EXP: 1 DATE:

FOILS

Introduction:

In the marine environment, foils are used extensively. Some examples are propeller and

turbine blades, rudders, yacht keels, fin stabilizers, some ride-control devices, hydrofoils and

yacht sails. The foils are basically designed to produce a large lift force whilst having a low

drag. The efficiency of a foil is often characterised by its lift to drag ratio. Lift and Drag are

often characterized through non-dimensional coefficients.

The key parameters defining the geometry of the foil include the chord, the span, and the

thickness. These are often expressed in terms of ratios, such as the thickness/chord ratio and

the aspect ratio. For a foil of rectangular profile shape such as those used here, the aspect ratio

is simply the span/chord ratio.

The aspect ratio is extremely important in determining the drag of a foil when lift is generated.

According to a simple theory, for a foil in an unbounded fluid one component of the drag called

induced drag is proportional to the square of the lift and inversely proportional to the aspect

ratio.

As the angle of attack of the foil increases, the lift force and the drag forces both increase.

The lift to drag ratio will start to reduce at a moderate angle of attack, however the lift

coefficient will continue to increase with angle of attack.

When the angle becomes too large then the flow starts to separate on one surface, the lift force

levels off, then reduces, and the drag increases rapidly, Hence the lift to drag ratio reduces

dramatically. In this condition we say the foil has stalled. This is a condition we try to avoid.

A good foil design will have good stall characteristics. It may require a large angle of attack to

produce stall and the foil will stall gradually with increasing angle of attack

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Objective:

 To measure the drag and lift forces of a lifting surface (foil) at different speeds and

angles of attack

 To calculate the drag and lift coefficients

 To determine the stall angle for the foil section

 To examine the effect of aspect ratio on foil performance

Procedure:

 The span and chord is recorded

 Make sure the value is zero before test is run

 The towing carriage for the conditions given in the lab sheet is run

 The resulting lift and drag forces is measure and record on the computer

 Do wait for water to calm between runs

Method of analysis (foil 1 and 2)

Profile area, aspect ratio (for each foil), drag and lift coefficients (for all runs) are calculated

Profile area = Draught x chord

𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕
Aspect ratio = 𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒅

𝑳
Drag coefficient, CD = 𝟏
𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑨
𝟐

𝑫
Lift coefficient, CL = 𝟏
𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑨
𝟐

Lift and drag coefficients against angle of attack for all the 0.75 m/s runs are plotted.

Based from the diagram it can be said that the lift and drag coefficient vary significantly with
speed.

The angle at which lift to drag ratio is maximum is determine from the graph with reference to
this following formula

Lift to Drag = L/D = CL / CD

The approximate stall angle for the foils is estimated from the plotted diagram.

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The effect of aspect ratio on stall angle

2nd Diagram

Comment on the effect of aspect ratio on this graph.

3rd diagram

Comment on the effect of speed on the coefficients

Data, Diagrams and Results

Foil 1 (tested)

FOIL SPAN 0.314 CHORD 0.124

1 Profile Area 0.0389 Aspect ratio 2.5323

Lift
Angle of Drag Lift to
Run Foil Speed Forc CL CD CL^2
attack Force Drag
e
-
1 1 0.75 0.00
0.041 0.299
2 1 0.75 3.00 2.751 0.410
3 1 0.75 6.00 5.098 0.615
4 1 0.75 9.00 3.489 0.436
5 1 0.75 12.00 2.059 0.262
6 1 0.75 15.00 7.200 0.920
7 1 0.75 18.00 8.706 1.390
8 1 0.75 24.00 9.897 1.751
9 1 0.50 6.00 9.275 3.402
10 1 0.63 6.00 9.620 5.020
11 1 1.00 6.00 9.250 5.489

CL vs Angle of attack
1.0000
0.8000
Lift coefficients

0.6000
0.4000
Series1
0.2000
0.0000
-0.2000 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Angle of attack

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The graph decreases almost exponentially as the angle of attack increases and the value of lift
coefficients decreases (negative value). However, from the graph it can be seen that there is a
stall around 12 to 18 degrees. At an angle of attack larger than 13 degrees, CL start to increase
in positive direction.

CD vs Angle of attack
0.2000
Drag coefficient

0.1500
0.1000
0.0500 Series1
0.0000
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Angle ofattack

The diagram above shows the drag coefficient against the angle of attack at a constant speed
which is 0.75 m/s. The graph increases almost exponentially as both value of drag coefficient
and the angle of attack increases. However, from the graph it can be seen that there is a stall
around 12-18 degrees.

Hence, it can be said that the lift (negatively) and drag coefficients (positively) do vary
significantly with speed (constant). The drag increases rapidly after 13o angle of attack because
the water hit on the foil body area bigger than previous angle of attacks which explains the
stall. Due to the foil design acting as ship’s rudder, the ship speed will reduced in speed during
her voyage when turning of the rudder reaches after 13o will outcome large increase in drag
force. If a larger aspect ratio is used, the stall angle will occur at the same range of angle of
attack but at higher drag and lift coefficients.

Lift to drag ratio vs Angle of attack

8.0000

6.0000
Lift to drag ratio

4.0000

2.0000
Series1
0.0000
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
-2.0000

-4.0000
Angle of attack

The graph above is plotted to determine the angle of maximum lift to drag ratio. From the
graph, the maximum lift to drag ratio occurs at about 7 degree. Ship with rudder delivering

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high lift with minimum drag will be able to save more fuel and performs better while
manoeuvring.

