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BREWING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: A Comprehensive Approach
BREWING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY:
About the Book A Comprehensive Approach
International Edition
T he text, Brewing Science and Technology: A
Comprehensive Approach, is written in a
simple language and is easy to understand. It
is a comprehensive basic text, providing relatively
adequate literature for scholars, trainee brewers,
maltsters, undergraduate and graduate students of
Biochemistry, Food Science & Technology, Food
Engineering, Microbiology and all non-brewers who
would want to know what is happening in the brewing
industry. The book presents a holistic view of the
brewing process, traditional fermented beer-like
beverages, beer production and world economy,
development and growth of the brewing industry in
Nigeria, including the famous ban on importation of
brewing raw materials .It places emphasis on sorghum
as a brewing substrate highlighting some of the
biochemical problems that militated against sorghum
beer brewing and their resolutions through
conscientious research. The last chapter is an
invaluable asset to health-care providers as it shifts
emphasis from beer production to beer consumption,
presenting lucidly, the health benefits of moderate
beer consumption and the hazards associated with
alcoholism.
The author, Augustine C. Ogbonna, is a Professor of
Brewing Science & Technology, specializing in
...the inevitable transition...
malting technology and brewing enzymology,
Department of Food Science & Technology, Augustine C. Ogbonna, PhD
University of Uyo, Nigeria. He is an IFS/OPCW
Scholar and holds the best Ph.D Award from the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. His research
focus has been on evaluation of the brewing potentials
of improved sorghum varieties and making sorghum
malt a sustainable alternative to barley malt in lager
beer brewing.
Augustine C. Ogbonna, PhD.
BREWING SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY:
A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH
BREWING SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY:
Augustine C. Ogbonna
BREWING SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY:
iii
BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:
International Edition
© Augustine C. Ogbonna, 2013
Designed and Printed by:

Abaam Publishing Co.
G72, Ewet Housing Estate
Uyo-Nigeria
08023108979, 07032810477
ISBN: 978-654-382-4
First Printed in Nigeria

January 2011
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may

be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means or
otherwise without prior permission of the copyright
owner.
iv
CONTENTS
List of Tables - - - - - vi
List of Figures- - - - - - vii
Preface - - - - - - x
Foreword - - - xii
Chapter 1 - Introduction
§History and development of brewing - - 1
§
Types of beer - - - - - 11
§
Beer production and world economy - 12
Chapter 2 - Traditional Brewing Processes and

Traditional beers
§ The saké beer - - - - - 19
§ The merissa beer - - - - 23
§ The burukutu beer - - - - 26
§ The kaffir beer - - - - - 29
Chapter 3 - Beer industry and its growth in Nigeria

§ History and development of brewing in Nigeria 36
§ The ban on importation of brewing raw materials 40
§ Sorghum as a brewing raw material - - 46
§ Problems of sorghum as a brewing raw material 48
§ Research and prospects of sorghum as a
brewing raw material - - - - 50
Chapter 4 - Raw materials in beer brewing

§ Water - - - 58
§ Malt - - - 80
§ Yeast - - - 114
v
§
Hops - - - 142
§
Adjuncts - - - - - - 152
Chapter 5 - Unit operations in beer brewing

§ Overview of the beer brewing process - - 170
§ The milling operations - - - 170
§ Mashing and mashing processes - - 173
§ Wort boiling - - - - - 192
§ Wort fermentation - - - - 194
§ Secondary fermentation/lagering - - 200
§ Beer filtration - - - - - 201
§ Beer bottling/packaging - - - - 205
Chapter 6 - Beer and health

