Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Casting.
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Casting.
Casting.
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Variables to be considered during casting
process.
Important factors:
Solidification of metal from its molten state
(usually accompanied by shrinkage)
Flow of molten metal into the mold cavity.
Heat Transfer during solidification and cooling of
metal in the mold.
Mold material and its influence on casting
process.
Casting Terminology
Two-part sand-mold process
Starts with pattern (a model of
final cast shape required).
Molding material (sand)
packed around pattern and
pattern removed.
Flask is rigid frame that holds
the molding aggregate.
Cope – Top half of pattern
Drag – Bottom half of pattern.
Core – Metal/Sand feature
inserted to produce internal
features of casting.
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Casting terminology.
Core print – Region added to pattern to locate and
support the core within the mold.
Mold material and core then combine to produce the
mold cavity, a shaped hole into which the molten
material is poured and solidified to produce required
casting.
Riser is an extra void created in the mold that would
also fill with molten metal – serves as reservoir to
compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
Riser to be designed to contain the last metal for
solidification so that shrinkage voids and impurities
get concentrated in riser.
Gating system – network connected to deliver
molten metal into mold cavity.
Casting terminology.
Pouring cup – where initial molten metal is fed and
controls rest of metal flow into mold.
Sprue – vertical gating system connecting pouring cup to
the gating system.
Vents are provided along to release trapped gases.
Parting line or parting surface is the interface that
separates the cope and drag halves of a mold.
Draft – taper on a pattern or casting that permits to be
withdrawn from mold.
Mold or die used to make casting cores is known as
core-box.
Casting describes the entire process and the product
when molten metal is poured and solidified in a mold.
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Basic Requirements of Casting Process.
Mold Cavity:
Mold cavity of desired shape + allowance for shrinkage of
solidifying metal.
Select mold material to avoid contamination with molten
metal.
New molds to be prepared with same degree of
workmanship in case of single-use molds.
Make molds of suitable material for multiple-use molds
(Metal / graphite).
Multi-use molds are used for quantity production.
Melting process:
Melting process must be capable of providing the molten
material at appropriate pouring temperature, with desired
quantity, acceptable quality and at reasonable cost of melting.
Furnaces tend to have some residue after pouring (as all metal
does not flow in short time of casting).
Slag / impurities from molten metal need to be discarded during
melting. So input charge should account for such discarded
metal.
Charge (input material for melting)-to-melt ratio is dependent on
heating process as well as crucible quality. Graphite crucible for
Al-alloys melting does not require additional quantities of charge,
whereas electric-arc furnace requires some additional charge
metal.
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Basic requirements of casting process.
Pouring technique:
Pouring technique should permit escape of trapped
gases/air present in cavity prior to pouring as well as
during pouring of molten metal. This ensures even filling of
molten metal in all areas and a defect-free casting.
Solidification Process:
To be properly designed and controlled to ensure
solidification and solidification shrinkage to occur without
porosity / voids.
Molds should be designed in a way that minimizes
restraint to shrinkage during cooling. High restraint would
make the casting to crack.
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Solidification of Metals.
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Solidification of pure metal.
Solidification of alloys.
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Solidification of alloys.
Solidification.
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Solidification, Inoculation.
In reality, nucleation starts at existing surface such as mold or
container walls, or solid impurity particles contained within the
molten metal.
Each nucleation event then produces a crystal or grain in the
final casting.
More the nucleation sites, the finer the grain – thus improving
the mechanical properties of castings.
Intentional introduction of impurities in the molten metal
before pouring into the mold improves the nucleation density.
This is termed as ‘inoculation’ or ‘grain refinement’ in casting.
Ferro-nickel / ferro-magnesium are added as inoculants while
casting ductile iron.
Grain growth.
Second step in solidification process that occurs as
heat of fusion is removed from liquid metal.
Direction, rate and type of grain growth can be
controlled by the way heat is removed.
Directional solidification – Solidification interface
sweeps continuously through the material to assure
sound casting.
Molten metal flows into the mold continuously to
compensate for shrinkage.
