Mobile Wireless Sensor NW 2012 Eca 1079 PDF

MOBILE WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
A MAJOR SEMINAR REPORT
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement

For the Award of Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Electronics & Communication Engineering)
SUBMITTED TO
Prof Ravinder Singh Sawhney
SUBMITTED BY
ASHWANI YADAV
2012 ECA 1079
November 2015
GURU NANAK DEV UNIVERSITY, AMRITSAR, PUNJAB
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Contents
Acknowledgement
Declaration
Contents
abstract
Introduction 7
Wireless vs wired network 7
Advantages
Disadvantages………………………………………………………………………………….…… ….7-
10
Infrastructured verus infrastructureless network………………………….…………..10
What is ad-hoc network 11
MANET 12
Wireless Sensor Networks 13
A SENSOR NODE 14
Sensor node hardware 15
Sensing and Communication Range of a sensor node 16
Regularly placed sensors 18
Randomly distributed sensors 20
Mobile Sensors 21
Applications 23
MANET Features 31
Geographical Routing Protocols 33
ROUTING PROTOCOLS 36
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21
MWSN Routing 37
Dsdv 42
Distance vector routing 40
LSR – Link state routing 46
OLSR - OPTIMISED LINK STATE ROUTING 48
DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING 51
AODV 57
GEAR Geographical energy aware routing 58
DREAM Geographical Adaptive Fidelity 60
FACE ROUTING 64
Mobility aware routing 65
Geographic Robust Clustering 66
HEED LEACH SPIN 67
DECA distributed efficient clustering 68
Distributed Efficient Multi-hop Clustering 69
Bibliography 70
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Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those

who gave me opportunity to explore one topic related to my
course.
First, I would like to thank my supervisors,
PROF Ravinder sawhney, who inspired me to work on
“MOBILE WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS and it’s
routing”, his stimulating suggestions and Encouragement,
helped me to coordinate my report.
I appreciate your support and contributions during my countless
supervision meetings.
I would also like to thank my second supervisor, Dr. M L Singh
(Officer on Special Duty) for great advice during the process
and for supporting all my eccentric ideas.
Lastly, I would like to especially thank my friends who gave me
their very important time for discussions and motivation.
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Declaration
I hereby declare that all the information and data mentioned in
this report is true and correct to the best of my knowledge.
Date:
Place – Amritsar ASHWANI YADAV
Signature of Supervisor Signatures of Students
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4. Abstract
In the near future, a pervasive computing environment can be expected
based on the recent progresses and advances in computing and
communication technologies. Next generation of mobile communication
will include both popular infrastructure wireless networks and novel
infrastructure less mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs).
A MANET is a collection of wireless nodes that can dynamically form a
network to exchange information without using any pre-existing fixed
network infrastructure. Wireless ad-hoc networks are increasingly being
used in the battlefield, emergency search, and rescue missions. The special
features of MANET bring great opportunities together with severe
challenges.
This report describes the concept, features, status, applications and
fundamental problems of ad hoc networking. Special attention is paid on
network layer routing strategy and intrusion detection in MANETs. Some of
the technical challenges MANET poses are also presented based on which
the report points out the related kernel barrier. Some of the key research
issues for ad hoc networking technology are discussed in detail that are
expected to promote the development and accelerate the commercial
applications of the MANET technology.
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What is network
A Network is defined as the group of people or systems or organizations who tend to share
their information collectively for their business purpose. In Computer terminology the
definition for networks is similar as a group of computers logically connected for the sharing of
information or services (like print services, multi-tasking, etc.).
Initially Computer networks were started as a necessity for sharing files and printers but later
this has moved from that particular job of file and printer sharing to application sharing and
business logic sharing. These networks may be fixed (cabled, permanent) or temporary. A
network can be characterized as wired or wireless. Wireless can be distinguished from wired as
no physical connectivity between nodes are needed.
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4. Introduction
Our future living environments are likely to be based upon information
resources provided by the connections of various communication
networks for users. New small devices like Personal Digital Assistants
(PDAs), mobile phones, and laptops enhance the information
processing and accessing capabilities with mobility. To cater the needs
of such devices, modern technologies should adopt new model of
pervasive computing including new architectures, standards, devices,
services, tools and protocols.
Mobile computing is the one of the most important technology

supporting pervasive computing. Advances in both hardware and
software techniques have enabled the spread of mobile hosts and
wireless networking to masses. Generally, there are two modes in
which wireless mobile nodes can communicate:
Wireless vs wired network

WIRED NETWORKS
Wired network are differentiated from wireless as being wired from point to
point. These networks are generally connected with the help of wires and cables.
Generally the cables being used in this type of networks are CAT5 or CAT6 cables.
The connection is usually established with the help of physical devices like
Switches and Hubs in between to increase the strength of the connection. These
networks are usually more efficient, less expensive and much faster than wireless
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networks. Once the connection is set there is a very little chance of

getting disconnected.
ADVANTAGES
 A wired network offer connection speeds of 100Mbps to

1000Mbps
 Physical, fixed wired connections are not prone to interference

and fluctuations in
 Available bandwidth, which can affect some wireless networking

connections.
DISADVANTAGES OVER WIRELESS NETWORKS
 Expensive to maintain the network due to many cables between

computer systems and
 Even if a failure in the cables occur then it will be very hard to

replace that particular cable as it involved more and more costs.
 When using a laptop which is required to be connected to the

network, a wired network will limit the logical reason of
purchasing a laptop in the first place.
 Wireless networks use some sort of radio frequencies in air to

transmit and receive data instead of using some physical cables.
The most admiring fact in these networks is that it eliminate the
need for laying out expensive cables and maintenance costs.
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Infrastructured vs Infrastructure less
1. Infrastructured
Infrastructure
less
In this mode, all the communication among the mobile nodes goes
through a base station. A Base station is also known as access point.
These base stations are connected to the fixed infrastructure or wired
networks.
2. Infrastructure less:
In infrastructure less mode we have is a collection of wireless nodes
that can dynamically form a network to exchange information without
using any pre-existing fixed network infrastructure. This is a very
important part of communication technology that supports truly
pervasive computing
A typical example of this mode of communication is people sitting in

the conference room and exchanging data among them without any
fixed infrastructure.
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What is an Ad hoc Network?