§ Reasons for beer/alcohol consumption - - 213
§ Nutritional and non-nutritional values of beer 216
§ Alcohol absorption and distribution - - 218
§ Metabolism of ethanol in the body - - 221
§ Effects of alcohol metabolism in the body - 223
§ The beneficial effects of moderate alcohol
consumption - - - - - 226
§ The psychological effects of chronic alcohol
§ The pathological effects of chronic alcohol
§ Alcohol consumption and society: alcoholism - 236
References - - - - - 240
Index - - - - - - 264
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Beer production worldwide: 1993/94/95 14
Table 1.2 World beer production 2000- 2003 18
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Brewery plants in Nigeria before 1985 42
Table 3.2 Proposed brewery plants in Nigeria
by 1985 - - - - 46
Table 3.3 A comparative composition of sorghum
and barley malt worts - - 49
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Ionic composition (mg/L) of waters from
various brewing centres - - 59
Table 4.2 Cereal production world-wide - 83
Table 4.3 Proximate composition of sorghum
and barley grains - - - 91
Table 4.4 Classification of amino acids according
to speed of assimilation by yeast - 130
Table 4.5 Classification of amino acids on the
basis of their essential nature - 130
Table 4.6 Percentage chemical composition
of hops - - - - 145
Table 4.7 Percentage composition ofa -and b
-acids 147
Table 4.8 Gelatinisation temperatures of various
starches - - - - 160
Table 4.9 Approximate % composition of corn
syrups- - - - - 165
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Comparison of infusion, decoction,
double mash and temperature-
vii
programmed systems - - 187
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 A schematic representation of the
disposal of a brewery income - 16
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 A diagrammatic representation of the
saké beer brewing process - - 21
Figure 2.2 A diagrammatic representation of the
merissa fermentation process - 24
Figure 2.3 Unit operations and processes in the
traditional preparation of burukutu beer 27
Figure 2.4 A schematic representation of kaffir beer
brewing process - - - 30
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Temperature/time mashing profile
with 100% sorghum using exogenous
Enzymes - - - - 54
Figure 3.2 Temperature/time mashing profile of
unmalted sorghum, malted barley and
commercial enzymes - - 54
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1a Sources of brewing water - - 60
Figure 4.1b Uses of water in maltings and breweries 61
Figure 4.2 A standard pH scale - - 66
Figure 4.3 Types and causes of hardness in water 68
Figure 4.4 Membrane separation or reverse osmosis 72
Figure 4.5 A longitudinal section of the barley grain 85
viii
Figure 4.6 A longitudinal section of the sorghum grain 88
Figure 4.7 A schematic layout of the malthouse 100
Figure 4.8 Water uptake during barley steeping 101
Figure 4.9 A schematic representation of the
kilning process in relation to temperature
and time - - - - 109
Figure 4.10 A budding yeast cell - - - 118
Figure 4.11 The ultra-structure of the yeast cell 119
Figure 4.12 Schematic diagram of a pure yeast
culture propagation plant - - 123
Figure 4.13 Uptake of the major wort sugars - 136
Figure 4.14 Transamination followed by oxidative
De-amination- - - - 140
Figure 4.15 Summary of the metabolism of wort
amino acids - - - - 142
Figure 4.16 (a) A single mature hop cone
(b) Bracteole with seed and lupulin
glands (c) Lupulin gland magnified. 144
Figure 4.17 Structure of a-and b -acids - - 145
Figure 4.18 Isomerisation products of the a -acids 147
Figure 4.19 Structures of the cis, trans-and other
isomers of the iso-compounds - 148
Figure 4.20 A schematic classification of brewing
Adjuncts - - - - 154
Figure 4.21 Temperature/time mash profile of
a single decoction mashing with a
ix
cereal cooker - - - 162
Figure 4.22 Temperature/time mash profile using
50% barley adjuncts - - - 164
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 A schematic overview of the lager beer
brewing process - - - 171
Figure 5.2 A schematic layout of the milling
department - - - - 172
Figure 5.3 A representation of the two forms
of starch molecules found in barley - 175
Figure 5.4 A schematic representation of
enzymatic degradation of granular
starch during malting and mashing - 178
Figure 5.5 Infusion mashing process - - 182
Figure 5.6 A typical triple-decoction mashing process 185
Figure 5.7 Isomerisation of hops a -acids to
iso-a -acids during wort boiling - 193
Figure 5.8 Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway
for fermentation of wort sugars to
ethanol and carbon dioxide - - 197
Figure 5.9 Arrangement of machines/equipment
in a beer bottling hall - - - 206
Figure 5.10 Beer pasteurization temperature curve 211
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Metabolism of alcohol and the relationship
between levels of alcohol in the body and
x
its effects - - - - 222
PREFACE
In 1988, the Federal Government banned the importation

