-site production of H2O2 avoids its dangerous transport and
storage
Higher degradation rate of organic pollutants than in traditional
Fenton method because of the continuous regeneration of the Fe2+
at the cathode

Fe3+ + H2O2 Fe2+ + HO2•+ H+

The feasibility of overall mineralization with relative low cost if

operational parameters are optimized
Photoelectro-Fenton

Simultaneous use of electro generated H2O2 in the presence of Fe2+

(EF conditions) and UV illumination of the solution

Fe(OH)2+ + h Fe2+ + •OH

H2O2 + h 2 •OH

Sonoelectro-Fenton
Ultrasound accelerates the regeneration of ferrous ions and
enhances the radical formation further
Examples

Phenol degradation as a function Phenol degradation constants as

of time function of initial concentration

Babuponnusami, A., & Muthukumar, K. (2012). Advanced oxidation of phenol: a comparison between Fenton, electro-Fenton, sono-electro-
Fenton and photo-electro-Fenton processes. Chemical Engineering Journal, 183, 1-9.
Sonoelectrocatalysis
Ultrasound treatment is
Bulk solution OH• (aq) + P(aq) products H2O2 + P(aq) products
T ~ 300 K

energy intensive and

therefore expensive alone Cavity interior
up to ~5000 K and 500 atm Gas-liquid interface
T ~ 2000 K
H2O(g) H(g) + OH• (g)

Power supply 2N• OH•(aq) + P (aq) products

+ - N2
O2 2O •
2OH• H2O2
2OH2• H2O2 + O2
P(g) products
P(aq) products
OH• (g) + P(g) products
Ultrasonic generator

• Ultrasound keeps the

Coolingwater
electrode surface
Ultrasonic probe
clean and enhances
mass transport
Anode Cathode • Suitable for dirty “dark”
wastewaters
Shestakova, M., Vinatoru, M., Mason, T. J., & Sillanpää, M. (2014). Sonoelectrocatalytic
decomposition of methylene blue using Ti/Ta2O5-SnO2 electrodes. Ultrasonics sonochemistry.

Comparison of sonolysis, electrolysis and

combined sonolysis processes and
electrolysis on the decolourisation of MB
solution.

COD (a) and TOC (b) reduction during electrolysis

sonolysis and combined electrolysis and sonolysis, i
= 20 mA, frequency: 850 kHz; power setting 4.
Electrodialysis
Membrane process driven
by a difference in
electrical potential over a
membrane stack
Membranes are cation or
anion selective
Cationic and anionic
membranes are placed in
a row allowing the
purification of the
wastewater

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Electrodialysis.jpg, cc-license
 Electrodialysis
Advantages Disadvantages

Mature and reliable technology: High cost of electrodes and ion

desalination or concentration of exchange membranes
electrolyte solutions Relatively short life time of
Can be used for concentration of membranes when working in high-
metals from the diluted solutions density electrical field

Osmotic pressure is not a factor in ED Organic matter, colloids and silicon

system, so the pressure can be used dioxide are not removed by ED
for concentrating salt solutions to system
20% or higher. Influent water pre-treatment is
necessary to prevent fouling
Cost efficient in water desalination in a (depends on the composotion)
certain range of feed water salinity and
product water quality. Selection of materials of
construction for membranes and
Strathmann, H. (2010). Electrodialysis, a mature technology with a
multitude of new applications. Desalination, 264(3), 268-288.
stack is important to ensure
compatibility with the feed stream
Xu, T., & Huang, C. (2008). Electrodialysis-based separation technologies: A
critical review. AIChE journal, 54(12), 3147-3159.
 Capacitive deionization (electrosorption)

Deionization occurs
by applying a
+ + + - -------- voltage over two
- - -
V -+
+-
porous carbon
electrodes
+ + -+ + +
- ++++ ++++ Desalinated water
+

+ Metals - Anions After the electrodes are

saturated he potential
difference between
- +
electrodes is reversed
+ - + - - - + - - + +- -
- - - + +- - +
when ions leave the
V - +
+ + +- + +
-
- +
+ +
+
- - + -+ electrode pores and can
+ - +-
+
- + +- be flushed out of the CDI
+ - +- cell

Enriched metal solution

Capacitive deionization
Solar energy can be applied
Novel three-dimensional electrodes: activated carbon, graphene,
biocarbon, carbon aerogels, composites/coatings
Flow-trough reactors: entire electrode area contributes, faster, lower energy
cost, higher capacity

Desalination comparison

Reverse osmosis drawbacks CDI advantages

Requires high pressure Can be operated gravity fed
Efficiency drops with size Size-independent efficiency
Fragile polymer membranes Robust carbon electrodes
Method limits recovery Solubility limits recovery

CDI investment cost 1/3 of that of RO!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PstkfJoIBUU
Our CDI system for REEs recovery

00.0 V

Potentiostat : : :

