FUSE

The definition of a fuse is an electrical safety device that can stop current from flowing
if it becomes overloaded, or a device that is used to ignite an explosive device.

In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is an electrical safety device that

operates to provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit. Its essential
component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows through it,
thereby interrupting the current.

Checking : If you’re using a digital multimeter set to measure continuity, the meter
should beep continuously as you hold the leads to the ends of the fuse. That means the
circuit is complete. If it does not do so, the fuse is blown. You should always test that
your multimeter is functioning correctly before using by touching the two probes
together. If you hear a beep, your multimeter is working correctly and ready to use.

NTC thermistor
NTC stands for “Negative Temperature Coefficient”. NTC thermistors are resistors with
a negative temperature coefficient, which means that the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature. They are primarily used as resistive temperature sensors and
current-limiting devices. The temperature sensitivity coefficient is about five times
greater than that of silicon temperature sensors (silistors) and about ten times greater
than those of resistance temperature detectors (RTDs). NTC sensors are typically used
in a range from −55°C to 200°C.

NTC thermistor definition

An NTC thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance exhibits a large,

precise and predictable decrease as the core temperature of the resistor increases over
the operating temperature range.

NTC thermistor symbol

The following symbol is used for a negative temperature coefficient thermistor,

according to the IEC standard.
 NTC thermistor
IEC standard

PTC thermistors
PTC stands for „Positive Temperature Coefficient“. PTC thermistors are resistors with a
positive temperature coefficient, which means that the resistance increases with
increasing temperature.
PTC thermistor definition
A PTC thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance increases
significantly with temperature.

PTC thermistor symbol

The following symbol is used for a positive temperature coefficient thermistor, according
to the IEC standard.

PTC thermistor symbol

IEC standard

Ring Resister
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce
current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses.

SMD Resister
Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for producing electronic circuits in
which the components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit
boards (PCBs).

Network Resister
Network resistor is a passive circuit element that is a combination of multiple
resistances. It forms a convenient solution when the user needs multiple resistances
while constructing a circuit. The manner in which the constituent resistances are
combined can vary according to the circuit requirement.

DIODE
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite direction
(the reverse direction). As such, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of
a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to
convert alternating current (ac) to direct current (dc). Forms of rectifiers, diodes can be
used for such tasks as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

Reverse bias
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in
potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant
electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction
by, for instance, light; see photodiode). This is called the reverse bias phenomenon.
Forward bias
However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential,
recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current
through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at
the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for
germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external voltage greater than and
opposite to the built-in voltage is applied, a current will flow and the diode is said to be
"turned on" as it has been given an external forward bias. The diode is commonly said
to have a forward "threshold" voltage, above which it conducts and below which
conduction stops. However, this is only an approximation as the forward characteristic is
smooth.
How to test Diode

We know that fact that resistance of diode in forward biased condition is low and the
resistance of diode in reverse biased condition is high.
Keep the multimeter in the ohmmeter section. If we measure the resistance of a diode
using the connections like red lead to anode and black lead(common) to cathode, a
healthy forward biased diode will give low resistance.
A high resistance reading in both directions indicates an open(defective device)
condition, while a very low resistance reading in both directions will probably indicate a
shorted device.

Power Diode
Introduction:
Diode is a two terminal P-N junction semiconductor device, with terminals anode (A)
and cathode (C).
Symbol:
The symbol of the Power diode is same as signal level diode.

If terminal A experiences a higher potential compared to terminal K, the device is said to

be forward biased and a forward current will flow from anode to cathode.
This causes a small voltage drop across the device (<1V) called as forward voltage
drop(Vf), which under ideal conditions is usually ignored.
By contrast, when a diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct and the diode then
experiences a small current flowing in the reverse direction called the leakage current.

Capacitors
What is the main function of a capacitor?

Its function is to store the electrical energy and give this energy again to the circuit
when necessary. In other words, it charges and discharges the electric charge stored in
it. Besides this, the functions of a capacitor are as follows: It blocks the flow of DC and
permits the flow of AC.
A capacitor made from two conductive plates with an insulator between them and it
stores electrical energy in the form of an electric field. A capacitor blocks the DC signals
and allows the AC signals and also used with a resistor in a timing circuit.