❒ A collection of two or more devices equipped with wireless
communications and networking capability
❒ A network without any base stations “infrastructure-less” or multi-

hop
❒ Supports anytime and anywhere computing
❒ Two topologies:
❍ Heterogeneous (left)
• Differences in capabilities
❍ Homogeneous or fully
• all nodes have identical capabilities
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MANET
MANET Concept
A mobile ad hoc network is a collection of wireless nodes that can

dynamically be set up anywhere and anytime without using any pre-
existing network infrastructure. It is an autonomous system in which
mobile hosts connected by wireless links are free to move randomly. In
MANET, nodes act both as host and routers. The traffic types in ad hoc
networks are quite different from those in an infrastructured wireless
network, including:
1. Peer-to-Peer: Communication between two nodes, which are within

one hop.
2. Remote-to-Remote: Communication between two nodes beyond a

single hop but which maintain a stable route between them. This may
be the result of several nodes staying within communication range of
each other in a single area or possibly moving as a group. The traffic is
similar to standard network traffic.
3. Dynamic Traffic: This occurs when nodes are dynamic and moving
around. Routes must be reconstructed. This results in a poor
connectivity and network activity in short bursts.
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What is WSN?
Architecture and working of sensor network“ A wireless sensor network
(WSN) is a network made of numerous small independent sensor
nodes. The sensor nodes, typically the size of a 35 mm, are self-
contained units consisting of a battery, radio, sensors, and a minimal
amount of on-board computing power. The nodes self-organize their
networks, rather than having a pre-programmed network topology.
Because of the limited electrical power available, nodes are built with
power conservation in mind, and generally spend large amounts.”
sensor network.
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A SENSOR NODE
A sensor node can be thought of a combination of Transceiver and
Transducer it senses and performs following operations with sensory
information
1.) processing
2.) gathering
3. )communicating
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SENSOR NODE hardware
Microcontroller
Contains CPU, Memory and Peripherals on same chip
Typically 8-bit or 16-bit
Operate at less than 20MHz
Memory less than 128kB
Low power consumption to ensure long run times
Radio Transceiver
Typically operate in the ISM bands
Use various modulation techniques (QPSK, BFSK, GFSK )
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Low Output Power 0dBm or 1mw
Low Range around 10-300 feet
Sensor
Temperature
Humidity
Atmospheric Pressure
Strain
Power Supply
Sensing and Communication Range of a sensor node
 A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of a large number of

sensor nodes (SNs)
 Adequate density of sensors is required so as to avoid any

unsensed area
 Rectangular block shows the area to be sensed
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 If N SNs are put in an area A, then the SNs density  can be

given by N/A The sensing range of each sensor is rs
 To cover the whole space, adjacent SNs need to be located at

most at a distance of 2rs from each other
If the SNs are uniformly distributed with the node density of

 , the probability that there are m SNs within the space of
S is Poisson distributed as (  S ) m  S
P ( m)  e
m!
where space S  rs2 for two dimensional spaces

 This gives the probability that the monitored space is not covered
by any SN and hence the probability pcover of the coverage by at
least one SN is:
 S
p cov er  1  P(0)  1  e
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 Transmission between adjacent SNs is feasible if there is at least

one SN within the communication range of each SN Not just the
sensing coverage, but the communication connectivity is equally
important
 The wireless communication coverage of a sensor must be at least

twice the sensing distance. Data from a single SN is not adequate
to make any useful decision and need to be collected from a set of
SNs
Regularly placed sensors
A simple strategy is to place the

sensors in the form of two-
dimensional grid as such cross-point
and such configuration may be very
useful for uniform coverage
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Such symmetric placement allows

best possible regular coverage and
easy clustering of the close-by SNs
Three such examples of SNs in

rectangular, triangular and hexagonal
tiles of clusters are shown
Distance Between Sensing Area to be Total sensing area

Placement
Adjacent Sensors covered by each sensor covered by N-Sensors
Rectangular r r2 N .r 2
3 2 3 2
Triangular r r N. r
4 4
3 3 2 3 3 2
Hexagon r r N. r
4 4
Randomly distributed sensors

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The sensors could also be used in an unknown territory or inaccessible

area by deploying them from a low flying airplane or unmanned
ground/aerial vehicle SNs have to find themselves who their
communicating neighbors are and how many of them are present
The adjacency among SNs can be initially determined by sending

bacon signals as is done in a typical ad hoc network (MANET). The
communication range of associated wireless radio should be such that
the SNs could be connected together to form a WSN. Distribution of
the SNs and their sensing range would also determine if the physical
parameter in the complete deployed area can be sensed by at least one
SN
The sensing and communication ranges required in a randomly placed

