Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

The operational performance of ‘‘net zero energy building”: A study in

China
Zhihua Zhou a, Lei Feng a, Shuzhen Zhang a, Chendong Wang a, Guanyi Chen a,⇑, Tao Du b,a, Yasong Li c,
Jian Zuo d
a
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Low and Medium Grade Energy, School of Environmental Science
and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
b
Tianjin Eco-City Construction and Investment Co. Ltd, Tianjin, China
c
Qingdao Longhu Real Estate Development Co. Ltd, Qingdao, China
d
School of Architecture & Built Environment, Entrepreneurship, Commercialization and Innovation Centre (ECIC), The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia

h i g h l i g h t s

Choose energy efficiency technology in office building to implement ‘‘nZEB”.

Simulate its energy consumption.

Study on the operational performance.

Optimize its running.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: There is no lack of studies on ‘‘net zero energy buildings” (‘‘nZEB”). However, the vast majority of these
Received 7 February 2016 studies focus on theories and simulation. The actual operational performance of ‘‘net zero energy build-
Received in revised form 11 May 2016 ing” during occupation has been largely overlooked by previous studies. This study aims to investigate
Accepted 14 May 2016
the operational performance of net ‘‘zero energy buildings” via the case study of an office building in
Available online 3 June 2016
Tianjin, China. Using simulation, the energy consumption of the building at design phase was estimated
and a solar photovoltaic (PV) system was selected. A whole year operation of the occupied building
Keywords:
showed that energy consumption of the case building was much higher than the energy generated from
‘‘Net zero energy building”
Office building
the solar PV system. This was mainly due to three issues. Firstly, the equipment was different in terms of
Solar photovoltaic system category, quantity and running time between operation and design stages, leading to considerable
Energy efficiency underestimate of energy consumption at the design stage. Secondly, the operational strategies need to
be further improved in order to regulate users’ behaviors. Thirdly, the efficiency of solar PV system
was substantially reduced due to poor atmospheric environment (i.e. haze weather). Therefore, during
the design process of ‘‘net zero energy buildings”, it is imperative to ensure that the energy simulation
accurately reflects how the building will actually operate once occupied. The research also revealed other
barriers to the design and implementation of ‘‘nZEB” in China, such as extra efforts required for effective
communicating the capacity of the HVAC design and systems to clients, and the increased cost of ‘‘nZEB”
(e.g. solar PV system) particularly for public buildings. Finally, the solar radiation intensity of standard
year adopted in the simulation needs to be replaced by the most recent meteorological data.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction China, buildings represent approximately 28% of the nation’s total

Energy consumption makes significant contributions to global
warming and pollutant emissions. The building sector accounts
for a large proportion of the primary energy consumption [1]. In
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chen@tju.edu.cn (G. Chen).
energy consumption [2,3]. In particular, public buildings account
for only 5–6% of the total building area in urban areas [4], yet con-
sume the same amount of electricity as residential buildings with a
total floor areas eight times more than that of public buildings [5].
Therefore, it is imperative to improve the energy efficiency of
public buildings.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.05.093
0306-2619/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728 717

Nomenclature

c specific heat capacity, J/(kg °C) Q0 cooling/heating capacity of heat pump unit, kW
COP coefficient of performance Q pv ;power total annual electricity production from photovoltaic
cos U power factor panels, MW h
Eds simulated energy consumption, MW h Qs the annual energy savings, kW h/year
Eo operational energy consumption, MW h S total area of photovoltaic panels, m2
i imported energy U voltage, V
I electric current, A V water flow velocity, m3/h
j exported energy W solar;rec solar radiation intensity on the surface of photovoltaic
m the amount of the exported energy panels, MW h/m2
n the amount of the imported energy q average density of water, kg/m3
Npayback the payback period, years k conversion efficiency of photovoltaic system, %
P cumulative power consumption, kW h DI capital cost, RMB yuan
Pe electric power, kW Dt temperature difference between supply and return
Pp tariff, RMB yuan/kW h water, °C
PEexport the annual exported primary energy DTQ the time interval of the accumulated heating/cooling, s
PEimport the annual imported primary energy DTP the time interval of cumulated electricity power, s
Q cumulative cooling/heating capacity of heat pump unit,
kW