CDI cell
Conductivity
Current on Current off
Peristaltic pump

Diluted REEs solution Desalinated water Enriched REEs solution

Our Capacitive Deionization cell

PC plate

Spacer Electrode
Collector

PC plate
 Electrodeionization

• Anions and cations can be

separated
• Can be used for the recovery
of valuable elements
• Can be applied without
membranes as well
• Ion-exchange resin is
regenerated continuously

Arar, Ö., Yüksel, Ü., Kabay, N., & Yüksel, M. (2014). Various applications of
electrodeionization (EDI) method for water treatment—A short review.
Desalination, 342, 16-22.
Case: Electrocoagulation in pulp
and paper mill water treatment
Aim to investigate if electrocoagulation can be used for coagulation
in paper mill raw water purification and if there are beneficial effects
in the combination of chemical and electrochemical coagulation
Methodology
Paper mill mechanically treated water was used in the experiments.
Before treatment salt, chemical coagulant and pH adjustment chemical
were added.
Water was stirred in the flocculator after EC treatment and samples were
pipetted, filtered or flotated with DAF (dissolved air flotation).
2
Date Series PAC (mg/l) NaOH (mg/l) Current density (mA/cm
NaCl (mg/l) )
DAF Filtered Pipetted

31.5.2006 P1 0.0 0.0 49.8 1.79

31.5.2006 P2 4.5 2.0 49.7 1.79
1.6.2006 P3 12.0 5.2 49.6 1.79
11.9.2006 F1 14.4 6.4 0.0 0.36
11.9.2006 F2 14.4 6.4 0.0 0.71
11.9.2006 F3 14.4 6.4 0.0 1.07
25.9.2006 D1 14.4 6.4 0.0 0.71
25.9.2006 DR1 17.8 8.8 0.0 0.71

PAC = polyaluminum chloride

Results
80
Series P1
70 Series P2
Series P3
60
KMnO4 (mg/l)

50

40

30

20

10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Electric charge (C)

Fig. 1. Variation of permanganate index of pipetted samples as a

function of electric charge. Chemical coagulant concentration in
the sample series was 0 mg/l in P1, 4.5 mg/l in P2 and 12.0 mg/l in P3.
Results
26
Series F1
Series F2
25
Series F3

24
KMnO4 (mg/l)

23

22

21

20

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Time (s)

Fig. 2. Variation of permanganate index of filtered samples with time.

Current densities in the series were 0.36 mA/cm2 in F1, 0.71 mA/cm2
in F2 and 1,07 mA/cm2 in F3.
Conclusions

The dose of chemical coagulant effects on electrical charge per

liter needed for maximal NOM removal from mechanical water.
This can lead to smaller equipment and lower investment cost.

Combining of EC and chemical coagulation can lead to better

removal of NOM and better water quality. PAC addition lowers
pH and EC raise pH and thus the need for pH adjustment
chemicals is lowered.

Fastest reduction in apparent color and permanganate index is

achieved in highest current density, on the other hand best
current efficiency is realized when smallest current density was
used.
 Case: Mobilization and
accumulation of metals at water-
sediment interface by
electrochemically initiated
processes
Introduction

Electrochemical methods – capable to mobilize or

accumulate the contaminants at the water- sediment
interface

The study on the mobilization and accumulation of some

heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb & Zn) and the
metalloid As at the sediment-water interface with different
positions of electrodes, different voltages, counter anode and
a layer of CaCO3
Methodology
+ -
•Naturally polluted sediment
DC controller from the river Weiße Elster
(1200g), 20% of total volume
sampling pipes
with Pt -wires
pressure stabilization • Tap water of Dresden, 80% of
total volume
measuring points I,II
aqueous phase • Coverage area by electrodes
cathode - (Poly ethylene with carbon):
sampling about 20%
sediment -water interface anode + •Electrodes apart in all cases:
8cm
sediment core
dimensions of the tube :
diameter : 12 cm
height : 60 cm
depth of sediment : 12 cm
 Electrodes Arrangement
A B C D

Schematic diagram showing different positions and conditions of electrodes (A: a reference
column, B: anode at the surface of the sediment, C: anode 4 cm below the surface of the
sediment used for various voltages, D: cathode at the surface of the sediment)
Initial Equilibrium stage After 415 days

Col-1 RC
Col-2
Col-2 Col-1
RC

A
C

RC: Reference column without voltage supply

Col-1: Anode at the sediment
Col-2: Cathode at the sediment
 Results
300 100 U= 0V (I) U= 3V (II) U= 0V(III) 14
U= 0V (I) U= 3V (II) U= 0V(III)
10 90 13
250
80 12
8
70
200 11

Cr [µg/L]