sensor are governed by the maximum distance to be covered by any
one of the sensors in the given area If the N-nodes are uniformly
distributed in an area A=LxL, then the node density can be
given by.   N/A
The probability that there are m nodes within the area S, is Poisson
distributed and can be given by :
(  S ) m  S
P ( m)  e
m!
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Mobile Sensors
The enhancements in the field of robotics are paving the way for
industrial robots to be applied to a wider range of tasks. However,
harnessing their full efficiency also depends on how accurately they
understand their environment Thus, as sensor networks are the
primary choice for environmental sensing, combining sensor networks
with mobile robots is a natural and very promising application Robots
could play a major role of high-speed resource carriers in defense and
military applications where human time and life is very precious Other
applications include fire fighting, autonomous waste disposal
Thus, we see that there are a number of future applications where

sensors and robots could work together through some form of
cooperation Sensors detect events autonomously and the mobile
robots could take appropriate actions based on the nature of the event
Coordination between the mobile robots is obviously critical in
achieving better resource distribution and information retrieval Mobile
sensor Networks have been suggested to cover the area not reachable
by static sensors
Coordination between multiple robots for resource transportation has

been explored for quite some time now. Transporting various types of
resources for different applications like defense, manufacturing
process, and so on, has been suggested
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In these schemes, time taken to detect an event depends entirely on

the trail followed by the robots. Though the path progressively gets
better with the use of an ant-like type of algorithm, the whole process
has to be started anew when the position of the event changes
In terrains where human ingress is difficult, mobile robots can be used

to imitate the human’s chore Typical resource-carrying robots are
depicted in Figure 8.12 which depicts a possible means of a robot
transferring its resources to others. Once depleted of their resource,
they may get themselves refilled from the sink
The resource in demand could be water or sand (to extinguish fire),

oxygen supply, medicines, bullets, clothes or chemicals to neutralize
hazardous wastes, and so on The target region that is in need of these
resources is sometimes called an event location
Whether it is a sensor or another robot within collision distance, it is

considered an obstacle and the robot proceeds in a direction away
from it
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Applications
Thousands of sensors over strategic locations are used in a
structure such as an automobile or an airplane, so that
conditions can be constantly monitored both from the inside
and the outside and a real-time warning can be issued
whenever a major problem is forthcoming in the monitored
entity. These wired sensors are large (and expensive) to cover
as much area is desirable. Each of these need a continuous
power supply and communicates their data to the end-user
using a wired network
The organization of such a network should be pre-planned to

find strategic position to place these nodes and then should be
installed appropriately. The failure of a single node might bring
down the whole network or leave that region completely un-
monitored. Thousands of sensors over strategic locations are
used in a structure such as an automobile or an airplane, so
that conditions can be constantly monitored both from the
inside and the outside and a real-time warning can be
issued whenever a major problem is forthcoming in the
monitored entity
These wired sensors are large (and expensive) to cover as much area is
desirable. Each of these need a continuous power supply and
communicates their data to the end-user using a wired network.
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The organization of such a network should be pre-planned to find

strategic position to place these nodes and then should be installed
appropriately. The failure of a single node might bring down the whole
network or leave that region completely un-monitored. Unattend
ability and some degree of fault tolerance in these networks are
desirable in those applications where the sensors may be embedded in
the structure or places in an inhospitable terrain and could be
inaccessible for any service. Undoubtedly, wireless sensor networks
have been conceived with military applications in mind, including
battlefield surveillance and tracking of enemy activities.
However, civil applications considerably outnumber the military ones
and are applicable to many practical situations. Judging by the interest
shown by military, academia, and the media, innumerable applications
do exist for sensor networks
Examples include weather monitoring, security and tactical
surveillance, distributed computing, fault detection and diagnosis in
machinery, large bridges and tall structures, detecting ambient
conditions such as temperature, movement, sound, light, radiation,
vibration, smoke, gases, or the presence of certain biological and
chemical objects. Under the civil category, envisioned applications can
be classified into environment observation and forecast system,
habitat monitoring equipment and human health, large structures and
other commercial applications
 A prototype test bed consisting of iPAQs/PDAs (i.e., a type of
handheld device) has been built to evaluate the performance of
these target classification and localization methods. As expected,
energy efficiency is one of the design goals at every level:
hardware, local processing (compressing, filtering, etc.), MAC and
topology control, data aggregation, data-centric routing and
storage
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 Preprocessing is proposed in for habitat monitoring applications,

where it is argued that the tiered network in GDI is solely used for
communication. The proposed 2-tier network architecture
consists of micro nodes and macro nodes, wherein the micro
nodes perform local filtering and data to significantly reduce the
amount of data transmitted to macro nodes and micro nodes.
Habitat Monitoring
 Researchers from the University of California at Berkeley and
Intel Research Laboratory deployed in August 2002 a mote-based
tiered sensor network in Great Duck Island (GDI), Maine, aimed at
monitoring the behavior of storm petrel
 The overall system architecture is depicted in Figure. A total of

32 motes have been placed in the area to be sensed grouped into
sensor patches to transmit sensed data to a gateway which is
responsible for forwarding the information from the sensor patch
to a remote base station through a local transit network
 The base station then provides data logging and replicates the
data every 15 minutes to a database in Berkeley over a satellite
link. Remote users can access the replica database server in
Berkeley, while local users make use of a small PDA-size device to
perform local interactions such as adjusting the sampling rates,
power management parameters, etc.
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Sensor Node Patch

Network
Gateway
Transit
Network
Client Data Base station
Browsing and
Base-Remote
Processing
Link
Internet
Data Service
2. Remote Ecological Micro-Sensor Network