Policymakers are embracing the concept of ‘‘net zero energy can play an important role in achieving ‘‘nZEB”. These technologies
buildings” (‘‘nZEB”) as a vital strategy to meet the energy and car- include heat pump systems [42–45], evaporative cooling [46–48]
bon emission reduction targets [6]. The ‘‘nZEB” is a building which and the heat recovery techniques in fresh air systems. For example,
generates as much primary energy as its energy consumption over vertical close-loop ground-coupled heat pumps (GCHP) can reduce
a period of time [7]. In buildings, renewable energy is the only way the annual electrical energy consumption for cooling and heating
to generate energy (export energy). Energy consumption (import by as much as 70% compared to air source heat pump systems [49].
energy) includes heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and Renewable energy plays a crucial role in achieving ‘‘nZEB” [2].
appliances [8]. The energy balance is achieved when the annual Renewable energy resources include wind power, solar photo-
net primary energy is equal or less than zero, shown as Eq. (1) [8]. voltaic (PV) system, biomass energy and geothermal energy [50].
Solar PV system has gained rapid growth where surplus energy
X
n X
m can be fed into the local grid. Biogas can be used for cooking and
Net primary energy ¼ PEimport i  PEexport j 6 0 ð1Þ heating in the building, but is mainly used in smallholders in rural
i j areas [51]. The intermittent nature of wind energy has restricted
its wide implementation [52]. By contrast, solar power has gained
There are two common strategies to achieve ‘‘net zero energy”
wider implementation in ‘‘nZEB” due to its accessibility and easy
consumption in buildings, i.e. ‘‘minimize the energy demand of
integration with existing building systems.
the building, and supply the remaining energy demand by means
Building operation strategy plays a crucial role in the delivery of
of on-site renewable energy resources” [9].
‘‘nZEB”. Various strategies can be adopted for system optimization
A lot of studies have been conducted to address these two
according to the cooling and heating demands [53]. Energy savings
strategies. These include, optimizing building orientation and
of 17% can be achieved when the system is operated with more
shape; using insulated materials for the building envelope [10–
appropriate control functions [54]. As a result, the energy produc-
12]; adopting efficient heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
tion/consumption schedule can be optimized which consequently
(HVAC) facilities [13–16] and systems [17–21]; using smart control
maximize benefits.
technologies [22]; encouraging energy saving behaviors within
A vast majority of existing studies on ‘‘nZEB” focused on the
occupants [23–28]; and utilizing various types of renewable
measures of energy savings by means of simulation at the design
energy resources [29–33].
stage. By contrast, the actual operation of ‘‘nZEB” was largely over-
For example, previous studies have shown that heating energy
looked. As a result, it is difficult to accurately analyze the economy
could be reduced by more than 35% by means of optimizing the
of ‘‘nZEB”, which prevents its wide implementation. This study
shape and orientation of buildings [34]. Similarly, the total heating
examines ways to reduce the energy consumption at the design
and cooling demand could be cut by nearly 26% via proper opti-
stage via appropriate energy efficient technologies. According to
mization strategy on building envelop such as window-wall ratio
the annual energy consumption simulation results, a solar photo-
and shading system [35].
voltaic system was designed and installed on the building. The
Natural ventilation systems also offer an avenue to reduce the
energy production and consumption during operation were exam-
energy consumption compared with active cooling methods [36].
ined by comparing the simulated results to the actual operation
In particular, higher ventilation rates are essential for cooling
data. The building management systems were then optimized.
during the summer season [37].
Finally, the economy of ‘‘nZEB” was analyzed.
Artificial lighting accounts for around 20% of energy consump-
tion globally [38]. Lighting related energy consumption can be
reduced through the use of daylighting. Ihm P’s study demon- 2. Methodology
strated that day-lighting controls can save the lighting energy as
much as 77% [39]. 2.1. Energy simulation
Nearly half of energy consumption in commercial buildings is
used for heating, cooling and ventilation (HVAC) systems [40,41]. At the design stage, building energy simulation is often
Therefore, the energy savings from the design of HVAC systems conducted to determine strategies for achieving ‘‘net zero energy”
718 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728