Cr [µg/L]

pH
60

-
6 10

pH
150 50

-
a 40 b 9
4

+
100 8
30

+
20 7
50 2
10 6
0 0 0 5
0 4 10 36 39 48 67 76 91 105 121 136 151 169 181 0 4 10 36 39 48 67 76 91 105 121 136 151 169 181
Time (days) Time (days)

U= 0V (I) 10
140 U= 3V (II) U= 0V(III) 100 U= 0V (I) U= 3V (II) U= 0V(III) 14
9
90 13
120 8
80 12
7
100 70
Cr [µg/L]

11
6

Cr [µg/L]
60

pH
80 10

pH
5 50 d
60 c 4 40
9

3 8
30
40

+ -
2 20 7
20 10 6
1

- 0
0 4 10 36 39 48 67 76 91
0
105 121 136 151 169 181
0
0 4 10 36 39 48 67 76 91
5
105 121 136 151 169 181 +
Time (days)
Time (days) Conc. (Reference Column) Conc. (Experimental Column)
pH (Reference Column) pH (Experimental Column)

Figure1. Temporal changes in total Cr concentration and pH values in sediment-water interface in

the experimental column (with U = 3 V/without voltage) and in the reference column[a: anode at
the interface and cathode in aqueous phase, b: cathode at and anode 8 cm below the interface,
c: anode 4 cm above and cathode 4 cm below the interface and d: cathode 4 cm above and
anode 4 cm below the interface]

Anode has positive charge

Case: Electrokinetic and Ultrasonic
Treatment of POPs Contamination in
Clayey Soil
Introduction

Soil contamination is critical as a threat to health through

food system and ground water.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are of particular concern
because of their long life-time and toxicity.
Electrokinetics can improve mobility in clayey (low
permeable) soil treatment.
Sonochemistry in soil remediation is a new and promising
technology.

Aim of the research is to study the removal of POPs from

clayey soil by ultrasonically enhanced electrokinetics
remediation.
Methodology

Fig.1. Experimental setups: Ultrasonic (US) test, Electrokinetics (EK) test,

Ultrasonically enhanced Electrokinetics (EK+US) test
Conclusions

Although Electrokinetics or Ultrasonication has the potential to

reduce the concentrations of POPs in clayey soil, the removal
efficiencies were not high enough to make them a single treatment
method alone.

Surfactant enhanced electrokinetics can improve the mobility of

hydrophobic organic compounds, while ultrasonication can
degrade these POPs through oxidation by free radicals. Thus, the
combination of the two gave better performance.
Case: Removal of water in sludge by
using electrodewatering
Introduction

High water content in waste sludge from wastewater treatment

plants is related to increase in transport and handling cost.
Water in sludge can be divided into four different types
including; free water, Interstitial water, surface water,
intracellular water.
Conventional mechanical techniques such as centrifuge,
vacuum, belt pressure filter are only removing free water and
Interstitial water
By application of electrical field to the sludge cake, results in
an increased water removal
 Anode
+

Powe r supply

Cathode
- Sludge

Sand bed

Gravel bed

Dewater

Schematic representation of the laboratory scale electro-dewatering

reactors are shown in pictures, constant voltage was apply in all
experiments.
Results
60

50
By anode
Solid Content (%)

40
Sludge cake
30 By cathode

20

10

0
Blank 3V 5V 10V 15V 20V 30V

Solid content of sludge cake, at anode and cathode by using

electro dewatering at differed voltage application
Results
250

200
5V
Dewatering rate (l/m2.d)

10V
150 15V
20V
100 30V

50

0
0 1 2 3 4
Tim e (d)

Water removal rate function of time during electro dewatering

at different voltage application
 Results
10 Raw 20
Raw
9 Raw + Alk 18
Raw + Alk
r e m o v e w a te r r a te ( l/m 2 .h )

8 Anaerobic 16

R e m o v e w a t e r r a t e ( l/ m 2 )
Anaerobic
7 14
6 12
5 10
4 8
3 6
2 4
1 2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

At the anode At the

cathode

The water remove rate as function of time at the anode and the cathode
during pressure electro dewatering using different types of sludge
Conclusions

Applying electricity increases the solid content in the final sludge

cake in comparison to blank experiment

In non-pressure electrodewatering, increasing the electrical field

does not always result in dryer sludge cake. However, increasing
electrical field was also related to higher maximum dewatering rate
and shorter electrical application time.
Summary
Electrochemical methods are generally cost-efficient and environmentally
benign purification processes (less chemicals needed)
Enhancement of the methods are often related to the material development
(novel electrodes)
Optimization of the treatment is highly important and especially pH effects
significantly on the most of the processes
Especially desalination could become much cheaper in the future by utilizing
electrochemical methods

New book: Electrochemical Water Treatment Methods, 1st Edition,

Fundamentals, Methods and Full Scale Applications, Authors: Mika Sillanpää
Marina Shestakova
https://www.elsevier.com/books/electrochemical-water-treatment-
methods/sillanpaa/978-0-12-811462-9

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