of brewing raw materials, including barley malt. Reasons were:
(i) to conserve her dwindling foreign exchange earnings, and (ii)
to develop a local technology that would generate employment
for thousands of job seekers. The ban triggered a flurry of
research activities by numerous scientists and led most
breweries into expensive experiments and plant conversions
through their Research and Development (R&D) Departments.
Twelve years later, in 2000, the ban was lifted as government
bowed to pressures to liberalize trade, thus, inadvertently
encouraging policy inconsistency. Before the ban was lifted,
most breweries and researchers had noted that the use of
sorghum malt in lager beer brewing at 100% level instead of the
traditional barley malt was an innovation in brewing technology
originating mainly from Nigeria. They, therefore, advocated the
need to sustain the effort through continuous research and
publications for the benefit of other developing countries.
The book, “Brewing Science and Technology: A
Comprehensive Approach”, is a response to that clarion call,
targeted at both undergraduate and graduate students in Food
Science & Technology, Food Engineering, Biochemistry,
Industrial Chemistry, and Microbiology. It is equally a reference
material for scholars, maltsters, brewers, regulatory agencies
and health-care providers. Chapter 1, discusses the general
history of beer brewing world-wide and takes a holistic view of
beer production and world economy. Chapter 2 focuses on the
processes of making some traditional beers such as saké by the
Japanese, burukutu by Nigerians, Beninois and Ghanaians,
merissa by the Sudanese and kaffir by the Bantus of South
Africa. Chapter 3 chronicles the history, growth and development
xi
of the beer industry in Nigeria, the concept, objectives and effects
of the ban on importation of brewing raw materials and identifies
its positive impacts. The chapter also x-rays the problems of
sorghum and highlights its prospects through conscientious
research efforts. Chapter 4 discusses the usual brewing raw
materials: water, malt (including the principles of sorghum
malting technology), yeast, hops and adjuncts. Chapter 5 gives
an overview of the unit operations in beer brewing while Chapter
6 shifts emphasis from beer production to beer consumption. It
proffers reasons for beer/alcohol consumption, biochemistry of
beer/alcohol in the body, the beneficial effects of moderate
alcohol consumption, the psychological and pathological effects
of chronic alcohol consumption and cautions individuals to err on
the side of moderation in beer/alcohol consumption.
I wish to express my profound gratitude to the following
people for making the writing of this book a reality: all the authors
whose works were consulted; all my students, past and present in
the then Department of Brewing Science & Technology (now
Department of Food Science & Technology), University of Uyo,
for encouraging me to write this book; my good friend, Dr. Frank
C. Ogbo of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, for reviewing the
manuscript; Prof. Kalu Uka and Sir E. C. Duru both of the
University of Uyo, for reading the manuscript and making useful
suggestions on its language and style; my young friend, Mr.
Nsisong Joseph Okon for doing most of the literature search; Mrs.
Aniema Unwana Thaddeus of the Heritage Digi-Link Int'l, Uyo, for
excellent typesetting work and Mrs. Anke Ukpak of the University
of Uyo Library, for not only doing the indexing but also ensuring
that no 'dangling particles' are found in the book. Finally, I am
grateful to Prof. F. J. C. Odibo, Dean, Faculty of Biosciences,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, for accepting to write an
exciting foreword to this book.
xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Ø
History and development of brewing
Ø
Types of beer
Ø
Beer production and world economy
1.1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BREWING