consumption. The energy performance of the preliminary design
was simulated by the e-QUEST software. Response factor method
was employed to calculate the heat transfer quantity from the
building envelope. The annual energy consumption can be calcu-
lated dynamically according to various building parameters, such
as building structure, material of the envelope, heating and cooling
mode and the form of energy systems, users’ behaviors, lighting
equipment, and indoor design temperatures.
2.1.1. Simulation models
The case study building is located in Binhai District, Tianjin,
China. The designed outdoor dry-bulb temperature for summer
cooling is 33.4 °C, and the wet-bulb temperature is 26.9 °C. The
designed outdoor dry-bulb temperature for winter heating is
11 °C, and the relative humidity is 53%. It is a two-story office
building with a total floor area of 3467 m2 and a total height of
15 m. The building’s floor area ratio is 0.37 and its shape coefficient
is 0.22. The building is divided into two parts for different func-
tions, i.e. one as exhibition and sale areas, and the other for offices
and archives. Fig. 1 shows the simulation model of the building via
the e-QUEST software.
2.1.2. Indoor equipment
The main indoor heat sources in the building are lighting,
equipment and occupants. According to the functions of the differ-
ent zones, the occupant density, design temperature, fresh air vol-
ume and equipment density are designed (shown in Table 1). The
main equipment and associated running schedule are shown in
Table 2.
2.2. Energy consumption metering
Energy consumption metering was used to determine the
energy use during the operational phase of the building. The test
was carried out on both energy consumption system and energy
generation system by means of a combination of auto-system
monitoring and manual testing. For the energy consumption sys-
tem, the test was mainly conducted on the amount of energy con-
sumed by various systems, such as cooling and heating units, water
pumps, air conditioning system, elevators, lighting system, and
other indoor equipment. The operational efficiency of major elec-
tric equipment was also tested. For heating and cooling units, the
test parameters included the amount of cool or heat generation,
the supply and return water temperature, and the flow rate. The
amount of cool or heat generation was monitored by the heat
meters installed in the system. The cooling and heating power
can be calculated by formula (2). The amount of cold or heat supply
during a period of time can be calculated by formula (3) in a cumu-
lative manner. In this study, the DTQ represents the time interval
and the accumulation time for the heat meter is set as 10 s. The
performance of the unit is represented by COP value, which refers
to the ratio of the compressor’s cooling power (or heating power)
to its shaft power under the same condition, and can be calculated
by formula (4). During the operation, the performance of the unit
was tested under a steady-state operating conditions [55], i.e. the
system’s load is less than 60% of the actual maximum load and
the unit’s operation load should not be less than 80% of the rated
load.
Q 0 ¼ cqV Dt=3600 ð2Þ
X
Q¼ Q 0  DT Q ð3Þ

P
COP ¼ ð4Þ
Pe
The shaft power of the unit represented by Pe can be calculated
by formula (5) after testing the current and voltage. The electricity
consumption of equipment was measured separately depending
on the system it belongs to. Consequently, the cumulative electric-
ity consumption can be calculated by formula (6), in which DTN
equals to 30 s.
Pe ¼ UI cos U ð5Þ
X
P¼ P e  DT P ð6Þ
Fig. 1. Physical model.

Table 1
Indoor heat sources.

Function Occupant density (m2/p) Fresh air volume (m3/h p) Equipment density (W/m2) Design temperature (°C)
Summer Winter
Office 8 30 6 26 20
Exhibition hall 20 30 2.0 26 20
Exhibition room 50 10 0.6 27 18
Archives 50 30 1.4 26 20
Conference room 0.5 30 0.1 26 20

Table 2
Running schedule of main equipment.