 PODS is a research project undertaken at the University of Hawaii
that has built a wireless network of environmental sensors to
investigate why endangered species of plants will grow in one
area but not in neighboring areas
 They deployed camouflaged sensor nodes, (called PODS), in the
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. The PODS consist of a computer,
radio transceiver and environmental sensors, sometimes including
a high resolution digital camera, relaying sensed data via wireless
link back to the Internet
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 Bluetooth and 802.11b are chosen as the MAC layer, while data
packets are delivered through the IP. In PODS, energy efficiency is
identified as one of the design goals and an ad hoc routing
protocols called Multi-Path On-demand Routing (MOR) has been
developed
 Weather data are collected every ten minutes and image data are
collected once per hour. Users employ the Internet to access the
data from a server in University of Hawaii at Manoa. The
placement strategy for the sensor nodes is then investigated
Topologies of 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional regions such as
triangle tile, square tile, hexagon tile, ring, star, and linear are
discussed
 The sensor placement strategy evaluation is based on three goals:

resilience to single point of failure, the area of interest has to be
covered by at lease one sensor, and minimum number of nodes.
Environmental Monitoring Application

 Sensors to monitor landfill and the air quality
 Household solid waste and non-hazardous industrial waste such
as construction debris and sewer sludge are being disposed off by
using over 6000 landfills in USA and associated organic
components undergo biological and chemical reaction such as
fermentation, biodegradation and oxidation-reduction
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 This causes harmful gases like methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen,

sulfide compounds and ammonia to be produced and migration of
gases in the landfill causes physical reactions which eventually
lead to ozone gases, a primary air pollutant and an irritant to our
respiratory systems
 The current method of monitoring landfill employs periodic
drilling of collection well, collecting gas samples in airtight bags
and analyze off-site, making the process very time consuming
Health Care Monitoring

 Telemonitoring of human physiological data, tracking and
monitoring of doctors and patients inside a hospital, drug
administrator in hospitals, …
 An example: Artificial retina developed within the Smart Sensors
and Integrated Microsystems (SSIM) project
 A retina prosthesis chip consisting of one hundred microsensors
are built and implanted within the human eye, allowing patients
with no vision or limited vision to see at an acceptable level.
Wireless communication is required to suit the need for feedback
control, image identification and validation
Building, Bridge and Structural Monitoring

 Projects have explored the use of sensors in monitoring the health
of buildings, bridges and highways. A Bluetooth based scatter net
has been proposed to monitor stress, vibration, temperature,
humidity etc. in civil infrastructures
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 Simulation results are given to justify effectiveness of their

solution by having a set of rectangular Bluetooth equipped sensor
grids to model a portion of bridge span
 Fiber optic based sensors have been proposed for monitoring
crack openings in concrete bridge decks, of strain and corrosion of
the reinforcement in concrete structures. Corrosion of steel bars
is measured by using special super glue and angular strain sensors
Body Area Network

 Specialized sensors and transducers are being developed to
measure human body characterizing parameters. There has been
increased interest in the biomedical area and numerous proposals
have recently been introduced
 Micro sensor array is used for artificial retina, glucose level
monitoring, organ monitors, cancer detectors and general health
monitoring. A wearable computing network has been suggested
to remotely monitor the progress of a physical therapy done at
home and an initial prototype has been developed using
electroluminescent strips indicating the range of human body’s
motion
 An indoor/outdoor wearable navigation system has been
suggested for blind and visually impaired people through vocal
interfaces about surrounding environment and changing the
mode from indoor to outdoor and vice-versa using simple vocal
command
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 Conclusions and Future Directions

 Sensor networks are perhaps one of the fastest growing areas in
the broad wireless ad hoc networking field. As, the research in
sensor networks is flourishing at a rapid pace and still there are
many challenges to be addressed such as:
 Energy Conservation - Nodes are battery powered with
limited resources while still having to perform basic
functions such as sensing, transmission and routing
 Sensing - Many new sensor transducers are being developed
to convert physical quantity to equivalent electrical signal
and many new development is anticipated
 Communication - Sensor networks are very bandwidth-
limited and how to optimize the use of the scarce resources
and how can sensor nodes minimize the amount of
communication
 Computation - Here, there are many open issues in what
regards signal processing algorithms and network protocols
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MANET Features
Autonomous terminal:
In MANET, each mobile host is autonomous node, which may
function as both a host and a router. In other words, besides the
basic processing ability as a host, the mobile nodes can also perform
switching functions as a router. So usually endpoints and switches
are indistinguishable in MANET.
Distributed operation:
Since there is no background network for the central control of the
network operations, the control and management of the network is
distributed among the terminals. The nodes involved in a MANET
should collaborate amongst themselves and each node acts as a
relay as needed, to implement functions e.g. security and routing.
Multi-hop routing:
Basic types of ad hoc routing algorithms can be single-hop and
multi-hop. Single-hop MANET is simpler than multi-hop in terms of
structure and implementation, with the cost of lesser functionality
and applicability. When delivering data packets from a source to its
destination out of the direct wireless transmission range, the packets
should be forwarded via one or more intermediate nodes.
Dynamic network topology:
Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change
rapidly and unpredictably and the connectivity among the terminals
may vary with time. MANET should adapt to the traffic and propagation
conditions as well as the mobility patterns of the mobile network
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nodes. The mobile nodes in the network dynamically establish routing

among themselves as they move about. Moreover, a user in the MANET
may not only operate within the ad hoc network
Energy-constrained operation:
Some or all of the nodes in a MANET may rely on batteries or other
means for their energy. Such devices need optimized algorithms and
mechanisms that implement the computing and communicating
functions.
Limited physical security:

MANETs are generally more prone to physical security threats than are
fixed cable networks. The increased possibility of eavesdropping,
spoofing and denial-of-service attacks should be carefully considered.
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ROUTING PROTOCOLS
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PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS
Proactive protocols are close to wired routing protocols in the manner
that the routing table is built before the data has to be sent. That
means these protocols are constantly making requests to their
neighbors in order to draw a network topology, and then, build the
routing table.
The disadvantage of this principle is to not be reactive to topology
changes, as the tables are pre established. At the time the data has to
be sent, it is not certain that the gateway designed by the routing table
will still be there to forward the data.
 Examples of Proactive MANET Protocols include:
Ø Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
Ø Fish-eye State Routing (FSR)
Ø Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)
REACTIVE
Reactive protocols are more specific to Ad Hoc networks. Contrary to

the proactive algorithm, they ask their neighbors for a route when they
have data to send. If the neighbors do not have any known route, they
broadcast the request, and so on. Once the final destination has been
reached by these broadcasts, an answer is built and forwarded back to
the source.
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This source can then transmit the data on the newly discovered route.
Each device used for forwarding the routing packets has learned the
route at the same time. The disadvantage of this design is the amount
of routing traffic exchanged between devices. In the case of a large
topology, the traffic will be spread on each link until the end node is
found. It also can result in a high latency.
This kind of protocols is usually based on flooding the network with
Route Request (RREQ) and Route reply (RERP) messages
Ø Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
Ø Dynamic Source routing protocol (DSR)
Ø Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA)
Ø Location-Aided Routing Protocol (LAR)
HYBRID PROTOCOLS
A Hybrid protocol will use the two above algorithms. The main goal is to
reduce broadcasts and latency, but improve the dynamism impact. The
whole network will be separated into logical zones, and each zone will
have a gateway. Inside each zone, a reactive protocol will be used. For
inter-zone routing, a proactive protocol will be used.
 Zone Routing Protocol, (ZRP)
 Wireless Ad hoc Routing Protocol, (WARP)
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Geographical Routing
Protocols
There are two approaches to geographic mobile ad hoc networks:
1. Actual geographic coordinates (as obtained through GPS – the Global
Positioning System).
2. Reference points in some fixed coordinate system.
 An advantage of geographic routing protocols [8] is that they
prevent network-wide searches for destinations. If the recent
geographical coordinates are known then control and data
packets can be sent in the general direction of the destination.
This trim downs control overhead in the network.
 A disadvantage is that all nodes must have access to their
geographical coordinates all the time to make the geographical
routing protocols useful. The routing updates must be done faster
in compare of the network mobility rate to consider the location-
based routing effective. This is because locations of nodes may
change quickly in a MANET. Examples of geographical routing
protocols are:
DREAM (Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility)
GPSR (Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing)
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MWSN Routing
As the features of mobile ad hoc networks ( to be used in mobile sensor
networks ) vary hugely with adhc networks , so we will now shift to
other routing protocols
 Earlier in ad hoc networks we were using
NON ADAPTIVE ROUTING TECHNIQUES
 While in MWSN we will use
ADAPTIVE ROUTING TECHNIQUES
Adaptive and Non-adaptive Routing
Adaptive routing: (fixed routing, dynamic routing)

Change their routing decisions to reflect changes in the topology and
traffic. Algorithms vary on how they get routing information, metrics
used, and when they change routes.
Non-adaptive routing (Fixed routing, static routing.)
Routing decision is based on pre-computed measurements or estimates
and do not update the table based on current traffic and topology
Routes are computed in advance, off-line, and downloaded to routers
when booted.
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Static Algorithms
(Non-Adaptive)
1. Shortest-path routing.
2. Flooding.
Dynamic Routing Algorithms
(Adaptive Routing)
1. Distance vector routing.

2. Link state routing.
Shortest-Path Routing
 Problem: Given a graph, where nodes represent routers and
edges, links, find shortest path between a given pair of nodes.
 What is shortest in shortest path?
 Depends on the routing metric in use.
 Example: number of hops (static), geographic distance
(static), delay, bandwidth (raw versus available),
combination of a subset of these.
 Dijkstra’s shortest-path algorithm.
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Flooding
Every incoming packet forwarded on every outgoing link except the one
it arrived on.
Problem: duplicates. Constraining the flood:
Hop count. Keep track of packets that have been flooded.
Robust, shortest delay (picks shortest path as one of the paths).
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DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING

Every node initially are unaware of other nodes they are aware only of
their neighbors so they share destination tables and hence aafter some
time every node will have knowledge about other node.
Each node constructs array containing the distances (costs) to all other
nodes and distributes that to immediate neighbors.
The initial assumption for DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING is that each
node know the cost of the link to each of its directly connected
neighbors.
A link that is down or not accesible is assigned infinite cost.
Let us assume a network

of three nodes A, B, C
In case link to node c get

failed then will set cost
of destination to c as
infinite
Page 40
but from table of A it will

notice that C ca be reached
through A, hence it will set
cost to destination D as 2+1 =
3 as A is 1-hop away from B.
Now when B will share it’s table

with A he will notice that C got
little away and it can be
reached through 3+1 = 4 hops
as C is accessible to B and B can
be reached from A with 1 hop
count.
And will share table with B, this

loop continues and they
increment to infinite.
Page 41
Page 42
Page 43
As soon as node C sense the failure of node D, it increases the destination

sequence to d from it’s table by 1. And it will immediately send it to his neighbor
B. B will sense that it is an update as the destination sequence for D is increased
by 1 hence it will delete entry of D from its table,
It will also increase the destination sequence number and will send it to his
neighbor A
Page 44
Link-State Routing Algorithm

In link state routing initially nodes are unaware of each other then they
send hello messages to each neighboring node in which they share
topology of network(their first hop neighbor)
Flooding mechanism is used to share topology that is when one node
broadcast the receiving node re broadcast the received packet.
Dijkstra’s algorithm is employed to get net topology. Focus is on cost,
state of link not on hop count. after k iterations, know least cost path to
k destinations.
Dijkstra’s Shortest-Path Algorithm