Faster rates of cooling results in finer grain size and as
a consequence superior mechanical properties.
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Solidification Time
Solidification time.
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Cast structure.
Cast Structure.
Square mold cast structure
of
(a) – Pure metals.
(b) - Solid-solution alloys
(c) - Structure obtained by
heterogenous nucleation
of grains, using
inoculants or nucleating
agents.
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Casting.
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Gas Porosity.
Molten metal can contain dissolved gases.
When the metal solidifies the solid structure
cannot accommodate the gas and results in
bubbles or gas porosity.
Example: Solubility of Hydrogen in Al as a
function of temperature.
Techniques to control gas porosity:
Vacuum melting
Gas Porosity.
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Fluidity
Pouring Temperature.
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Gating System.
Gating System.
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Gating System.
Gating System.
Long – flat runners are better in case of molten metals with
high levels of super-heat.
Gates at lower portion of runner will reduce the flow
turbulence.
Runner extension and Runner wells can be used to trap first
metal (that is likely to contain contaminants of molten metal).
Runner wells are useful in aluminum castings as aluminum
oxide contaminant has same density as molten aluminum.
Turbulent-sensitive metals (Al, Mg) and alloys with low
melting points generally employ gating systems designed to
eliminate turbulence and dross/slag.
Steel, cast iron, Copper alloys and alloys with high melting
point generally use short, open gating systems that provide
for quick filling of mold cavity.
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Riser and Riser Design.
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Riser design – examples.
Risering Aids.
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Risering Aids.
Chills:
External chills – Masses of high heat capacity,
high thermal conductivity material placed in the
mold, adjacent to casting to accelerate cooling of
various regions.
Internal Chills – Pieces of metal placed inside the
mold cavity to absorb heat and promote more
rapid solidification.
As some of this metal will melt during the internal chill
casting operation, they must be made of same alloy as
being cast.
Parting Line.
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Parting Line – Examples.
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Parting Line.
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Allowances on pattern.
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Castings with Ribs.
When it is required to
bring a number of ribs
at one point, a cored
hole at the point of
intersection will help
speed the
solidification.
This will prevent
shrinkage voids and
structural weakness
and distortions.
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Corners and Angles.
Hot spots are the most In sharp corners, outside corners radiate
heat in two directions and cool quickly.
common defect in casting
design. Too much of rounding will cause shrink
Sharp corners cause defect in a corner.
uneven cooling and
molded-in stress, while
rounded corners permit
uniform cooling with
reduced stress.
Rounded corners which
maintain uniform wall
thickness provide the best
results.
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Corners and angles.
Intersecting walls of
casting to be designed
for right angles, where
possible to minimize
heat concentration.
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Wall thickness.
Aluminum
Brass and Bronze
Ductile Iron
Gray Iron, low strength
Gray Iron, 138 MPa
Magnesium alloys
Malleable Iron
Steel
White iron.
Wall Thickness.
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Wall Thickness.
Good to have
sections with uniform
wall thickness to
avoid problems with
voids and porosity in
heavy sections and
added stresses /
distortions due to
uneven cooling.
Section Changes.
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Section Changes.
If a section change-over of
greater than 2:1 is not
avoidable:
Design section as two
separate castings that can
be fastened together later.
Use wedge form between
unequal sections. Taper
not to exceed 1:4.
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Holes and Pockets.
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Holes and Pockets.
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Casting.
Cores.
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Cores.
Methods to
minimize core in
casting.
Cores.
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Cores.
Side-bosses and
undercuts normally
require use of cores
as part of mold.
Elimination of side-
bosses and
undercuts from
casting design
minimizes casting
problems.
It is generally
desirable to
minimize the use
of cores.
Small changes in
the location (or)
orientation of the
parting plane can
be done. Elimination of a core by changing the location (or)
orientation of the parting plane reduces the cost of
casting significantly.
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Design Considerations in Casting.
Minor changes in
design of cast
component shape
can minimize the
use of cores.
Cores.
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Gears, Pulleys and wheels.
Desirable to have an
odd number of spokes.
Curved spokes
dissipate additional
heat, minimize residual
stresses.
