Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134

www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Evaluation of steel properties and cracking in “k”-area of W

shapes
*
R.H.R. Tide
Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., 330 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062, USA

Received 12 July 1997; accepted 9 January 1998

Abstract

Historically, the chemical composition and physical properties specified by the appropriate ASTM Standards were an indication
that the structural steel material was adequate for most common applications. Typically, only the chemistry, yield point, tensile
strength and elongation were provided on the mill test report. Changes in steel making processes came about slowly so that there
was no need for major changes in the ASTM Standards. During the post World War II period, riveted construction was replaced
by bolted and, more importantly, welded connections and structural shapes. At the same time, larger and longer span structures
became common. Within years, major problems were encountered. Fracture of bridge girders using heavy plates and frames using
heavy jumbo shapes alerted designers to the phenomena of Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness and brittle fracture. Appropriately,
the governing codes such as AASHTO, AREA and AISC introduced material requirements and testing to prevent steel with unaccept-
able properties from being used. Recently, another material property deficiency has been identified, namely cracking in the ‘k’ area
of hot rolled wide flange shapes. The shapes are produced from scrap iron in an electric furnace and continuously cast into near
shape configuration. It is not the scrap iron or the continuous casting into near shape that is the problem, but the final cold
straightening that alters the steel properties in the ‘k’ area. Extremely high yield stress almost equal to the elevated tensile strength
occurs with corresponding lowered elongation and single digit CVN toughness. This paper will show examples, discuss this phenom-
enon and explain its ramifications.  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Brittle fracture; Cold-working; Cracking; Flame cutting; Hardness; ‘k’-area; Liquid metal (zinc) embrittlement; Rotary straightening;
Strain aging; Strain-hardening; Welding; Wide flange

1. Introduction after ductile tearing initiation the cracks propagate due

Recent incidents of brittle crack initiation at the “k”-
area of wide flange beam and column sections suggest
that there is an inherent problem with some aspects of
current steel production methods. The “k”-area is located
in the web of the W-shape where the flange-to-web fillet
radius becomes tangent with the web. Cracking at the
end of continuity plate welds, weld access holes, bolt
holes, beam copes and ends of square cut shapes has
been documented in over 250 cases. Cracking has been
observed in W250 ⫻ 73 to W360 ⫻ 382 columns, and
W310 ⫻ 39 to W920 ⫻ 223 beams.
Some of the crack origins on extracted samples have
been verified by fractographic methods. It appears that
to brittle fracture. In the galvanized beam example, the
crack initiation appears to be by liquid metal (zinc)
embrittlement.
Tensile strength, hardness and CVN toughness were
obtained to quantify the distribution of material proper-
ties and cracking. These tests indicate that the material
properties in the “k”-area were considerably altered from
those properties commonly expected in the remainder of
the beam web and flanges. A fracture mechanics evalu-
ation was performed to verify that with the identified
properties, brittle fracture could be expected with the
existence of a nominal crack size of approximately
0.3 mm.
2. Background

* Tel.: ⫹ 1-847-272-7400; Fax: ⫹ 1-847-291-4813; E-mail: rti- Investigations have been performed [1–3] to deter-
de@wje.com mine the causes of cracks propagating at bolt holes, weld