Initially, links are assigned costs.
As the algorithm executes, nodes are labeled with its distance to source
along best known path.
Initially, no routes known, so all nodes are labeled with infinity.
Labels change as the algorithm proceeds.
Labels can be temporary or permanent.
Initially all labels are tentative.
A label becomes permanent if it represents the shortest
path from the source to the node.
Page 45
PHASE-1. Packet flooding by node A
PHASE-2. Rebroadcast of packet by receiving nodes
PHASE-3. All nodes have topology of whole network
Page 46
1. In mobile sensors we have critical

battery constraint nd flooding
causes high battery consumption.
2. In LSR Link state advertisements

are flooded. Flooding cause
reception of multiple copies of
same LS advertisement, hence
inefficient use of bandwidth.
Page 47
OLSR - OPTIMISED LINK STATE ROUTING
1. It don’t use flooding mechanism and hence avoid unnecessary transmission

of link state packets.
2. Each node decide which of it’s neighbors can flood LS packets. These nodes
are known as MPR (Multi point Relay).
3. Only MPR can retransmit, other nodes can receive but they can’t
rebroadcast
4. There are three types of packets in OLSR
1. Hello packets
2. Topology Control Packets
3. MID packets
OLSR - Terminology
1. Any node which can be heard directly by node a is called

neighbor node of A or 1 hop neighbor.
Page 48
2. Node which can be heard by I hop neighbor
3. Node which can be heard by neighbor excluding node itself and

it’s neighbor
Page 49
MPR Selection
Select nodes from first hop which covers isolated points(nodes) of 2nd
hop
Nodes of N1 are to be selected which covers highest number of nodes

of 2nd hop and are not selected earlier.
Page 50
DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING

It is a reactive routing protocol,Used in mobile ad hoc networks
Let us assume here that source node ‘S’ want to send data to
destination node ’d’.
Phases in dynamic source routing

PHASE 1 - ROUTE DISCOVERY
Node will discover route when needed that is why also called as
reactive routing protocol. Source node (S here) will make RREQ route
request packet to find route to reach node d (destination).
RREQ packet will be broadcasted to neighbouring nodes in network
CONTENTS OF RREQ PACKET
Page 51
1. Unique id
2. A list of nodes
3. Source
4. destination
Source S have to send data to destination D. Node S will broadcast

RREQ to its neighbors. with unique id to that RREQ
Page 52
Node C also don’t know location of d so c will re-broadcast the packet

and register itself in list of nodes.
Page 53
Multiple broadcasting of same packet is avoided with help of unique id
Page 54
RREQ reaches node D which matches the destination Node D will RREP
route reply packet Path to reach S will be list of nodes as in received
packet
ROUTING CACHING may also be done by source node if this route need
to be used oftenly
Page 55
Whenever any link get broken the neighboring node will broadcast
route maintenance packet
When route maintenance packet reaches source node it deletes node D
from its stored route
Page 56
AODV
Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing Algorithm
1) AODV takes into account limited bandwidth and low battery life of
devices.
2) It is a on-demand algorithm; that is it determines a route to some
destination only when there is a demand to send a packed to a
destination.
3) Route Discovery
a. Ad-hoc network can be described by a graph of the nodes
(routers + hosts).
b. Two nodes are connected (depicted via an connecting arc in
the graph) if they can communicate directly using their
radios.
c. For simplicity connection is assumed symmetric (e.g., case
where node A has a more powerful transmitter then node B
Page 57
thus node A can communicate to B but not vice versa is not

considered).
AODV Algorithm
Scenario: A wants to send a packet to node I.
AODV algorithm maintains a table at each node keyed by destination giving

information about that destination including which neighboring node to send
packets to in order to reach the destination.
Suppose node A can not find the information about destination node I. Thus it
needs to discover a route to node I.
To locate an unknown node (I), source node A constructs a special ROUTE

REQUEST packet and broadcasts it.
The packed reaches A’s neighboring nodes B and D. B and D at this time are
directly communicating with A (as opposed to F for example).
Format of ROUTE REQUEST PACKET:
Source Request Destination Source Sequence Destination Hop Count

Address ID Address # Sequence #
Source and Destinations Address (typically IP address).
Request ID – local counter maintained separately by each node and

incremented each time a ROUTE REQUEST is broadcast.
Surce Address and Request ID uniquely identify the ROUTE REQUEST

packet. This allow nodes to discard any duplicate packets they may
receive.
Sequence Counters – Each node also maintains a second sequence

counter incremented whenever a ROUTE REQUEST is sent (or a reply to
Page 58
someone's else’s ROUTE REQUEST) . It is used to tell new routes form

old routes.
Hop Count – keeps track of how many hops the packet has made.
The Lifetime field controls how long the route is valid.
Route Maintenance
The Source address, Destination address, Hop Counter are copied from the incoming request.
Destination sequence number is taken from its counter.
The Hop count field is set to 0.
When any of N’s neighbors becomes unreachable, it checks its routing table to see which
destinations have routes using this node. For each of these routes, the active neighbors are
informed that their route via N is now invalid and must be purged from their routing tables.
The active neighbors nodes propagate this information to their active neighbors, and so on
recursively, until all routes depending on the unavailable node are purged from all routing
tables.
Reply Packet in AODV
Source Destination Address Destination Sequence # Hop Count Life-time

Address
Position based protocols Page 59

 GEAR Geographical Energy aware routing
 GAF geographical adaptive fidelity
 Distance routing Effect algorithm for mobility DREAM
GEAR Geographical energy aware routing

