Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Scope: This subject deals with the introduction Database, Database Management system,
computer application in clinical studies and use of databases.
Objectives: Upon completion of the course the student shall be able to
1. know the various types of application of computers in pharmacy
2. know the various types of databases
3. know the various applications of databases in pharmacy
UNIT – IV 06 hours
Bioinformatics: Introduction, Objective of Bioinformatics, Bioinformatics
Databases, Concept of Bioinformatics, Impact of Bioinformatics in Vaccine
Discovery
UNIT-V 06 hours
Computers as data analysis in Preclinical development: Chromatographic dada
analysis(CDS), Laboratory Information management System (LIMS) and Text
Information Management System(TIMS)
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INFORMATION GATHERING
The principal objective of an information system is to provide informational aid to every person
in the organization and hence making him more effective in his working. It is therefore necessary
to monitor the existing information system, identify its deficiencies and updating it to improve
the organizational performance.
These task are taken care by system analysts who first collects the information from the system
users through direct dialogue or through written communication.
The direct dialogue is often referred to as an interview for a written inquiry; the inquirer prepares
a detailed questionnaire and sends it to the information provider, who provides specific replies to
the questions.
These two information search methods interview and questionnaire are used in the following
ways:
1. Interview
It is the most effective method for collection of information for assessing the functioning of
existing system. Both, the system analyst and the system users, must be fully prepared, and have
enough of free time. System analyst must write down the responses of users during the process
of interview.
All the persons within the system boundaries must be interviewed in an order from top to bottom
from the first system activity toward the last activity. The analyst must enlist all the persons in
the above order and the interviews must be conducted strictly in that order only so that
information integration can be done for system modeling.
B. Interview Methods
The interview of different people has to be conducted differently depending upon their levels and
the information content. Before conducting the interview, the analyst must ensure the status and
role of the person in the information system. Accordingly, an ordered list of questions must be
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framed for the interview. Each interview must start with simple and convenient questions to
encourage the interviewee.
Questions put during an interview are of two type- closed type-yes/no, suggestive of a reply, and
open type. The sequencing of the question can be-
2. Questionnaire
This method has the advantages of extracting point-to-point information. It saves times of both,
the SA and the system users, as both can work according to their own conveniences.
The questioner technique has the limitation of rigidity and the questions are also prone to
different interpretations by different peoples and hence, extract ambiguous and some time
misleading information.
Information collection from the users is a tedious and boring task, the common problems in the
information received from various sources are-
5. The System Analyst may not be reaching the real source of information
HTML Documents
All HTML documents must start with a document type declaration: <!DOCTYPE html>.
The HTML document itself begins with <html> and ends with </html>.
The visible part of the HTML document is between <body> and </body>.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Page Title</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>My First Heading</h1>
<p>My first paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
HTML Tags
Web Browsers
The purpose of a web browser (Chrome, IE, Firefox, Safari) is to read HTML documents and
display them.
The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to determine how to display the
document:
There are four steps below to create your first web page with Notepad:
Save the file on your computer. Select File > Save as in the Notepad menu.
Name the file "index.htm" and set the encoding to UTF-8 (which is the preferred encoding for
HTML files).
Open the saved HTML file in your favorite browser (double clicks on the file, or right-click - and
choose "Open with").
HTML Paragraphs
Example
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
HTML Links
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
</body>
</html>
HTML Images
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
<img src="w3schools.jpg" alt="W3Schools.com" width="104" height="142">
</body>
</html>
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CSS is used to define styles for your web pages, including the design, layout and variations in
display for different devices and screen sizes.
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
When tags like <font>, and color attributes were added to the HTML 3.2 specification, it started
a nightmare for web developers. Development of large websites, where fonts and color
information were added to every single page, became a long and expensive process.
To solve this problem, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created CSS.
With an external stylesheet file, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just
one file!
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CSS Syntax:
Each declaration includes a CSS property name and a value, separated by a colon.
A CSS declaration always ends with a semicolon, and declaration blocks are surrounded by curly
braces.
In the following example all <p> elements will be center-aligned, with a red text color:
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p { color: red; text-align: center; }
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello World! </p>
<p> These paragraphs are styled with CSS. </p>
</body>
</html>
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The id Selector
The id selector uses the id attribute of an HTML element to select a specific element.