1.1.1 Historical developments
Brewing is an art of producing alcoholic beverages through
the process of yeast fermentation. It dates back to the pre-
history of man around the stone ages. The oldest reference
to beer brewing was found in a stone carving about 6000
years ago, which showed how a sacrificial beer was prepared
by the Sumerians for their goddess, Nina (Heineken, 1990).
This stone which is now kept in the Louvre, the famous
museum in Paris, showed that the Sumerians had a
flourishing brewing industry which spread throughout the
Near East: to the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Egyptians,
the Israelites and others around the Mediterranean. During
this period also, there were many vineyards in the Nile valley
from which several kinds of wine were produced. Similarly,
during the Greek and later Roman dominations, wine
became an important item of international commerce.
The beverages were relished particularly by those who
derived pleasure from the fact that they produced alcoholic
euphoria. Other advantages not appreciated at the time
included: their tranquilizing effects, the provision of the B-
complex vitamins especially when yeast was present, the
supply of additional calories and assimilable nitrogenous
materials (amino acids) and the rendering of water of
dubious microbiological quality relatively safe because of the
low pH of the product and its alcoholic content. Beer has
been known for thousands of years and it is indeed an
essential component of human civilization (Enari, 1995).
The word 'beer' was derived from the Latin infinitive
“bibiere”, meaning to drink.
In the Middle Ages, brewing was treated as a mystery,
the details of which were jealously guarded by the master
brewers and their guilds. The principles were largely not
understood, as the processes were discovered by chance.
For example, how grains after immersion in water and
allowed to sprout became soft and sweet could not be
explained nor what was responsible for the fermentation of
a sugary extract thereby making it intoxicating, understood.
Because of these, there must have been great batch-to-
batch variations as infections by acetic acid bacteria or wild
yeasts were possibilities leading to production of unwanted
flavours and hazes (Hough, 1985). However, some of the
products were patented because the producers were rather
very meticulous.
1.1.2 Scientific and technological developments

The process of beer brewing did not lend itself to
scientific interpretations until the 19th century when Louis
Pasteur, Justus von Liebig, Friedrick Wöhler and a host of
others debated the nature of fermentation. In 1876, Pasteur
published his famous paper “Etudes sur la Biere” describing
how fermentation was carried out by yeast. Further research
2 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

by Pasteur identified that souring of beer and wine was
caused by undesirable microorganisms. By gently heating
the beer mash and then inoculating it with yeast, Pasteur
showed that a more desirable fermentation could be
achieved. This heating technique to destroy
microorganisms, came to be known as 'pasteurization'.
Later, a Danish scientist, Emil Christian Hansen,
showed that 'wild' yeast could contaminate brewers' yeast
and destroy the flavour of the product, and as a result the
technique of pure yeast culture was introduced into brewing
in 1883. In 1897, a German chemist, Eduard Buchner
discovered that sucrose could be fermented by the yeast
juice (cell-free extract). This finding led to series of studies
by a number of scientists to elucidate the nature of the steps
in the fermentation of sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Thus, sciences like Microbiology and Biochemistry evolved
out of the need to understand some biological processes
such as beer brewing (Enari, 1995).
The use of hops in beer making was an ancient
tradition made popular by the German monks in the 12th
century (Russell & Stewart, 1995). However, its adoption as
the sole flavouring ingredient occurred in the 14th century.
Previously, a mixture of various flavouring plants, referred
to in German as the “Grut” or “Guit” in English (Kunze,
1999), was used. Hops were introduced into Britain in the
16th century by Flemish immigrants (Macleod, 1977a;
Hough, 1985) and have since been accepted widely for
brewing both ales and lagers.
Since the second half of the 19th century, brewing
has become not just an art, but a technology with scientific
BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 3