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Gears, Pulleys and Wheels.
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Weight Reduction.
Sand-mold casting
permits easy change of
prototype (with wooden
pattern) and quick
verification prior to
more expensive, high
volume production
molds.
Metal Inserts.
Designer might wish to
introduce a section of a
different metal (either harder /
softer than the base metal) in a
casting component.
Most often they are held
together by mechanical
interlocking than by fusion.
Inserts to be designed to have
projections that prevent turning
/ lateral movement.
These inserts are not normally
pressure-tight unless sealed
after casting.
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Design considerations in Castings.
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Design of castings to facilitate machining.
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Machining
allowance -
one side for
castings.
Casting shrinkage
across a bore is less
predictable than other
dimensions (due
variable cooling across
thickness).
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Other Casting Methods.
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Low Pressure Permanent-mold Casting.
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Permanent Mold Castings Vs Sand-mold
casting.
Permanent Mold Castings - Advantages:
Appropriate for simple in shape, less intricate
than die castings.
Superior to die castings from view point of
strength, density, pressure tightness and mold
cost.
Improved density is the reason for casting
automotive pistons in permanent molds
compared to die-casting.
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Permanent Mold Casting Vs Sand-Mold
Casting.
Typical Permanent Mold Casting:
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Economic Production Quantities.
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Design Considerations (Permanent Mold).
Draft:
Draft is required on the walls of permanent mold castings to
permit easy removal of casting from the mold.
Recommended minimum draft for external surfaces is 1 to
3 degrees – 2 to 5 degrees for internal surfaces.
Additional draft is required for lower thickness walls as well
as inside sections, as the metal shrinks away from the mold
surface but tightens around cores during solidification.
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Design Considerations (Permanent Mold).
Wall Thickness:
Minimum wall thickness of
permanent mold castings is
~ 3 mm (for small castings).
Ribs:
Design guidelines similar to
what was followed in sand-
mold castings is applicable
– minimum intersections,
radial branch-outs at
intersections.
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Design Considerations (Permanent Mold)
Inserts:
Inserts can be incorporated.
Some locking feature – grooves, knurls, slots, holes,
lugs are required to ensure secure positioning of
inserts.
Full wall thickness should be provided around the
inserts to avoid over-stressing of casting.
Parting Line:
Similar to the case of sand-mold casting. Flat parting
surface between mold halves is preferable. Casting
should be designed to permit flat parting surface and
have convenient parting plane location.
Machining Allowance:
Permanent mold castings
are more accurate in
dimensions than sand- For sand-core surfaces:
mold castings and require Minimum allowance: 1.5 mm
less post-casting
Preferred allowance: 2.0 mm
machining.
If required, some
machining allowance is
added to permanent mold
castings (ranging from 0.8
mm to 2 mm).
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Design Considerations (Permanent Mold).
Recommended
Thickness.
Surface Finish:
Low pressure process – 0.5 to 3.2 microns
Conventional process – 3.8 to 13 microns.
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Centrifugal Castings.
A cost-effective process
for producing hollow
cylindrical parts, circular
plates, intricate parts.
Typical r.p.m – 300 ~
3000 r.p.m.
Classification:
True Centrifugal casting
Semi-centrifugal
casting.
Centrifuging.
Centrifugal casting.
Centrifuging:
Several molds are located radially
about a central riser / sprue and
the entire mold is rotated with
central sprue as axis of rotation.
Centrifugal force provides a
means for obtaining more pouring
pressure inside the mold cavity.
The centrifugal force is directly
proportional to the distance from
the axis of rotation and square of
r.p.m.
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Centrifuge Casting.
Semi-Centrifugal casting.
Process of casting
symmetrical shapes about the
rotational vertical axis.
Central hole is formed by an
expendable sand core which
is placed in the mold at each
casting cycle.
Molten metal introduced
through a gate, which is
placed on the axis and flows
outward to the extreme edges
of mold cavity.
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Semi-Centrifugal casting.
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Molds used in Centrifugal Casting.
Permanent Mold
Made of steel, iron or graphite.