0141-0296/00/$ - see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 1 - 0 2 9 6 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 1 0 2 - 3
 R.H.R. Tide / Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134
Fig. 1. Cracking at “k”-area at continuity plate weld termination.
Fig. 2. Crack originating in bolt hole and extending into flange.
access holes and continuity plate weld ends. See Figs.
1–3 for fracture examples. The crack in Fig. 1 propagates
away from a weld termination at the end of a continuity
plate in a wide flange column section. A complete joint
Fig. 3. Crack originating in weld access hole.
129
penetration weld was placed on either side of the column
web after the continuity plate-to-column flange welds
had been made. The cracks propagated on each side of
the weld or on only one side. Occasionally, the cracking
occurred at both ends of the continuity plate. The crack-
ing in Fig. 2 is from a different project’s diagonal brac-
ing and originated out of erection bolt holes in the web.
Completed flange welds and the erection plate that acts
as a backing bar restrained the web weld shrinkage. Fig.
3 represents another location in the same diagonal brac-
ing. In this case, cracking originated out of the flame cut
weld access hole. As will be explained subsequently, the
material properties affected by cold working and minor
surface irregularities were conducive to crack initiation.
In addition, recently identified cracks [4–6] in galvanized
steel members appear to have originated from small
crack initiation points caused by liquid metal (zinc)
embrittlement (see Fig. 4).
Examination (fractographic) of several samples has
verified that after initiation, the fractures propagate by
cleavage or brittle fracture because of the low notch
toughness. As of March 1997, 250 cracks have been
documented from numerous projects and more crack
incidents are known to exist. As the references indicate,
cracks have been observed in coped beams and at the
“k”-area of square cut ends of galvanized shapes. In the
latter cases, the column “k”-area was not restrained by
continuity plates welded between the flanges. Because
of the expressed concern, the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC) distributed a technical advisory [7]
about “k”-area cracking.
Earlier work [8,9] on steel wide flange shapes that
were rotary straightened did not identify any potential
problem at the “k”-area. These studies were concerned
with rotation capacity of beams applicable for plastic
design and axially loaded buckling capacity of columns.
No “k”-area cracking was reported in either case.
Fig. 4. Cracking in galvanized beam cope.
130 R.H.R. Tide / Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134
3. Testing program
The hardness readings, Rockwell B (RB), in the critical
area of the flange to web transition area (“k”-area) was
first quantified [3] from the low to high 90s indicating
a nominal tensile strength of approximately 690 MPa.
Tension tests indicate that the yield to tensile ratio nom-
inally exceeded 0.9 and the percent elongation was
somewhat less than 20%. These properties are not
expected for ASTM A572 steel with nominal 345 MPa
yield strength.
Supplemental testing was performed on a 460 mm
length of W920 ⫻ 223 beam to verify the properties
obtained in the commercial testing program [1–3]. Hard-
ness (RB) readings obtained from the “k”-area are shown
in Fig. 5 and the hardness magnitude and distribution
are similar to those in previous studies. See Fig. 6 for test
specimen locations. The hardness readings also confirm
earlier findings suggesting that the properties of concern
are essentially identical at both “k”-area locations along
the longitudinal axis of the wide flange shape. Because
these hardness readings are more closely spaced than in
previous studies their maximum value profile suggests
that the critical location is not at the “k”-distance but
slightly towards the flange from the flange-to-web filet.
Additional coupon testing by independent laboratories
provided yield stress, tensile strength and elongation
values for the beam web, flange and “k”-area as shown
in Table 1. These values can be compared with the certi-
fied mill test report (CMTR) listed values. In addition,
transverse tension coupons were extracted from the “k”-
area and tested to compare the transverse properties with
the longitudinal ones. In both cases, fracture occurred at
one end of the coupon indicating that the strain harden-
ing had also increased the “k”-area transverse strength.
A representative load–elongation curve is shown in Fig.
7. This suggests that transverse strength properties just
like the longitudinal ones are of concern but not as criti-
cal as the fracture issue.
A series of Charpy V-notch (CVN) tests were conduc-
ted to characterize the notch toughness of the wide flange
shapes in the “k”-area. A CVN profile is shown in Fig.
8, which indicates a zone of extremely low notch tough-
ness, centered in the general vicinity of the “k”-area.
Similarly, a CVN toughness–temperature profile is
shown in Fig. 9 to quantify the temperature effect. This
allows comparison of static notch toughness with CVN
test results using the temperature shift concept [10].
Metallographic examination of the grain structure in
the flange, flange to web transition (“k”-area) and web
indicates that the continuous cast process followed by
hot rolling results in a nominal fine grain practice with
excellent toughness. It is the subsequent cold working
to straighten the wide flange that lowers the CVN tough-
ness in the “k”-area. The actual rotary straightening tem-
perature is believed to exceed the nominal ambient tem-
perature because of the inherent increase in temperature
due to cold working. Similarly, although the actual rol-
ling strains are not known, large shear strains [11] will
result because of extensive cold working. Regardless, the
end result appears to be steel that has been cold-worked
in the vicinity of the ultimate tensile strength plateau.
As shown in Figs. 8 and 9, CVN toughness of 7 J and
as low as 2 J at 21°C have been previously documented
[1–3] in both the longitudinal and transverse directions.
Because the amount of cold-working strain at the “k”-
area is not available from the mills, a pilot test was con-
ducted by ATLSS Laboratory for WJE [12] to quantify
the effect of strain hardening and strain aging. The pilot
study indicated that strain hardening appears to be the
dominating factor with strain aging being of less impor-
tance. A laboratory test specimen was strained to 15%
and then aged at 90°C to simulate the construction con-
ditions. The resulting tensile, hardness and CVN proper-
ties were similar to the project data, indicating the gen-
eral magnitude of strain hardening and strain aging.
4. Fracture analysis
The significance of the low CVN toughness can be
quantified by performing a fracture mechanics analysis
considering the three variables: notch toughness, stress
level and defect size. Because of the CVN test data and
presence of residual stresses (approximately equal to the
yield strength of steel whenever welding or flame cutting
occurs) a critical defect size can be determined using the
other two known variables. The CVN data is converted
to a stress intensity factor in terms of notch toughness
by:
KId ⫽ 0.025√E(CVN)
where KId is dynamic notch toughness (MPa), E is the
modulus of elasticity (MPa) and CVN is Charpy V-notch
toughness (J).
A CVN of 3 J results in a notch toughness of 20 MPa
√m. Because KId is less than 28 MPa √m suggests that
the cold working may have begun to degrade the notch
toughness of the steel below the recognized atomic
boundary condition minimum notch toughness level.
Dynamic notch toughness (KId) obtained from the CVN
data can be converted to static notch toughness (Kc or
KIc) using Barsom’s empirical equation [10] mentioned
earlier. The appropriate notch toughness is based on a
plane stress (Kc) or plane strain (KIc) condition for slow
(static) loading or a plane strain condition (KId) for
dynamic loading. For typical structural steels, the tem-
perature shift correlation is given by:
Tshift ⫽ 101 ⫺ 0.12Fys
 R.H.R. Tide / Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134 131