principles. In several countries where beer was initially
brewed, research laboratories and institutes were created,
and in the course of time these developed into teaching
institutes and organisations. Thus, the Weihenstephan
Brauereihoschshule (University Department) near Munich,
Germany (1865); the Dr. Siebel Analytical Laboratory in
Chicago, USA (1868); the Versuchs-und Lehranstalt für
Brauerei (Brewing Research & Teaching Institute, VLB) in
Berlin, Germany (1883); the Brewing School in Ghent,
Belgium (1885); the Institute of Brewing (10B) in London
(1886); the Doemens Labranstaltan in Grafitung near
Munich, Germany (1895) and others had their origins then.
At the same period, a number of specialized journals,
by means of which scientific knowledge and other
interesting information could be disseminated, were
founded. These included: “The Brauwelt” in Nuremberg,
Germany (1861); “Brewer's Journal” in London (1864); The
American Brewer's Gazette”, New York (1871); “Brewers'
Guardian” (1871); “The Western Brewer”, Chicago, USA
(1876) and “the Wochenschrift für Brauerei” in Berlin,
Germany (1883). At the same time also, strong Brewers'
Societies and Associations developed in many countries.
Brewing has thus grown with improved technologies in
various regions of the world. Such improvements include the
treatment of virtually any source of water supply to the
desired brewing quality. Also, those stages of malting and
brewing which required cool conditions do not have to be
restricted to cold seasons in the temperate countries as
brewing can now be done all-year-round and in any part of
the world, thanks to refrigeration technology invented in

1871 by Carl von Linde, which was first installed in a brewery
in 1876 (Kunze, 1999). Modern technology also led to
unfettered expansion of the brewery capacity, and high
turnover has been aroused by the continuous system
introduced of recent. Even the term 'malt' has been
expanded to include all cereals that go through the processes
of steeping, germination and kilning and not just only barley
alone. This became expedient in view of countries which do
not grow barley as a staple crop but grow cereals which are
well adapted to their geographic conditions. For example,
sorghum (guinea corn) is used in tropical countries like
Nigeria and South Africa to produce malt for brewing
purposes. Similarly, millet and rice have been used for the
same purposes in India and Japan, respectively. The
chemistry of hops started at the end of the 19th century
when Hayduck classified its bittering compounds into a -and
b -acids in 1888 (Enari, 1995). Earlier, Johan Kjeldahl had
published his famous methods of nitrogen determination.
1.1.3 Development of brewing in Britain, Germany

and the USA
Modern brewing industry has come a long way. Beer
brewing which is central, developed as a Western culture and
has spread world-wide.
(i) Brewing in Britain

The type of beer produced in Great Britain is the ale. Ales are
usually top-fermented beers using special strains of yeasts,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Production of ales dates back to
the time of the Roman conquest. By the 13th and 14th

centuries, English ales were already becoming famous
notably with those from the monasteries at Burton-on-Trent
and from London. Early in the 15th century, hops with their
preservative and flavouring properties were introduced from
central Europe and added to the wort as a regular practice;
the resultant beer then assumed a bitter taste. So much
popular was beer drinking then that in 1436, Henry VI issued
a writ commending the production and consumption of
'biere', as it was then called.
It was in England rather than in Germany that the true
industrialization of brewing began with the growth of the
great Porter Breweries in London in the 18th century. This
was consequent upon increasing urbanization and
concentrated population growth providing the impetus for
large-scale production with a ready market. The increase in
the scale of brewing which followed led to increased
economic advantages with greater control of the processes.
This in turn led to the gradual introduction of quantitative
measurement through the adaptation to industrial uses of
instruments already known in scientific circles.
Thus, the thermometer was introduced by Michael
Crombrune in his Brewery in London in 1762. The
hydrometer was introduced in 1768 by the father of James
Baverstock in the form of a saccharometer. In 1784, the
principles of the first steam engine by James Watts were
applied for steam generation in the brewhouse operations.
In the 1820's, English brewers developed beer designed to
withstand the long sea voyage to Britain's colonies in Asia.
These strong, highly hopped ales became known as 'Indian
Pale Ales'.