Equipment Schedule
Lighting and indoor equipment Monday to Friday: 9:00–17:00
Heating 2013-11-1–2014-3-15 Monday to Friday: 8:00–16:30 Otherwise in low temperature operation
Cooling 2014-5-1–2014-9-1 Monday to Friday: 8:00–16:30
 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728
The energy generation system selected for this case building
was solar PV system. Various parameters of energy generation
were tested such as voltage, current, electricity generation capac-
ity, electricity consumption, and the amount of electricity fed into
grid. Some other detailed parameters of PV panels were tested as
well, such as the direct current generated by the PV panels and
the alternating current transformed by the inverter.
3. System description
In order to reduce the energy demand, both passive and active
design methods were taken into consideration. The annual energy
consumption of the building was then simulated by e-QUEST.
Finally, a solar PV system was selected according to the simulation
results, with an aim to balance the energy consumption and energy
generation of the building.
3.1. Passive energy saving measures
A variety of passive and active energy-saving technologies were
employed in the case building in order to reduce the energy
consumption.
3.1.1. Window-wall ratio
The window wall ratio (WWR) is the ratio of the total external
window area (including transparent curtain wall) in one orienta-
tion to the total wall area (including the window area) in the same
orientation. The size and orientation can have positive or negative
effects on the total energy consumption. For example, larger win-
dows are beneficial to daylighting and heating load in winter, how-
ever the cooling load will increase in summer. Therefore, the
appropriate WWR helps to reduce the heating and lighting energy
consumption. Fig. 2 shows the e-QUEST simulation results of the
total energy consumption when the WWR was 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, and
0.1 respectively.
Fig. 2. Air conditioning and lighting energy consumption under different window-
wall ratios.
Table 3
Main material and thermal performance of the building envelope.
Position Wall and insulation materials
Wall material Autoclaved aerated concrete block (B04)
Thermal bridge beam column Autoclaved aerated concrete block (B03)
Exterior wall insulation Rock wool board
Roof insulation Extruded polystyrene board (XPS board)
Heating and non-heating wall Autoclaved aerated concrete block (B05)
719
As shown in Fig. 2, the minimum total energy consumption can
be obtained all orientations when the WWR was 0.2. Therefore, the
WWR of the case building was selected as 0.2.
3.1.2. Envelope insulation
In order to minimize the energy consumption, the structural
and thermal properties of the building envelope were selected as
the optimal configuration of materials available in the current mar-
ket (see Table 3). The heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall,
roof and overhead floor was selected as 0.15 W/(m2 K), 0.12 W/
(m2 K), and 0.13 W/(m2 K) respectively. External windows were
made of aluminum alloy and double glazed Low-E glass with a heat
transfer coefficient of 1 W/(m2 K), the shading coefficient of 0.42,
the visible transmittance of 0.42, and the reflectivity of 0.55. The
heat transfer coefficient of the building envelope is significantly
lower than that specified in the national standard.
3.1.3. Natural ventilation
The first and second floors of the case study building have a
shared lobby, through which the natural ventilation can be
achieved by using air density difference during the transition sea-
son. The inlet is outside of the building and the air flows unassisted
through the tunnel into the building. During the cooling season,
the air outdoor is pre-cooled by the tunnel, reducing the energy
consumption of fresh air (see Fig. 3).
3.1.4. Natural day-lighting
There are two types of natural lighting systems used in this
building. Lighting pipes were used in those places that did not
require high lux levels. For example, in the atrium, the use of sky-
lights was particularly effective. During the actual operation of the
building, the natural lighting is able to meet the requirements of
illumination intensity completely in the atrium without any artifi-
cial lighting.
3.2. Active energy saving measures
3.2.1. HVAC systems
The indoor cooling and heating systems contained GCHP sys-
tem, two Air Handle Units (AHU), sixty fan coil units, and two sets
of fresh air systems. The open plan zones were equipped with vari-
able air volume air conditioning system and variable frequency
AHU. The small rooms were equipped with fan-coil units and fresh
air systems. The performance parameters of AHU are shown in
Table 4.
The fan coil units can be adjusted by occupants, however were
also linked to window operation. For example, if the window is
open, the fan coil units will automatically be shut down. Once
the window is closed, the fan coil units will be automatically
adjusted according to the indoor temperature.
In order to reduce the cooling and heating loads, natural venti-
lation and an earth-air heat exchanger (EAHE) system were also
used within the building. During the transition seasons, the fresh
air was extracted from the air inlet outside of the building and then
Thickness Heat conductivity Density
mm W/(m K) kg/m3
300 0.11 6450
50 0.069 6350
150 0.037 6180
300 0.03 28–35
200 0.13 6550
720 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728

Fig. 3. Schematic of building natural ventilation.

Table 4
The performance parameters of AHU.

Mixing section Surface cooling section Air supply section

Fresh air temperature (°C) 21 Mixed temperature (°C) 26.1/26.3 Supply air temperature (°C) 21
Fresh air volume (m3/h) 860/500 Cold/heat output (kW) 27.89/10.35 Air supply (m3/h) 19,173/14,282
Return air temperature (°C) 26.4/26.5 Cooling supply and return water temperature (°C) 16/21 Shaft power (kW) 7/5.5
Return air volume (m3/h) 18,313/13,782 Heating supply and return water temperature (°C) 42/37 Fan efficiency (%) 70