Fig. 5. W920 ⫻ 223 hardness (RB) profile, see Fig. 6.

where Tshift is the temperature shift to convert KId to KIc
(°C) and Fys is room temperature yield strength (MPa).
The comparison between dynamic and static notch
toughness is shown schematically in Fig. 10. It should
be noted that the low notch toughness at the “k”-area
indicates that lower shelf properties are to be expected
and, therefore, KIc essentially equals KId and the tem-
perature shift concept is a moot issue.
The stress intensity factor (KI) in notch toughness
units at the crack tip is calculated and compared with
the notch toughness of the material in the vicinity of the
crack. The appropriate notch toughness (Kc, KIc, KId)
must be determined for the comparison to be valid. If
the stress intensity factor is less than the applicable
material notch toughness, the crack will remain stable,
and either elastic or plastic deformations will occur.
132 R.H.R. Tide / Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134

Fig. 6. Test coupon locations in a 460 mm piece of W920 ⫻ 223.

Table 1
Tensile properties of W920 ⫻ 223 beam

Test Fy Fu Elongation Area reduction Comments

location (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)

CMTRa 324 407 30.5 — 2 test average

Webb 313 411 41.0 — 1 test
Flangeb 280 403 44.0 — 1 test
k-areac longitudinal 598 648 15.0 54.8 1 test
k-aread transverse 418 456 16.5 59.4 2 test average

a
Certified mill test report.
b
Full thickness bar samples, 50 mm gage length.
c
Round, 6.35 mm dia., 25.4 mm gage length.
d
Round, 6.43 mm dia., 25.4 mm gage length.

Fig. 8. CVN toughness distribution across shape (W920 ⫻ 223).