In 1886, the Laboratory Club (now, the Institute of
Brewing) was founded while the Journal of the Institute of
Brewing (IOB) was founded in 1894. Today, the IOB has
assumed international status, and its scope has been
expanded to deal with technical and research aspects of
brewing. It also conducts regular qualifying exams for
brewers. It is undoubtedly the most recognized and
authoritative body in brewing science & technology
worldwide.
(ii) Brewing in Germany

The history of beer brewing in Germany is as old as
humanity itself. However, the oldest evidence that beer was
brewed there came from around 800 BC. During this era,
some of the earliest concepts of brewing were discovered
and by the 2nd century, beer was already being traded
commercially. With the rise of exports, Germany developed
world-famous beer cities. Thus, in the 14th century, Bremen
became the midpoint for beer export to Holland, England and
Scandinavia.
Germany produces a type of beer called 'lager' which
originated as early as the 14th century. Hops were also first
used here as a Bavarian culture, at the same period. Hence,
lager beer drinking is both a culture and tradition in Germany.
Meanwhile, shortage of brewing raw materials as a result of
poor harvests and other circumstances, led to the use of
ingredients other than those previously customarily
employed. Thus, hops were frequently replaced with other
flavouring plants, while cereals for bread-making or cheaper
oats were also used in the grist for brewing. There was a

serious health risk from some of these hops replacements.
In order to prevent such a deplorable situation and to
guarantee a high level of quality, reliability and consistency,
Duke Wilhelm the IVth on April, 23rd 1516, proclaimed the
famous German beer “Purity Law” or “Reinheitagebot”. This
decree, which is the oldest food regulation in the world,
stated that beer could only be brewed with barley (later
barley malt), hops and water. The use of yeast was not yet
known at the time as fermentation was usually left to
chance-yeast in the air.
The technological and industrial development of
brewing in Germany began in the first half of the 19th
century. After a trip to England in 1846, Gabriel Sedlmayer
installed the first steam engine with only one horsepower
rating in his Spaten Brewery in Munich. Similarly, the present
two main centres of brewing research in Germany started
with courses for brewers first arranged at Weihenstephan in
1865. In 1883, the Versuchs-und Lehranstalt für Brauerei
(VLB) in Berlin was founded. The aims of the VLB were to
develop the brewing trade through scientific and practical
research as well as education of brewers. In 1895, an
Academy for Agriculture and Brewing emerged out of these
courses while in 1930, this Academy was finally incorporated
into the Technical University of Munich as a Faculty.
(iii) Brewing in the United States of America

A kind of brewing was practiced in the US probably long
before Christopher Columbus made his voyage to discover
the Americas in 1492. Maize was ground, mixed with water
and fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage.

The earliest beer brewery in the Americas was built in
1544 by Don Alfonso de Herrera in Mexico City. The first
private brewery in the US was constructed by Adrian Block
and Hans Christiansen at about 1612. A public brewery was
established in 1632 by the West Indian Company in New
York City. Other breweries sprang up in Massachusetts in
1637, Pennsylvania in 1685, New Jersey, Maryland and
Rhodes Islands in 1744. The beer produced and sold on
these colonies were always taxed and regulated.
The first US Congress in 1789 wrote laws to create
Federal revenue through taxation on several imported goods
including ale, porter, cider, beer and rum. Reasons for the
taxation ranged from the need to source money for the new
republic (US got her independence in 1776), need to step up
domestic farm production of grains and domestic malting to
the need to replace whiskey and rum consumption with beer.
The next congress also retained the 'light' tax on beer and
malt while significantly raising those of higher alcoholic
beverages. Under this favourable Federal Policy, the brewing
industry began to flourish in the United States. A later
taxation specifically imposed an excise duty on both foreign
and domestically-produced whiskey. There was real concern
about the production and consumption of whiskey in the
country because in Pennsylvania alone, there were about
5,000 whiskey manufacturing outfits for just a population of
less than 500,000 people However, this excessive taxation
on domestic whiskey triggered off the famous 'Whiskey
Rebellion' in Pennsylvania in 1794. Before the rebellion,
Pennsylvania was leading the colonies in beer brewing and
continued to lead long after the rebellion.