supplied to rooms through the indoor air supply outlet under the was equipped with a sensor, which is connected to the data com-
ground. It is then discharged through the skylight. The fresh air munication interface. They are controlled automatically according
system can automatically adjust the air supply volume according to the illumination of the room, as well as the occupants’ behavior.
to the indoor CO2 concentration.
(3) Energy management system
3.2.2. Lighting system
To minimize the energy consumption, natural lighting was used The energy management system plays a crucial role in achiev-
in the hall. Lighting pipes were installed in the stairwell and the ing net zero energy consumption. By collecting, comparing and
equipment room in the basement, the exhibition room on the first analyzing the energy use data of the whole building, the system
floor, and in the archive room and the kettle room on the second can be used in solar photovoltaic system and indoor lighting, HVAC
floor. The indoor lighting for other zones was achieved via a com- and other energy systems.
bination of natural daylighting and artificial lighting. When natural
lighting was not able to fulfill the illumination requirements, fluo- 3.3. Renewable energy system
rescent lamps with high photosynthetic efficiency (83–110 lm/W)
were adopted in the case study building. According to the functions of the case study building and avail-
ability of renewable energies, the most suitable systems were solar
3.2.3. Control system energy and the GCHP system.
Using the earth as mass for a source cooling/heating, the GCHP
(1) HVAC control system system consists of a heat pump unit, heat exchanger, water pumps
The frequency conversion of the compressor was employed to and so on. A heat pump unit with a cooling capacity of 175 kW, and
control the air conditioning system by monitoring the rate of build- a heating capacity of 168 kW was chosen. In order to enhance the
ing load and the variation of the return water’s temperature. The operational efficiency of the unit, the outlet temperature of the
primary pump of air conditioning water system can be frequency evaporator in summer is set as 16 °C, which is 9 °C higher than that
operated by controlling the loop water system pressure and the of the conventional unit. As a result, the COP can be increased by
temperature difference between supply and return water. For the about 40%. The parameters of GCHP unit are shown in Table 5.
modular air conditioning units as well as new wind generating In addition, a solar PV system was employed for power genera-
units, Direct Digital Control (DDC) was used to adjust the air flow, tion. The electricity generated by the PV system can be used for the
while the fresh air damper can be adjusted according to the CO2 HVAC, lighting and other systems within the building. A small
concentration within the zones. proportion of the surplus will be used to charge the batteries
whereas the vast majority of surplus will be fed into the grid
(2) Lighting control system (see Fig. 4). When the electricity generated by the PV system does
not fulfill the building energy demand, the energy stored in batter-
Fluorescent lamps were selected in the case study building, ies will be used in the first instance in order to reduce energy costs.
which are controlled by digital technologies. Each fluorescent lamp When the energy in the batteries runs out, electricity will be drawn
from the grid. The schematic diagram of the system is shown in
Fig. 4.
Table 5 According to the simulation model of building design, the yearly
The performance parameters of GCHP. energy production from PV system is 288.54 MW h, which was 20%
Working Capacity Rated Inlet/outlet Inlet/outlet more than the required energy demand. This is due to a consider-
condition (kW) power temperature of temperature of ation of potential issues that may arise during the operation stage,
input evaporator (°C) condenser (°C) including; the differences between simulation results and actual
(kW)
conditions in terms of building functions; the type, quantity and
Cooling 175 29.5 21/16 30/35 power of appliances; and the total solar radiation. The total radiant
Heating 168 37.5 5/8 37/42
intensity of solar energy in Tianjin area was modeled as
 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728 721

Fig. 4. Schematic of solar photovoltaic power generation system.

Table 6
Performance parameters of solar cell module.
summer. In winter, the inlet/outlet water temperature of con-
Name Unit Performance parameters denser was 37/42 °C and the rated COP value was 4.5, similar to
Size mm 1580  798 the conventional units. The total energy consumption of the GCHP
Rated power Wp 210 units, water pumps, ventilation system, lighting system and office
Module efficiency % 16.7
equipment was simulated (see Table 7). Results showed that the
annual energy consumption of the case study building was about
241 MW h. The average energy consumption per unit area was
69.6 kW h/m2, among which the HVAC system was 35.1 kW h/m2
1.492 MW h/m2 [56], and the performance parameters of the solar
(50.4%), the lighting system was 13.1 kW h/m2 (18.8%) and the
panel were determined as shown in Table 6. The total installed area
office equipment was 21.4 kW h/m2 (30.8%).
was 1759 m2. A schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 5.
At the design stage, a solar PV system was selected with a
capacity of 20% higher than the simulated energy consumption.
4. Results and discussion Theoretically, the demands of zero energy consumption could be
achieved using this system. However, the operational results
4.1. Energy consumption simulation showed that the electricity generated from the solar PV system
only met 29.5% of the building energy consumption. Fig. 6 showed
Using the building envelope properties and equipment the building’s actual power consumption and generation in com-
described in Section 3.1, the building was simulated to determine parison to the simulation results. The actual power consumption
the annual heating and cooling loads. Accordingly, the cooling and was 30.9% higher than that predicted by the simulation model.
heating sources were selected. The inlet/outlet water temperature By contrast, the actual power generation was only 36.8% of the
of the evaporator was 21/16 °C and the rated COP value was 5.9 in amount predicted by the simulation.

Fig. 5. The actual installation positions of PV panels.

722 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728

Table 7
Simulated energy consumption of each system.