Graphite molds are used for Ti-casting.
Side lined mold.
A flask with a baked or green-sand lining is placed
horizontally on a casting machine, where it is rotated by
rollers.
Molten metal is fed into one end of mold cavity and is
carried to the walls of cavity by centrifugal force.
Rotation speeds can produce up to 150 times the force of
gravity.
High forces are required for casting exceptionally thick
walls.
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Economic production quantities.
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Design Considerations in Centrifugal
casting.
Sand molds for true centrifugal castings do not
require drafts.
However, draft allowance should be made
centrifuged parts as in sand-casting.
When using cast-iron molds, provide draft.
As the diameter increases, draft increases.
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Design Considerations in Centrifugal
Casting.
Recommended
Tolerances:
Surface Finish:
Metal molds – 4.4 –
6.3 microns
Sand mold – 12 -20
microns.
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Plaster Mold Castings.
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Plaster mold castings.
Plaster-mold casting.
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Design guidelines – Plaster Mold Casting.
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Cost considerations in sand casting
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Ceramic mold castings.
Usually referred to as
‘Cope-and-drag
investment casting’.
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Ceramic Mold castings.
Refractory slurry is made of fine-grained zircon,
fused silica etc.
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Ceramic Mold Castings.
Design Considerations:
Suffers from Chill effect as mold materials are
good insulators. Results in coarse grains and
reduced strength.
Designer needs to compensate for low strength by
increased section thickness.
Add inoculants / grain refiners to molten metal for
improving nucleation.
Introduce chills in mold.
Post-casting heat-treatment to relieve the stresses.
Tolerances:
As cast surface – 3 micron surface finish.
Dimensional tolerance: +/- 0.1 mm for first 25 mm
and +/- 0.025 mm/cm for larger dimensions.
Additional tolerance of +/- 0.3 mm for parting line
(across parting line).
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Investment Castings.
Investment Castings.
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Investment Casting.
Sequence:
Injection mold wax / plastic
pattern. Wax pattern is less
expensive.
Assemble patterns to form
a ‘cluster’/’tree’.
Pre-coat cluster with
investment material and
sand and dry thoroughly.
Insert cluster in flask.
Investment Casting.
Sequence (Contd..)
Melt out wax pattern by baking
the flask (inverted) for about 12
hours at 190 C.
Burn-out the flask to remove all
traces of wax / plastic to cure
the investment. Burn-out
temperature is 980 C for 4 h
after 55 C/h temperature rise
from wax-melting temperature.
Pour molten metal into mold
cavities of flask.
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Investment casting.
Sequence:
Shake-out: Remove cluster from flask. Remove
investment material with pneumatic hammer.
De-scale cluster: Immerse cluster for 10 – 15
min in 600 C salt-bath followed by an immediate
cold-water dip- Neutralize and clean rinse.
Remove parts from cluster by band-saw /
grinding wheel.
Remove gates from parts for subsequent
processing.
Investment casting.
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Investment Casting.
Shell Molding:
Lower tendency for surface decarburization of
cast part.
Mold cracking is likely if plastic patterns are used.
Detailed definition of part could be poor due to
rapid cooling of melted metal.
Investment Casting.
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Investment Casting.
Typical parts
cast.
Investment Casting.
EPQ:
Good for low to medium production levels.
Good for applications where machining requirements are
extensive – even for large volumes.
Tooling costs for wax-pattern low, if the mold is made from
master pattern by spraying method.
Low-cost molds made by low temperature alloy spray has a
life of 800-1200 castings.
Permanent soft-metal molds have life of the order of 10000-
15000 pieces.
For higher production levels, Al / steel machined molds are
used.
Investment casting is used for proto-type manufacturing.
Investment cast parts are more expensive compared to
powder-metal / die-cast production process and not used for
high volume production.
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Investment Casting – Design
Considerations.
Investment casting permits easy casting of complex
shapes.
In some cases, two or more separate parts can be
cast in one-setting in investment casting and cut
later for machining / assembly.
Well-located, straight parting line, adequate draft,
avoidance of under-cuts, use of fillets and radii
improve the investment casting.