The id of an element should be unique within a page, so the id selector is used to select one
unique element!
To select an element with a specific id, write a hash (#) character, followed by the id of the
element.
The style rule below will be applied to the HTML element with id="para1":
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
#para1 { text-align: center; color: red; }
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p id="para1">Hello World!</p>
<p>This paragraph is not affected by the style.</p>
</body>
</html>
To select elements with a specific class, write a period (.) character, followed by the name of the
class.
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In the example below, all HTML elements with class="center" will be red and center-aligned:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
.center {text-align: center; color: red;}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1 class="center">Red and center-aligned heading</h1>
<p class="center">Red and center-aligned paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
With an external style sheet, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just one
file!
Each page must include a reference to the external style sheet file inside the <link> element. The
<link> element goes inside the <head> section:
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css">
</head>
<body>
<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
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An external style sheet can be written in any text editor. The file should not contain any html
tags. The style sheet file must be saved with a .css extension.
body {
background-color: lightblue;
}
h1 {
color: navy;
margin-left: 20px;
}
Note: Do not add a space between the property value and the unit (such as margin-left: 20 px;).
The correct way is: margin-left: 20px
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What is XML?
<note>
<to>Alok</to>
<from>John</from>
<heading>Reminder</heading>
<body>Don't forget me this weekend!</body>
</note>
All the tags are defined by the author and not predefined like the HTML tags
The tags in the example above (like <to> and <from>) are not defined in any XML standard.
These tags are "invented" by the author of the XML document.
HTML works with predefined tags like <p>, <h1>, <table>, etc.
With XML, the author must define both the tags and the document structure.
The same XML data can be used in many different presentation scenarios.
Because of this, with XML, there is a full separation between data and presentation.
In many HTML applications, XML is used to store or transport data, while HTML is used to
format and display the same data.
When displaying data in HTML, you should not have to edit the HTML file when the data
changes.
With a few lines of JavaScript code, you can read an XML file and update the data content of
any HTML page.
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Web Servers
A web server is a computer or more formally a software application that runs websites. It's a
computer program that distributes web pages as they are demanded.
The basic objective of the web server is to store, process and deliver web pages to the users. This
intercommunication is done using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). These web pages are
mostly static content that includes HTML documents, images, style sheets, test etc.
Apart from HTTP, a web server also supports SMTP (Simple Mail transfer Protocol) and FTP
(File Transfer Protocol) protocol for emailing and for file transfer and storage.
When anyone requests for a website by adding the URL or web address on a web browser’s (like
Chrome or Firefox) address bar (like www.google.com ), the browser sends a request to the
Internet for viewing the corresponding web page for that address.
A Domain Name Server (DNS) converts this URL to an IP Address (For example
192.168.216.345), which in turn points to a Web Server.
The Web Server is requested to present the content website to the user’s browser. All websites
on the Internet have a unique identifier in terms of an IP address. This Internet Protocol address
is used to communicate between different servers across the Internet.
These days, Apache server is the most common web server available in the market. Apache is
open source software that handles almost 70 percent of all websites available today. Most of the
web-based applications use Apache as their default Web Server environment. Another web
server that is generally available is Internet Information Service (IIS). IIS is owned by
Microsoft.
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In a hirarchical database, the data elements are linked in the form of an inverted tree structure
with the root at the top, and the branceches formed below. There is a parent-child relationship
among the data elements of a hirarchical database. A papernt data element is the one that has one
or more subordinate data elements. The data elements that are below a parent data elements are
its childern data elements.
For exapmple, let us take the example of a hirarchical database of an organizations’s employees.
Eployees are categorized by the department in which they work, and within a department, they
are categorized by their job funciton, such as manager, engineers, technicians, and support staff.
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A Network database structure is an extension of the hirarchical database strcuture. In this model
also, the data elements of a database are organized in the form of parent-child relationships, and
all the types of relationships among the data elements must be determined when the database is
first designed.
In a network database, however, a child data element can have more then one parent element or
no parent at all. This database permit the extraction of needed information by beginning from
any data element in the database strcuture, instead of starting from the root data element.
For example, network database which maintains the relationships among the courses offered and
the students enrolled for each course in a college. As can be seen from the example, the parent
and child elements can have many-to-many relationships in a network database structure. That is,
each student may be enrolled for several courses, and each course may have a number of
students enrolled for it.