Month Lighting Office equipment Water pump Ventilation fan Heating Cooling Total
MW h MW h MW h MW h MW h MW h MW h
1 3.81 6.3 1.21 4.88 11.11 0 27.31
2 3.64 5.76 1.1 4.41 9.16 0 24.07
3 3.73 6.3 0.27 4.14 4.36 0 18.8
4 3.81 6.1 0 0.78 0 0 10.69
5 3.89 6.3 0.88 0.8 0 0 11.87
6 3.65 6.1 1.02 2.9 0 6.81 20.48
7 3.89 6.3 1.38 5.2 0 14.08 30.85
8 3.81 6.31 1.3 4.8 0 13.06 29.28
9 3.73 6.1 0 0.78 0 0 10.61
10 3.89 6.31 0 0.8 0 0 11
11 3.73 6.1 1.04 4.54 5.42 0 20.83
12 3.81 6.31 1.21 4.83 9.42 0 25.58
Total 45.39 74.29 9.41 38.86 39.47 33.95 241.37
Energy consumption per unit area (kW h/m2) 13.1 21.4 2.7 11.2 11.4 9.8 69.6

Fig. 6. The building’s actual and simulated power consumption, actual and simulated power generation.

Fig. 7. The simulation results on design, corrective simulation and actual energy consumption of HVAC.

4.2. The actual energy consumption
4.2.1. HVAC system
From the monitoring results it was possible to observe that
when outdoor temperature was 18 °C, the indoor air temperature
was stable at approximately 21 °C by means of the natural
ventilation and the EAHE system. In order to examine the operat-
ing COP of GCHP system, two tests were undertaken on a typical
day in winter and on a typical day in summer. The operating COP
was 4.1 in winter (91% of the rated value). Under non laboratory
conditions, this operating COP is considered as acceptable. How-
ever, in summer, the operating COP was as low as 1.7 (29% of the
 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728
Fig. 8. Nature lighting effect in the hall.
rated value) which is considerably inefficient. Results showed that
there was a certain level of difference between the meteorological
conditions during the test and the climate file used in the simula-
tion model. However, despite these differences, the operating COP
is not expected to vary that significantly. Further analysis showed
that the building’s actual operational load was significantly lower
than the design load due to the low occupancy rate. As a variable
frequency system, when the load was low, the unit could automat-
ically regulate the frequency to reduce the supply capacity for high
operation efficiency. This study revealed that building users had a
lack of training in the correct way in which to use the GCHP sys-
tem. The GCHP system was not set to operate in the variable fre-
quency mode, and hence operated in a low-efficient fixed
frequency mode with both compressors running all of the time.
By contrast, the system operated with a high COP in winter as heat-
ing supply is required in all rooms to prevent damage to water
pipes in the cold weather, no matter the occupancy of the room.
In addition, there were some variations to the building func-
tions and indoor equipment compared with the initial design.
Therefore, the energy consumption of the HVAC system was re-
simulated according to the actual performance curve of GCHP sys-
tem, running schedule and other conditions (see Fig. 7). There is
lack of date at the design stage (hereinafter referred to as ‘‘simula-
tion for design”). The annual energy consumption of HVAC system
(including heating, cooling, water pumps, ventilation, etc.) per unit
area was 35.1 kW h/(m2 a). After re-simulation (hereinafter
referred to as ‘‘corrective simulation”), this figure was amended
Fig. 9. Lighting effect of tubular daylighting system.
723
to 39.3 kW h/(m2 a), 12% higher than the ‘‘simulation for design”
value. During the actual operation, as the GCHP system was not
rationally controlled according to the operational characteristics,
its actual operational power consumption was 48.2 kW h/(m2 a),
22.5% higher than the corrective simulation result. Thus, if strictly
controlled in accordance with the operation requirements, the
HVAC system, especially the GCHP system in this case study build-
ing, can save energy per unit area of 8.9 kW h/(m2 a).
4.2.2. Lighting
Natural lighting was shown to fulfill the requirements in the
hall without artificial lighting (see Fig. 8), even in overcast condi-
tions. As the service area did not have strict lighting requirements,
the tubular day-lighting system was generally able to fulfill the
anticipated design aims, although its lighting effect varied accord-
ing to the outdoor sunlight intensity (see Fig. 9). The running time
of lighting systems in the actual building in operation phase in the
different function areas was not as same as that in the design sim-
ulation. Therefore, the power consumption of lighting system was
re-simulated according to actual conditions. The corrective simula-
tion result was compared with actual power consumption as
shown in Fig. 10. The lighting power consumption per unit area
was amended from the original 13.1 kW h/(m2 a) to 14.3 kW h/
(m2 a), and the actual power consumption was 15.9 kW h/(m2 a).
It can be seen that although the power consumption of the lighting
system was relatively low, there was energy saving potential of
1.6 kW h/(m2 a) if an operation strategy was in place.
724 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728