The capacitor formula is represented by

C = EA/d

Capacitance (C) is proportional with the Permittivity ℰ of dielectric medium and

proportional to the area of the two conducting plates (A).

The value of the capacitance depends on the distance between the plates (d).

The larger the area of the plates separated by a small distance, the greater the
capacitance and located in a high Permittivity material.

By varying E, d or A one can easily change the value of C.

Unit of the capacitor ‘Farad’. But it is usually found in micro farad, Pico farad and nano
farad.

The stored charge is Q=CV

Where
C is the capacitance of a capacitor and
V is the applied voltage.

Capacitors

These capacitors are different types like film, ceramic, electrolytic and variable
capacitors. For finding its value number and color coding methods are used and it also
possible to find the capacitance value with LCR meters.

Types of Capacitors
The various types of capacitors are:

Paper Capacitor

Paper Capacitor

Ceramic Capacitor

Ceramic Capacitor

Electrolyte Capacitor

Eletctrolytic Capacitor

Polyester Capacitor
 Polyester Capacitor

Poly Carbonate Capacitors

Polycarbonate Capacitor

Variable Capacitor

Variable Capacitor

Measuring That Charge

How can you measure how much charge is stored in a capacitor? Every cap is made to
hold a specific amount of capacitance. This is measured in Farads, after the English
Chemist Michael Faraday. Because one Farad will hold a ton of electrical charge, you’ll
typically see capacitors measured in picofarads or microfarads. Here’s a helpful chart
that shows how these measurements break down:

Name Abbreviation Farads

Picofarad pF 0.000000000001 F

Nanofarad nF 0.000000001 F

Microfarad uF 0.000001 F
Milifarad mF 0.001 F

Kilofarad kF 1000 F

Now, to figure out how much charge a capacitor is currently storing you need this
equation:

Q = CV

In this equation, the total charge is represented by (Q), and the relationship of that
charge can be found by multiplying a capacitor’s capacitance (C), and the voltage
applied to it (V). One thing to note here, the capacitance of a capacitor has a direct
relationship to its voltage. So the more you increase or decrease the voltage source in a
circuit, the more or less charge that your capacitor will have.

Capacitance in Parallel and Series

Circuits
When you place capacitors in parallel in a circuit, you can find the total capacitance by
adding all of the individual capacitances together.

Getting the total capacitance in a parallel circuit is as easy as 1+1, just add them all
together! (Image source)

When placing capacitors in series, the total capacitance of your circuit is the inverse of
all your capacitances added together. Here’s a quick example, if you have two 10F
capacitors wired in a series, then they’ll produce a total capacitance of 5F.

Getting total capacitance in a series circuit is a bit tougher. Capacitance gets cut in half.
General uses of Capacitors
 It is used for smoothing in power supply applications when required to convert the
signal from AC to DC.
 Signal coupling and decoupling as a capacitor coupling.
 It used for electrical power factor correction.
 In radio systems, LC oscillator is connected for tuning to the desired frequency.
 Used for the fixed discharging and charging time of the capacitors.
For Storing Energy.
 It allows an AC current to pass and blocks DC current in circuits.
 The frequency of any signal you’re trying to couple or noise you’re trying to suppress
 Minimum/maximum value required
 Desirable value
 Package/lead style
 Operating/maximum voltage
 Tolerance
 Equivalent series resistance
 Polarized ok? Or need non-polarized
 Operating temperature
 Tolerance including temperature coefficient
 Leakage
 Size requirement
 Price objective
 Price budget
 Customer’s prejudices
 Availability/lead time
 Lifetime requirement
 ROHS requirements
 Sample availability
 Tape and Reel
 Manufacturer’s reputation

Power Capacitor
Power conditioning. Reservoir capacitors are used in powersupplies where they smooth
the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits
as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input
voltage

What is power capacitor?