1. Problem bigger than link failure in mobile sensor networks is that
of energy drain sensor nodes out of energy will be of no use.
2. So this protocol focuses on two main things energy and location
as well, comparison of energy as well as distance is done before
forwarding packets.
3. Cost is calculated for making comparisons
COST(Ni, R) = W*d(Ni,R) + (1-W)e(Ni)
W= tunable weight.
d(Ni,R) = distance from Ni to center of region R.
e(Ni) = energy to be consumed at Ni.
Page 60
1) Packets here are targeted for particular region node, like a base
station wants to know about a particular area
2) Rectangular coordinates of that area will be specified in query
packets.
3) Each node know
it’s location
It’s remaining energy
Location and energy of it’s neighbors.
Gear routing is achieved in two phases.
 PHASE 1
It is responsible of routing of packets upto target region
Target region is specified by 4 coordinates making a rectangle
Page 61
Packets are routed towards target region using greedy neighbor

selection accounting for distance and energy.
If both of next hop nodes have same distance than the packet is send to
one with higher residual energy.
Page 62
DREAM - Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
 DREAM is a position based routing scheme that is designed

for mobile applications.
 DREAM is based on a directional forwarding approach that
floods the data in a particular direction (using a certain
angle) towards the sink node.
 The drawback of DREAM is that it maintains a routing table to
store information of the network nodes.
 Therefore, for very large networks, DREAM maintains large
routing tables, which raise scalability issues
GAF - Geographical Adaptive Fidelity

GAF also relies on the location information of the nodes. GAF extends the n
lifetime by reducing the energy consumption for which it builds a geograph
that consists of cells. Each cell contains multiple nodes, but only a single no
active at a time. Meanwhile, the remaining nodes of the cell can switch to s
to conserve energy
Page 63
FACE ROUTING
Adaptive Face Routing

AFR is a distributed geographic ad hoc routing protocol. It is based on
Euclidean planar graphs, in which the nodes and edges of a plane are
partitioned into regions called faces. AFR uses face routing to traverse
the faces in a restricted way, and avoids exploring complete boundary
of the faces that lie between the source and destination.
This restriction is based on the size of the ellipse area which depends
on the path length. However, if the face routing fails to reach the
destination, AFR falls back and repeats the process using eclipse of
double size.
. A new version of the AFR named Other Adaptive Face Routing (OAFR)
with an extension that it selects the boundary points that are close to
the destination.
GPSR - Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
GPSR uses a hybrid mechanism that is based on greedy forwarding
and face routing. It embeds the location of the destination into a packet
and forwards it towards the destination using greedy forwarding
approach. When the greedy forwarding fails and reaches a local
maximum problem, GPSR uses face routing to route around dead-ends
until the packet reaches a node that is close to the destination.
Page 64
Mobility aware routing

 MAR is a hierarchal position-based routing protocol in which the
sensing field is divided into a geographic grid, and cluster heads
are selected on the basis of mobility factor of the nodes. Mobility
factor refers to the number of times a node has moved from one
zone to another.
 The objective of selecting cluster heads on the basis of mobility

factor is to select a node as a cluster head that has minimum
mobility. Therefore, during the cluster head selection process, a
node having the smallest mobility factor is selected as a cluster
head.
 This improves connectivity of the cluster head with the associated

nodes. However, the major issue with this protocol is that it does
not consider node energy in the cluster head selection process.
 Therefore, it is not an energy aware routing protocol. Moreover, it

does not make full use of location information of the nodes,
which results as an increase in the packet loss. Furthermore, it
also incurs packet loss
 During the inter-cluster communication, as the cluster heads

move out of the transmission range of each other.
(GRC) Geographic Robust Clustering Page 65

 GRC is an energy aware protocol that uses location information

during the selection of the cluster heads. In addition, it uses a
recovery strategy for reducing packet loss during the inter-cluster
communication phase.
 During the cluster head selection phase, a node is selected as a

cluster head that is either at the center or close to the center, and
has high residual energy. Each node calculates the weight on the
basis of its residual energy and center-ness.
 The equation used for weight calculation is presented as follows:
WEIGHT =W1*E – W2 *C
(HEED) Hybrid energy efficient distributed

Page 66
HEED clustering approach. extends the network lifetime by selecting cluster

heads on the basis of node's residual energy. To further enhance the
performance, it considers intra-cluster communication cost as a secondary
clustering parameter. HEED outperforms many of the clustering protocols.
However, it has some pitfalls which include complex cluster head selection
process (based on probabilistic methods) and support for static networks
only.
Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)
LEACH is one of the early cluster based hierarchical non location-based routing
protocol. It is designed for static networks having a fixed base station. The cluster
heads are changed over a period of time, and are selected in such a way that
energy utilization is evenly distributed among the nodes. LEACH is based on the
assumption that each node can reach the sink node directly. This is not a realistic
assumption, because sensor nodes have limited transmission range and it is not
feasible for all sensor nodes to reach the sink node directly.
SPIN
is a data-centric protocol that avoids passing redundant data and saves energy by performing negoti
among the nodes. To achieve this, SPIN protocol names the data (meta-data), and distributes the me
in the network through advertising. However, nodes advertise the data to only interested neighbors
SPIN, there is no specific format for meta-data definition as it varies from application to application.
DECA distributed efficient clustering approach