Fig. 10. The simulation results on design, corrective simulation and actual power consumption of lighting system.

operation stage, a large number of additional water dispensers

Table 8
Annual energy consumption of subsystems (MW h). were installed in offices, which increased the energy consumption.
Moreover, both the water boilers and water dispenser were kept
Eds Eo Eo/Eds (%)
running 24 h a day in the case study building so that the temper-
HVAC 121.69 167 137.2 ature of water within those tanks remained over 95 °C. This also
Lighting equipment 45.39 55 121.2
contributed to high energy consumption. If the operation of these
Office equipment 74.29 93 125.2
Total 241.37 316 130.9
appliances was controlled in accordance with design requirements,
the energy consumption per unit area could be reduced to
26.8 kW h/(m2 a). This is 6 kW h/(m2 a) of energy savings com-
pared to the current operation.
4.2.3. Office equipment and others
There were a large number of office related devices and equip-
ment which contribute to energy consumption, such as the eleva- 4.2.4. Total actual energy consumption
tor, computers, printers, copiers, projectors, large display screens, Since the completion of the case study building, the whole sys-
and water boilers. Of these items, the elevator was the largest tem was tested for an entire year (see Table 8). From January 2014
energy consumer. In both the design and operation stages, the ele- to December 2014, the total energy consumption of this building
vator was controlled according to the operation strategy, so that was 316 MW h per anumn, and the energy consumption per unit
the actual operating energy consumption was consistent with the area was 75.9 kW h/(m2 a). The actual electricity generation of
simulated value. Computers also significantly contributed to solar PV system was 106 MW h, which was significantly lower than
energy consumption, however, it is difficult to design energy effi- the amount of energy consumed by the building. In spite of this,
ciency control strategies for computers due to the large quantity the energy consumption of this case study building was 18.4% less
used in the building. The third appliance with high energy demand than that of conventional energy saving building. Among the build-
are the water boilers. At each floor, there was a water boiler for ing systems, the HVAC system saved 27.4% of energy, while the
supplying boiled water to occupants as Chinese people prefer to lighting and indoor electrical equipment saved 5%.
drink boiled water. The operation of the water boiler can be con-
trolled automatically according to the water temperature. It was 4.3. Solar electricity generation
also switched on half an hour earlier before the start of working
hours and shut down after business hours. However, during the At the design stage, the simulated solar electricity generation
capacity was greater than the simulated energy consumption in
March, April, May, June, September and October (see Fig. 11).
Theoretically, the excessive electricity can be fed into the local
power grid, however, during the actual operation of the building,
the electricity generation was always lower than the energy con-
sumption (see Fig. 12).
The ratio of actual generation capacity to theoretical generation
capacity was the largest in November (65.5%), and was the lowest
in October (13%). It is imperative to investigate the significant gap
between the actual power generation and simulated value. The
most critical evaluation metric of solar PV panel is the power gen-
eration efficiency, which can be calculated by formula (7).
Q pv ;power
k¼ ð7Þ
W solar;rec  S
The rated power generation efficiency of solar PV panels
selected for the case building was 16.7%. However, according to
Fig. 11. The simulated power generation and power consumption in 2014. formula (7), the design requirements can be met when the
 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728 725

Fig. 12. The actual power generation of solar PV system and the actual electricity consumption in 2014.

Fig. 13. The solar radiation intensity and power generation of solar PV system in July 13th, 2014.

Fig. 14. The solar radiation intensity and power generation of solar PV system in December 8th, 2014.

efficiency is 11.5%. In order to examine the actual conversion effi-
ciency of the solar PV system, two tests were undertaken on a typ-
ical day in winter and on a typical day in summer. Fig. 13 shows
the solar radiation intensity, and the comparison between the
designed and actual power generation on July 13th, 2014. The total
solar radiation was 5882 W h/m2 and power generation of the solar
PV system was 1060 kW h; the power generation efficiency was
calculated as 10.2% during that day which is 89% of the designed
efficiency.
Fig. 14 shows the solar radiation intensity, and the comparison
between designed and actual power generation in December 8th,
2014. The total solar radiation was 2915 W h/m2 and power
726 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728

Fig. 15. The influence of cleanliness of photovoltaic panels on electricity generation.