As the nation grew and moved westward, new cities
sprang up, populated by immigrants from Europe many of
whom were skilled brewers and maltsters. So brewing and
malting expanded along with the population. Consequently,
in the 19th century, for example, the number of brewing
establishments increased from less than 100 to 1800 to
more than 1,900 by the end of the century. Early in the 20th
century, the number of breweries in the USA began to
diminish. As transportation (especially by rail) improved,
making it possible to move beer to long distances,
competition became a strong factor. Major breweries began
to develop wide distribution networks, bought out some
breweries while those that could not compete were shut
down. As a result, the number of breweries dropped to 1,568
by 1910 and to 1,345 by 1915. The reduction continued until
the number was less than 1,000 prior to prohibition.
Although various states prohibited the distribution
and sale of alcoholic beverages within their boundaries from
time to time during the 19th century, brewing in the USA was
halted completely by the 18th Amendment to the US
Constitution on January 16, 1920. This period referred to as
the 'Prohibition Years' ended on December 5, 1933, after 14
years when the prohibition law also known as “The Volstead
Act” was repealed. During this period, there was widespread
smuggling and bootlegging of alcoholic beverages
throughout the country as crime wave increased, fueled by
dissatisfaction and outright rebellious attitude towards the
prohibition. The period also completely stopped any
advancement in brewing technology in the USA. After the
period, there was a sharp decline in the number of breweries
from 605 in 1939 to 220 in 1962 and finally to just about 55
in 1974 producing 145,000,000 barrels of beer. Today,
America has caught up with other parts of the world in
modern brewing technology and produces both ales and

lagers.
1.2 TYPES OF BEER

Many different kinds of Western beers are brewed at
present. These can be reduced to four main classes, namely:
ale, lager, stout and porter.
ii) Ales:
These are top-fermented beers which are heavily hopped.
Fermentation is usually carried out using special strains of
yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, at 5-12°C, formerly from
4 to 6 days but now shortened by modern technology to as
little as one day. Much of the yeast after multiplying several
fold rises to the surface in the course of the fermentation. At
the end of the process, the yeast is separated either by
running off the beer or by skimming or centrifuging the
yeast. Alcohol level falls within 4.0-4.5% by weight for mild
ales, although strong ales may contain about 11-12% by
weight of alcohol. It was originally an English type of beer.
During the maturation process, ales are conditioned by
warm storage, holding the beer at temperatures between
12-20°C.
ii) Lager
Lager beer refers to the bottom-fermented beverage which
is light in both colour and alcohol content (2.5 3.8% by wt).
Lagers are fermented with selected strains of yeast
(Saccharomyces carlsbergensis or S. uvarum) for 10-12
days at a lower starting temperature of 6-8°C. They are
heavily hopped and sometimes unhopped. Lager beer
derives its name from a maturing process which it
undergoes at 0°C-the lagering process. Lagering is a
German word for storage or cellaring. Lager beer is brewed

in all countries of the world and now accounts for more than
90% of all beers (Kunze, 1999). Today, there are many sub-
brands of lager beers, e.g. Pilsner, Dortmund, Munich, etc,
all named after the cities where they originated.
iii) Stout
This is a darker form of ale produced from highly kilned
(roasted) malt. High kilning temperature usually produces
deep colour of the malt and wort used to control the final
beer colour. It is also heavily hopped and hence intensely
bitter with a high alcohol content of 5-6.5% by wt.
iv) Porter
Porter is also a dark-brown coloured beer usually weaker
than ale. It is however devoid of any hops flavour. Porter is
mainly brewed in Ireland. It is said to have derived its name
from the fact that it was the popular drink of the porters, but
in England it has been superseded by the ordinary mild ales.
Apart from the above general descriptions, no sharp
lines of demarcation can be drawn these days between any
of these classes of beer mentioned above. These overlaps
vary considerably and in different countries, the same name
is often applied to beers of very different characters.
1.3 BEER PRODUCTION AND WORLD ECONOMY