CD vs CL^2
0.2000

0.1500
CD

0.1000
Series1
0.0500

0.0000
0.0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000
CL^2

The graph above shows the drag coefficients against the square of the lift coefficient for runs
1, 2, 3 and 6. Drag coefficient increases linearly with lift coefficient. Drag coefficient is plotted
against square of lift coefficient to observe the outcome when the angle of attack is increase
after stalling occurs. Hence, drag coefficient increases proportionally with the square of the lift
coefficient.

Foil 2:

FOIL SPAN 0.244 CHORD 0.168

2 Profile Area 0.0410 Aspect ratio 1.4524

Angle of Lift Drag Lift to

CL^2
Run Foil Speed attack Force Force CL CD Drag
1 2 0.75 0 0.634 0.283
2 2 0.75 3 2.049 0.403
3 2 0.75 6 3.222 0.583
4 2 0.75 9 2.114 0.376
5 2 0.75 12 1.327 0.221
6 2 0.75 15 4.193 0.814
7 2 0.75 18 5.049 1.099
8 2 0.75 24 5.628 0.652
9 2 0.50 6 6.048 2.501
10 2 0.63 6 6.376 3.200
11 2 1.00 6 6.567 3.719

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CL vs Angle of attack
0.6000
0.5000
Lift coefficients 0.4000
0.3000
0.2000 Series1
0.1000
0.0000
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Angle of attack

The graph decreases almost exponentially as the angle of attack increases and the value of lift
coefficients decreases (negative value). However, from the graph it can be seen that there is a
stall around 12-18degrees.

CD vs Angle of attack
0.1200
0.1000
Drag coefficient

0.0800
0.0600
0.0400 Series1
0.0200
0.0000
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Angle of attack

The graph increases almost linearly until 6 degrees, and star to behave exponentially as both
value of drag coefficient and the angle of attack increases. However, from the graph it can be
seen that there is a stall around 12-18 degrees. Drag coefficient starts to decrease at angle more
than 18 degrees.

Hence, it can be said that the lift (negatively) and drag coefficients (positively) do vary
significantly with speed (constant). The drag increases rapidly after 12o angle of attack because
the water hit on the foil body area bigger than previous angle of attacks which explains the
stall. Due to the foil design acting as ship’s rudder, the ship speed will reduced in speed during
voyage when turning of the rudder reaches after 13o will outcome large increase in drag force.
If a larger aspect ratio is used, the stall angle will occur at the same range of angle of attack but
at higher drag and lift coefficients.

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Lift to drag ratio vs Angle of

attack
10.0000
9.0000
Lift to drag ratio 8.0000
7.0000
6.0000
5.0000
4.0000 Series1
3.0000
2.0000
1.0000
0.0000
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00
Angle of attack

The graph above is plotted to determine the angle of maximum lift to drag ratio. From the
graph, the maximum lift to drag ratio occurs at about 12 degree. Ship with rudder delivering
high lift with minimum drag will be able to save more fuel and performs better while
manoeuvring.

CD vs CL^2
0.1400

0.1200

0.1000

0.0800
CD

0.0600
Series1
0.0400

0.0200

0.0000
0.0000 0.5000 1.0000
CL^2

The graph above shows the drag coefficients against the square of the lift coefficient for runs
1, 2, 3 and 6. Drag coefficient increases linearly with lift coefficient. Drag coefficient is plotted
against square of lift coefficient to observe the outcome when the angle of attack is increase
after stalling occurs. Hence, drag coefficient increases proportionally with the square of the lift
coefficient.

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Run 3, 4 and 5 only

CL vs Speed
1.4000
1.2000
1.0000
0.8000
CL

0.6000
Series1
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
Speed

The graph shows the relationship between lift coefficient and speed at an same angle of
attack. The lift coefficient decrease (in negative prospective view) rapidly when speed passes
the range of 0.8 m/s causing a stall. The principal is to give a brief idea on the relationship of
the propeller revolutions per minute (speed) and the lift force. Theoretically, the rudder will be
easier to manoeuvre when ship accelerating from 0.8 m/s onwards.

CD vs Speed
0.0500
0.0450
0.0400
0.0350
0.0300
CD

0.0250 0.50
0.0200 0.63
0.0150
1.00
0.0100
0.0050
0.0000
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
Speed

The graph above shows the relationship between the drag coefficient and speed at an angle
of attack of 6 degrees. As observed, the drag coefficient increases almost linearly with speed
at this angle. Hence it can be said that when speed increases, the drag coefficient increases
since drag coefficient is proportional to the speed of the foil at a certain angle.

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Discussion:

The stability of passenger ship is very important; hence it does not require big wetted surface
of rudder since it is stabilised by other means of equipments and load distribution. Unlike
racing yacht, passenger ship moves almost in on straight line meaning that a change in direction
is made from long distance and period meaning that no quick/sharp turning/change in direction
like the racing yacht is applied. However, it is useful to have less wetted surface area for
passenger ship to minimise drag and able to save fuel. With higher drag, passenger ship will
require more fuel in the case of the ship slowing down due to drag or when accelerating
(overcome drag). However, low aspect ratio for the rudder is used for passenger ship due to
main stability factors which applies to the comfort and safety of the passenger during the
voyage.

For racing yacht, having a large wetted surface area of the rudder is practical for
manoeuvring purposes. Fully immersed rudder will also provide high lift and stability
(reducing rolling movement while cornering) although there is a side effect of higher drag.
Hence, high aspect ratio for the rudder is used for high performance racing yacht where speed
and manoeuvring factors are extremely crucial.

The rudder profile determines the lift and drag of a rudder whether it is a high-lift rudder or
a (more economical) standard profile, a special profile to prevent cavitations, speed
improvements, fuel saving or navigation in extreme locations. Rudder blade should be design
for cavitation-free operation with good structural characteristic and low drag properties.
Cavitation can cause an increase in rudder drag, ship hull vibration and radiated noise.