Fig. 16. The comparison of actual solar photovoltaic power generation between 2014 and 2015.

generation of the solar PV system was 387 kW h, resulting in the (2) cleaning the surface of PV panels regularly, and (3) educating
power generation efficiency of 7.6% which is 66% of the designed building users. The comparison of actual electricity generation in
efficiency. 2015 with that from 2014 is shown in Fig. 16. By avoiding break-
The power generation efficiency by the solar PV system was down during the operation, electricity generated from the system
lower than the designed value in both summer and winter. This is largely increased. However, a considerable gap remains between
is mainly due to three issues. First, too much dust accumulated actual electricity generation and designed value. The actual electric-
on the surface of PV panels. In recent years, the air pollution has ity generation was only 73.5% of the designed value. This is likely
been severe in China. This is a particular issue in winter when there due to the severe haze weather during the investigation period.
are high concentrations of particulates in the air. Second, fog and
haze weather occurred frequently in Tianjin during this time. Con-
4.4. The economy of ‘‘nZEB”
sequently, the solar radiation intensity received by the ground sur-
face was significantly lower than that of a standard year. This made
The economy of ‘‘nZEB” has attracted wide concern. This paper
it difficult to achieve the designed efficiency of electricity genera-
has revealed that the case study building cost RMB 17,300 yuan/m2
tion. Third, there were some issues associated with the solar PV
to operate, 70% higher than that of an ordinary energy efficient
system such as malfunction of the inverter, and the control system.
building. There are two main contributors to the increased cost.
An investigation of the effect of dust on the actual generating
The first is the cost of the solar PV system, including solar PV pan-
capacity of the PV panels was made. HIP-210NKHE1 PV panels
els, batteries, etc. The second are the windows; the window air
installed in the case building are divided into two groups. Each
tightness and thermal insulation of domestic products cannot ful-
group of PV panels was connected to a small array, where the
fill the design requirements. As a result, expensive imported prod-
actual generation capacity on sunny days of the year was moni-
ucts were adopted in the case study building. However, the case
tored. For the first group, the surface ash was cleaned before the
study building is still able to achieve about 27.4% more energy sav-
test. The testing time are: 2014-01-01, 2014-02-20, 2014-03-04,
ings than conventional buildings. The payback period is 9 years,
2014-04-03, 2014-05-20, 2014-06-05, 2014-07-13, 2014-08-08,
calculated using formula (8). More efforts are required to further
2014-09-04, 2014-10-06, 2014-11-02, 2014-12-05. The testing
facilitate the implementation of ‘‘nZEB” in China.
results (see Fig. 15) shows that the actual generation capacity of
PV panels in the case study building can drop by nearly 19% due DI
Npayback ¼ ð8Þ
to the accumulation of dust on the PV panels’ surface. ðQ PV;power þ Q s Þ  Pp
In 2015, three measures were put forward with an aim to deal
with these issues; (1) strengthening the operation management, where QPV, power = 211 MW h; Pp = RMB 1 yuan/kW h; Qs = 76 MW h.
 Z. Zhou et al. / Applied Energy 177 (2016) 716–728
5. Conclusions
In this study, an office building in Tianjin, China was selected as
a case study to investigate the operational performance of ‘‘net
zero energy office buildings” (‘‘nZEB”). The energy consumption
was reduced via a range of active and passive energy saving tech-
nologies. A solar PV system was used with an aim to satisfy the
energy demand of the building. Two years’ operational measure-
ments showed that the ‘‘nZEB” objectives could be achieved condi-
tionally. The following conclusions are drawn:
(1) Due to lack of relevant boundary conditions and detailed
running schedule at the design stage, there is a gap between
the simulated results and the actual energy consumption. To
address this problem, more detailed and accurate informa-
tion of building operation is required during the design
process.
(2) Operation management plays a crucial role to achieve the
anticipated goals. Professionals with relevant expertise and
skills should be engaged to be responsible for operation,
and automatic control should be optimized based on moni-
toring data. It is necessary to run this process of analysis
and optimization regularly.
(3) Despite optimization efforts, the solar electricity generation
capacity accounted for only 58.9% of the building energy
consumption due to the poor atmosphere environment. In
order to achieve ‘‘net zero energy”, the solar radiation inten-
sity data of recent years should be collected to replace that
of the standard year given in the software.
(4) The substantial initial investment presents a significant
challenge in the implementation of ‘‘nZEB”. Therefore,
efforts are required to develop appropriate technologies so
that the initial investment could be reduced, especially for
the solar PV system.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Ministry of Science and Technology
of the People’s Republic of China (Contract Nos. 2013BAJ09B01 and
2015BAJ01B01) and Tianjin Municipal Science and Technology
Commission (Contract No. 14ZCDGGX00795). The authors are
thankful to anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments
and feedback.
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