With this database structure, it is possible to easily produce both a course-wise students report (a
report showing all studnets enrolled for each course) and a student-wise courses report (a report
showing all courses taken by each student).
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In a relational database, the data elements are organzied in the form of multiple tables with rows
and coloumns. Each table of the database is stored as a separate file. Each table coloumn
represent a data field, and each row a data record (all know as tuple).
The data in one table is related to data in another table with a common field.
For exaple, a sample library database is comprised of three tables. The first table contains the
data of library members, the second table contains the data of borrowed books, and the third
table contains the data of books in the library.
Each new member is assigned a membership number and issued a library card with this number
on it. The memebr’s name, address, and membership number are added in member data table.
When a member borrows a book, the membership number of the borrower, the book’s ISBN
number (which serves as a unique identification number for a book), and the due date for
returning the book are added to the second table. The first and second tables are related by the
‘Membership No.’ common field, and the second and third tables are related by the “Book
No.” common field.
Now let us assume that the librarian wants a report of overdue books as of 10-11-2001, and
wants the list to contain the borrower’s details and the book’s details for each overdue book. To
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produce such a report, the database search routine will first search for the due date field in the
borrowed book data table to surface the three overdues books. The database management system
will then use the ‘Membership No’ filed to cross-reference the book’s details of each overdue
book from the member’s data table, and the ‘Book No.’ field to cross-reference the book’s
details of each overdue book from the book data table. The final report thus produced, would
look something like the one shown in figure.
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What is SQL?
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g.
"Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data.
Contact Postal
Customer ID Customer Name Name Address City Code Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ana Trujillo
Emparedados y Avda. de la México
2 helados Ana Trujillo Constitución 2222 D.F. 5021 Mexico
Antonio Moreno Antonio México
3 Taquería Moreno Mataderos 2312 D.F. 5023 Mexico
Thomas WA1
4 Around the Horn Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London 1DP UK
Christina S-958
5 Berglunds snabbköp Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå 22 Sweden
Table Customers
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The following SQL statement selects all the records in the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT Syntax
The following SQL statement selects the "Customer Name" and "City" columns from the
"Customers" table:
Example
SELECT * Example
The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:
Example
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.
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WHERE Syntax
The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in the
"Customers" table:
Example
DrugBank
DrugBank is widely used by the drug industry, medicinal chemists, pharmacists, physicians,
students and the general public. Its extensive drug and drug-target data has enabled the discovery
and repurposing of a number of existing drugs to treat rare and newly identified illnesses.
The latest release of the database (version 5.0) contains 9591 drug entries including 2037 FDA-
approved small molecule drugs, 241 FDA-approved biotech (protein/peptide) drugs, 96
nutraceuticals and over 6000 experimental drugs. Additionally, 4270 non-redundant protein
(i.e. drug target/enzyme/transporter/carrier) sequences are linked to these drug entries.
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CTD is a unique resource where biocurators[6][7] read the scientific literature and manually
curate four types of core data:
1. Chemical-gene interactions
2. Chemical-disease associations
3. Gene-disease associations
4. Chemical-phenotype associations
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Hospital pharmacy is division of hospital which monitors on the receiving and allotment of drugs
and medicines and professional supplies, stores them and dispenses to inpatient, outpatient and
may have a manufacturing extension to manufacture pharmaceuticals and *parenteral in bulk.
Clinical pharmacy is the branch of Pharmacy where pharmacists provide patient care that
optimizes the use of medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention.
Patient record maintenance is vital job in hospitals but with the help of computers, data can be
maintained easily and also updated time to time. Inventory control i.e. purchasing, receiving,
warehousing and storage, turnover, and reordering can be achieved very well by using
computers.
Pharmacokinetics (PK) describes how the body affects a specific xenobiotic/chemical after
administration through the mechanisms of Absorption, and Distribution, as well as the
Metabolic changes of the substance in the body (e.g. by metabolic enzymes such as cytochrome
P450* or glucuronosyltransferase enzymes), and the effects and routes of Excretion of the
metabolites of the drug. These four processes: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and
Elimination or Excretion are also called ADME.