Power capacitors are passive electronic components that provide a static source of
reactive power in electrical distribution systems. They consist of two conducting plates
separated by an insulating material called the dielectric

Check a Capacitor By a Digital

Multimeter
To test a capacitor by DMM (Digital Multimeter), follow the steps given below.
1. Make sure the capacitor is discharged.
2. Set the meter on Ohm range (Set it at lease 1000Ohm = 1k).
3. Connect the meter leads to the capacitor terminals.
4. Digital meter will show some numbers for a second. Note the reading.
5. And then immediately it will return to the OL (Open Line). Every attempt of Step 2 will
show the same result as was in step 4 and Step 5. It’s mean that Capacitor is in
Good Condition.
6. If there is no Change, then Capacitor is dead.

Inductor
Inductor
 A selection of low-value inductors

Type Passive

Working principle Electromagnetic induction

First production Michael Faraday (1831)

Electronic symbol

An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component that stores energy in a magnetic fieldwhen electric current flows through
it. An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core.

Definition: The inductor is a passive component which stores the electrical energy in
the magnetic field when the electric current passes through it. Or we can say that the
inductor is an electrical device which possesses the inductance.
The inductor is made of wire which has the property of inductance, i.e., opposes the
flow of current. The inductance of wire increases by increasing the number of turns. The
alphabet ‘L’ is used for representing the inductor, and it is measured in Henry. The
inductance characterises the inductor. The figure below shows the symbolic
representation of inductor.
The electric current I flows through the coil generates the magnetic field around it.
Consider the magnetic field generates the flux Φ when current flows through it. The ratio

of the flux and the current gives inductances.

The inductance of the circuit depends on the current paths and the magnetic
permeability of the nearer material. The magnetic permeability shows the ability of the
material to forms the magnetic field.
How Inductor Works?
The inductor is an electrical device used for storing the electrical energy in the form of
the magnetic field. It is constructed by wounding the wire on the core. The cores are
made of ceramic material, iron or by the air. The core may be toroidal or E- shaped.
The coil-carrying the electric current induces the magnetic field around the conductor.
The intensity of the magnetic field increases if the core is placed between the coil. The
core provides the low reluctance path to the magnetic flux.

The magnetic field induces the EMF in the coil which causes the current. And according
to Lenz’s law, the causes always oppose the effect. Here, the current is the causes, and
it is induced because of the voltage. Thus, the EMF oppose the change of current that
changes the magnetic field. The current which reduces because of the inductance is
known as the inductive reactance. The inductive reactance increases with the increase
of the number of turn of coils.
Use of Inductor
They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this
purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of
different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to
tune radio and TV receivers.
Power Inductor PL
Inductors are used as the energy storage device in many switched-
mode powersupplies to produce DC current. The inductor supplies energy to the
circuit to keep current flowing during the "off" switching periods and enables
topographies where the output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
SMD Inductor

Surface mount power inductors are used to store energy while also filtering EMI
currents with a low-loss inductance for voltage conversion applications. They are also
used in DC-to-DC converters for a wide range of products in a variety of applications.
Requiring minimal printed circuit board (PCB) space, power inductors provide a high-
performance, multiphase design that significantly reduces the overall system cost.

TRANSFORMER
Definition of Transformer. A transformer is a static device which transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is
most commonly used to increase ('step up') or decrease ('step down') voltage levels
between circuits.
What is a transformer simple definition?
transformer. A device used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another.
With an alternating current, a transformer will either raise or lower the voltage as it
makes the transfer
Step-Up Transformer

Step Up Transformer
A step up transformer is the one in which the primary voltage of the coil is lesser than
secondary voltage. A Step-up transformer can be used for increasing voltage in the
circuit. It is used in flexible ac transmission systems.
Step-Down Transformer
 Step down transformer
A step-down transformer is used for reducing the voltage. The type
of transformer in which the primary voltage of the coil is greater than the secondary
voltage is termed as step down transformer. Most power supplies use a step-down
transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low voltage.
Auto Transformer
An autotransformer is a transformer in which part of the winding is common to both
primary and secondary circuits.
Not all the power traveling from the primary to secondary winding of
the autotransformergoes through the windings, so it can handle more power than a
standard transformer, with the same windings.