Fig. 7. Load elongation for “k”-area transverse orientated tension
coupon.
 R.H.R. Tide / Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134
Fig. 9. CVN toughness–temperature distribution near “k”-area
(W920 ⫻ 223).
Fig. 10. Schematic representation of temperature shift.
Stress intensity factors greater than the material notch
toughness indicate that brittle fracture is probable. The
general correlation between notch toughness, stress
intensity level (KI) and defect size (edge crack) is
given by:
KI ⫽ 1.12␴√␲a
where ␴ is stress in the vicinity of the crack tip (MPa)
and a is the crack size (m).
With the previously computed notch toughness and an
assumed stress of 550 MPa, a critical crack size of
0.3 mm is computed. The introduction of a nominal
safety factor to the notch toughness would reduce the
allowable crack size to an even smaller magnitude. This
0.3 mm defect is small compared with the nominal flame
cut roughness of 5 mm permitted by AISC [13,14] in
Section M2.2.
5. Discussion
The case studies and investigations have identified a
steel wide flange shape material property that can have
significant ramifications for steel structures in general
133
and especially critical for steel structures subjected to
seismic loading. To help characterize the material
properties in the “k”-area, pilot testing has been perfor-
med to supplement the original investigation data. The
tests and metallographic investigations confirm that cold
working has strain-hardened the steel and that some
strain aging may have occurred.
Because brittle fractures have occurred around bolt
holes, beam copes, square cut ends of shapes and weld
access holes with no welding indicate that welding is not
the only or primary variable. The heating that occurs
during thermal cutting of copes and weld access holes
indicates that the thermal expansion of steel is a trig-
gering mechanism and not a root cause. Welding of con-
tinuity plates results in a highly restrained joint condition
around the web “k”-area that aggravates the joint con-
dition. Although it is the case that the larger the weld
the more shrinkage strain that must be accommodated,
this does not necessarily indicate that welding is the root
cause but more likely that it is also a triggering mech-
anism. Similarly, the liquid metal embrittlement and sub-
sequent micro-cracking from galvanizing only become
critical in the presence of low notch toughness material.
The same micro-cracking may occur at the edge of bolt
holes due to punching operations or aggressive use of
drift pins during steel erection.
Prior experience with jumbo wide flange shapes [15]
and with plates 50 mm and greater in thickness determ-
ined that production practices at the time resulted in
unacceptable material properties, including low levels of
notch toughness. Options considered in the mid 1980s
to identify the problem included tests such as chemical
analysis, hardness, grain structure, tensile properties and
other physical testing. CVN toughness was determined
to be the most logical parameter that, when controlled,
would result in steel with acceptable weldability and
brittle fracture resistant properties. As a result, AISC
[13,14] introduced a CVN toughness requirement of 27 J
at 21°C. This provision is located in Section A3.1c of
both the ASD and LRFD specifications.
6. Conclusions
The identification of the “k”-area cracking problem
has confronted the structural engineer with another chal-
lenge. Because this is a material related problem and
fabrication procedures could influence the outcome, it is
recommended that designers consider the following
points.
쐌 Incorporation of supplementary provisions in their
contract documents similar to the jumbo and heavy
plate provisions currently dictated by AISC. At the
current time, a tentative CVN toughness of 27 J at
21°C is recommended. The CVN samples should be
134 R.H.R. Tide / Engineering Structures 22 (2000) 128–134
extracted from the transition location (“k”-area) after
the final rotary straightening operation.
쐌 All flame cut surfaces in the “k”-area (copes, weld
access holes, edges) should be ground smooth. The
areas should be inspected including use of dye penetr-
ant and magnetic particle testing.
쐌 The contract documents should require that the fabri-
cator submit a shrinkage control (welding sequence)
plan and proposed details for highly restrained joints
to minimize welding problems.
The preliminary testing and investigation indicate that
steel properties in the “k”-area result in a critical fracture
problem. The test results also suggest that the material
strength issues, although generally critical in seismic
applications, may not be significant in non-seismic uses.
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