*Cytochromes P450 (CYPs) are primarily membrane-associated proteins located either in the inner membrane of
mitochondria or in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells. CYPs are the major enzymes involved in drug metabolism,
accounting for about 75% of the total metabolism. Most drugs undergo deactivation by CYPs, either directly or by
facilitated excretion from the body. Also, many substances are bioactivated by CYPs to form their active
compounds.
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Nearly 40% of drug candidates fail in clinical trials due to poor ADME (absorption, distribution,
metabolism, and excretion) properties. These late-stage failures contribute significantly to the
rapidly escalating cost of new drug development. The ability to detect problematic candidates
early can dramatically reduce the amount of wasted time and resources, and streamline the
overall development process.
The increased speed of computers as well as their storage capacity has led to the development of
numerous computer software programs that now allow for the rapid solution of complicated
pharmacokinetic equations and rapid modeling of pharmacokinetic processes i.e. in-silico
pharmacokinetics.
Some software used in. in-silico pharmacokinetics: QikProp, VolSurf, GastroPlus, ALOGPS,
OSIRISPropertyExplorer, SwissADME, Metrabase, PACT-F, TOXNET
1. Patient identification
2. Generating a complete active medication list, possibly incorporating electronic data
received from an insurance provider
3. Access to patient historical data
4. Prescribe or add new medication and select the pharmacy where the prescription will be
filled.
5. Educational capabilities (e.g., patient education, provider feedback)
Paper based discharge summaries are often illegible, incomplete or received too late for the
information to be considered clinically useful. Electronic discharge summaries can address
known deficiencies and improve the continuity of care, communication and accuracy of data
in discharge summaries. eDischarge solution enables doctors to:
1. Rapidly record all diagnoses, treatments & medications at the point of care.
2. Consultants can review & approve discharge summaries even after the patient has left
the hospital.
3. If the consultant sees any omissions or errors, these can be added or corrected to the
updated summary filed and sent to the patient’s physician instantaneously on
approval.
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Bar code medication administration (BCMA) is a bar code system to prevent medication errors
in healthcare settings and to improve the quality and safety of medication administration. The
overall goals of BCMA are to improve accuracy, prevent errors, and generate online records of
medication administration.
Wrong drug and wrong dose errors are the most common errors associated with ADC use. Look-
alike drug names and drug packages are common variables that lead to selection errors. For
example, morphine and hydromorphone are two different opioid analgesics that frequently get
confused.
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Adherence is generally described as the extent to which patients take medications as prescribed
by their health care providers. Adherence to long-term therapy in outpatient setting is required to
reduce the prevalence of chronic diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Diabetes, Tuberculosis and
Malaria.
Healthcare providers are using a variety of mobile technologies to help patients take their
medications and remain on a care plan. The consequences of non-adherence can be costly - and
deadly.
To remind people to pick up or renew their prescriptions, doctors and pharmacies are using
mHealth platforms that send automated, personalized messages to a patient’s e-mail,
smartphone or even a smartwatch (patients can program their own reminders as well). Digital
or smart pillboxes, meanwhile, can keep track of medications, remind a patient to take a
medication and even record and send that data back to caregivers.
Smart Watches
There are at least five categories of patients who need physiological monitoring:
1. Patients with unstable physiological regulatory systems; for example, a patient whose
respiratory system is suppressed by a drug overdose or anesthesia
2. Patients with a suspected life-threatening condition; for example, a patient who has findings
indicating an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack)
4. Patients in a critical physiological state; for example, patients with multiple trauma or septic
shock.
Because of these requirements, ICUs have become widely established in hospitals. Such units
use computers almost universally for the following purposes:
Pharmacy Management Information System (PMIS) basically deals with the maintenance of
drugs and consumables in the pharmacy unit. The system will ensure availability of sufficient
quantity of drugs and consumable materials for the patient. This will enhance the efficiency of
clinical work; ease the patients’ convenience and process drug prescriptions effectively.
The system will help removing time wasting, saving resources, allow easy access to medicine, as
well as bring on more security on the data compared to manual based system.
Importance of PMIS
1. A good PMIS provides the necessary information to make sound decisions in the
pharmaceutical sector.
2. Effective pharmaceutical management requires policy makers, program managers and
health care providers to monitor information related to patient adherence, drug resistance,
availability of medicines and laboratory supplies,
3. Patient safety, product registration, product quality, financing and program management
etc.