Page 67
In DECA each node has a weight that is computed on the basis of node
residual energy, connectivity, and node identifier. The positive point
about this protocol is that each node transmits only one message,
rather than going through rounds of iterations of probabilistic message
announcements (as in LEACH and HEED). The process of message
exchange during the protocol operation consumes more energy as
compared to sensing and computation.
Therefore, by reducing the number of messages during formation of

clusters lead to high energy efficiency [36]. To do so, each node
maintains a neighbouring list (table) that is updated through periodic
Hello messages. Therefore, upon receiving the clustering messages, a
node decides whether it should select a cluster head or become a
cluster head itself. Simulation results show that DECA has
outperformed many clustering protocols including HEED.
However, DECA has some pitfalls. For instance, it uses periodic hello
messages for table maintenance that requires a considerable amount
of energy and processing. The transmission frequency periodic hello
messages increase with the increase in mobility. Consequently, it is not
a good approach to maintain a table in highly mobile/dynamic
environments. Nevertheless, cases may occur, where the neighboring
cluster heads move out of the transmission range of each other and
incur packet loss during the inter-cluster communication phase.
Distributed Efficient Multi-hop Clustering protocol (DEMC)

Page 68
DEMC focuses optimum cluster head selection to maximize network

coverage. In this protocol, each node sends less than one message during
the clustering phase. The difference between DEMC and DECA is that in
DEMC nodes do not send periodic hello messages. Therefore, DEMC does
not maintain a complete neighbour list. By doing so, DEMC reduces the
number of transmissions (Hello messages) per node, resulting in better
energy efficiency and low processing overhead.
Moreover, both protocols vary in weight calculation process for the
cluster head selection, and the nodes response mechanism after receiving
the cluster head announcement message. During the cluster head
selection process of DEMC, each node calculates the weight based on its
residual energy and unique node identifier. The weight calculation
equation of DEMC is mentioned as follows:
weight = w1 × E + w2 × I (3) Where w1+w2 = 1 and 0<w2<w1.
E is the residual energy of sensor node, and I is the node identifier that is
used to break the tie in case two nodes have the same residual energy.
For cluster head selection, each node sets a timer based on its calculated
weight. Therefore, the timer of nodes that have more weight expires first,
and they broadcast cluster head announcements. Consequently, when a
node receives a cluster head announcement having a weight that is
greater than its own weight, then for that specific round the receiving
node will not send its cluster head announcement. This technique makes
DEMC more energy efficient compared to DECA, as it requires less
communication. Moreover, DEMC uses a recovery strategy during the
inter-cluster communication phase and achieves robustness against
packet loss that occurs due to node mobility.
Page 69
Bibliography
1. Books
I. Wireless and Mobile Networks Concept and Protocols – By Cr.
Sunilkumar S. Manvi and Mahabaleshwar S. Kakkasageri
II. Computer Networks by Tanenbaum
2. Websites Referred
I. www.wikipedia.com
II. www.wearable.com
III. www.howstuffworks.com
IV. www.pimall.com
V. www.youtube.com
VI. http://www.adhoc.6ants.net/~paul/
3. Magazines and Journals Referred
I. Electronics For You Magazine March 2015 (The Amazing Wearables)

II. Electronics For You Magazine June 2015 (Wearables Special)
III. Phd thesis
IV. International journals
Page 70

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MOBILE WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS

A MAJOR SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to all those

Signature of Supervisor Signatures of Students

Mobile computing is the one of the most important technology

Wireless vs wired network

networks. Once the connection is set there is a very little chance of

 A wired network offer connection speeds of 100Mbps to

 Physical, fixed wired connections are not prone to interference

 Available bandwidth, which can affect some wireless networking

DISADVANTAGES OVER WIRELESS NETWORKS

 Expensive to maintain the network due to many cables between

 Even if a failure in the cables occur then it will be very hard to

 When using a laptop which is required to be connected to the

 Wireless networks use some sort of radio frequencies in air to

Infrastructured vs Infrastructure less

A typical example of this mode of communication is people sitting in

What is an Ad hoc Network?

❒ A network without any base stations “infrastructure-less” or multi-

❒ Supports anytime and anywhere computing

• all nodes have identical capabilities

A mobile ad hoc network is a collection of wireless nodes that can

1. Peer-to-Peer: Communication between two nodes, which are within

2. Remote-to-Remote: Communication between two nodes beyond a

SENSOR NODE hardware

Typically 8-bit or 16-bit

Operate at less than 20MHz

Memory less than 128kB

Low power consumption to ensure long run times

Use various modulation techniques (QPSK, BFSK, GFSK )

Low Output Power 0dBm or 1mw

Low Range around 10-300 feet

Sensing and Communication Range of a sensor node

 A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of a large number of

 Adequate density of sensors is required so as to avoid any

 Rectangular block shows the area to be sensed

 If N SNs are put in an area A, then the SNs density  can be

 To cover the whole space, adjacent SNs need to be located at

If the SNs are uniformly distributed with the node density of

where space S  rs2 for two dimensional spaces

 Transmission between adjacent SNs is feasible if there is at least

 The wireless communication coverage of a sensor must be at least

Regularly placed sensors

A simple strategy is to place the

Such symmetric placement allows

Three such examples of SNs in

Distance Between Sensing Area to be Total sensing area

Randomly distributed sensors

The sensors could also be used in an unknown territory or inaccessible

The adjacency among SNs can be initially determined by sending

The sensing and communication ranges required in a randomly placed

given by.   N/A

Thus, we see that there are a number of future applications where

Coordination between multiple robots for resource transportation has

In these schemes, time taken to detect an event depends entirely on

In terrains where human ingress is difficult, mobile robots can be used

The resource in demand could be water or sand (to extinguish fire),

Whether it is a sensor or another robot within collision distance, it is

The organization of such a network should be pre-planned to

The organization of such a network should be pre-planned to find

 Preprocessing is proposed in for habitat monitoring applications,

 The overall system architecture is depicted in Figure. A total of