Materials Cast:
Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be investment
cast – Metals meltable with standard induction / gas
furnaces can be used.
Die Casting.
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Die-Casting (Hot-Chamber Process).
Sequence of operation:
(1) – Die Closed and hot
chamber (Goose-neck)
is filled with molten
metal.
(2) - Plunger injects
molten metal into die
cavity. Metal held
under pressure till
solidification is over.
(3) - Die opens – core
slides retract. Plunger
returns taking back
molten metal.
(4) Ejector pin pushes
casting.
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Die Casting.
Advantages:
High rate of production.
High accuracy in sustaining dimensions of parts (engine
blocks of two-wheelers, front forks of bikes etc).
Smooth surface finish for minimum mechanical finishing.
Ability to incorporate holes, openings, slots.
Ability to cast pressure-tight parts.
Ability to cast inserts (pins, studs, shafts, linings, bushings,
fasteners etc).
Thinner wall casting method.
Variety of metals: Al, Zn, Brass, Mg.
Die Casting
Limitations:
Dies are complex and expensive, if they have moving elements
for coring details – Not economical for small volume production.
Micro-porosity is common in die-castings as the die is filled under
good pressure and solidification begins in less than 1/5th of a
second.
Under-cuts cannot be introduced in two simple-die pieces. If
essential, additional core slides (moving die elements) are
required – increase in manufacturing cost.
Size of cast part is limited by machine capability. 3000 ton press
is required to cast 45 kg Al by die casting process for an effective
area of 7700 cm 2 effective area.
Alloys with most attractive properties are those with least
castability – so list of alloys that can be cast is restricted.
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Die Casting – Applications.
Generally non-ferrous
materials of intricate
shape, mass-
production items
Automobiles, appliances,
computer peripherals,
Photographic equipment,
toys etc.
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Die Casting - EPQ
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Die Casting – Suitable Materials.
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Die Casting – General Design
Considerations.
It is possible to integrate several parts into a single
component and be cast by die-casting method. This reduced
part count (less inventory), improves design (modularizing)
and cuts down assembly cost and over-all product cost.
Example: printer head assembly.
Care on die-making: Dies are usually hardened after
machining to achieve the highest strength. Subsequent
modifications to dies not easy to implement.
Design of Ejector Pins – location: If impressions left by ejector
pin are not tolerable / cannot be hidden, alternate
arrangements such as ring / sleeve ejection should be
considered.
Blind recess in the die, such as those required to form
bosses, cause sub-surface porosity due to trapped air.
Wall Thickness:
Process designed for uniform wall thickness < 6 mm.
Big changes in section area / parts with greater thickness
should be avoided.
Skin of die-cast part chills rapidly, resulting in fine-grained,
dense-structure, free from porosity. Skin thickness – 0.4 –
0.63 mm, depends on casting size.
All-skin die-cast component has good strength-to-weight
ratio.
Preferred wall thickness: 0.75 mm to 1.3 mm.
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Die Casting – Wall Thickness.
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Die Casting – Machining Allowance.
Die Casting
Die Sinking –
Economical design.
Castings designed with
concave features on
outside walls are
economical to die-cast as
the machining of die
cavities is easy with
matching convex
features.
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Die Casting – Dimensions and Tolerances.
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Computer Simulation of Casting Process.
Modeling casting
process:
Metal flow / fluid flow
(using Bernoulli’s
equation and continuity
equation)
Heat transfer in casting
Hot-spots
Microstructure prediction
during solidification.
Fluid flow:
Predicts behavior of metal during pouring into the gating system
and its travel in mold cavity.
Includes pressure and velocity distributions in the casting.
Heat Transfer:
Investigates the fluid flow and heat transfer, effect of surface
condition, thermal properties of materials, natural and forced
convection during cooling.
Surface conditions vary as layers of metal are formed. Also a
layer of air develops in the casting due to shrinkage.
Microstructure Modeling:
Includes heat transfer, fluid flow, temperature gradients,
nucleation and grain growth, movement of liquid-solid interface
during solidification.
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Computer Simulation of Casting process.
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