World beer industry is on the rise, especially in the
developed countries. This has been propelled by economic
growth, technological quality and globalisation that had
provided better market opportunities. For instance,
according to a new report released by the Beer Institute

(2003), an industry trade group representing America's
brewers and the National Beer Wholesalers Association, the
beer industry contributes more than $144 billion per year to
the United States' economy. The report also showed that the
beer industry is one of the principal engines that drive the US
economy by creating about 1.6 million direct and indirect
jobs and providing American workers with nearly $48 billion
in annual wages. It also generates to states and the federal
governments, tax revenues estimated at $27.6 billion.
Likewise, some of the developing countries with better
economic indices are expected to experience growth as well.
In other regions, the industry has either declined or is
stagnant as a result of economic recession, health and social
concerns as well as negative influence of globalisation. Thus,
as the German economy is receding (Beerweek, 2003),
consumers have tended to move away from alcoholic drinks
in general. Healthier options such as mineral water, juices
and coffee consumption are on the rise. Demography is also
reducing the numbers of the 15-to-34-year-olds, the core
beer drinking market which is shrinking as the German
population ages. However, German beer consumption per
capita which dropped from 131.9 litres in 1996 to 116.1 litres
in 2004 is still nearly 60 percent higher than the western
European average. Also, the entire German beer market,
which dropped from 118 m.hl in 1994 to under 94 m.hl in
2003, remains Europe's largest as well as the world's third
largest.
Production capacities in some important beer
producing countries of the world showed some slight
fluctuations (Table 1.1) a few years ago. However, in many

developing nations, demand is expected to rise with the
strongest gains being in Asia, especially China, and the
Western Europe. This is propelled by economic recovery,
expanding population, rising disposable income,
improvement in beer quality, efficient distribution systems,
high per capita consumption levels, and rising popularity of
beer at the expense of traditional beverages, especially
amongst women, youth and more affluent consumers.
Table 1.1 Beer Production Worldwide: 1993/94/95

(Figures in m.hl)
1. Africa 1993 1994 1995
South Africa 22.8 23.7 24.5
Nigeria 6.7 5.3 4.5
Cameroon 3.6 3.3 3.2
Kenya 2.7 2.7 3.2
Burundi 1.2 1.3 1.7
Zimbabwe 1.6 1.2 1.0
2. Australia/Oceania
Australia 18.0 17.5 17.9
New Zealand 3.5 3.5 3.5.
Papua-New Guinea 0.4 0.4 0.4
3. Europe
Germany 116.0 118.6 117.4
Great Britain 54.9 58.3 58.8
Spain 24.3 25.0 25.3
Netherlands 20.4 22.2 23.1
France 18.3 17.7 18.3
Czech Republic 17.8 18.1 17.8
Russian Federation 24.5 20.7 17.7
Poland 16.7 14.0 15.1
Belgium 14.2 14.7 14.8
Italy 11.7 12.1 12.0
Denmark 9.4 9.4 10.0
Austria 9.8 10.1 9.7
Romania 9.1 9.1 8.5
Hungary 7.8 8.2 7.8
Ireland 6.9 7.2 7.4
Turkey 5.4 6.0 6.9
Portugal 6.8 6.3 6.9
Ukraine 14.0 9.0 5.7

Yugoslavia 5.0 4.7 5.4
Sweden 5.5 5.4 5.3
Finland 4.4 4.5 4.8
Bulgaria 4.2 4.8 4.7
Slovakia 3.9 4.5 4.4
Greece 4.1 4.2 4.1
Switzerland 3.9 3.9 3.2
Croatia 2.4 3.1 3.2
Norway 2.1 2.2 2.2
Slovenia 2.0 2.1 2.1
4. The Americas
USA 237.3 237.0 233.7
Brazil 57.0 62.5 84.0
Mexico 43.8 45.2 44.5
Canada 23.0 23.0 22.8
Columbia 19.5 15.7 17.8
Venezuela 15.5 15.4 15.9
Argentina 10.3 11.3 10.4
Peru 6.8 7.7 8.6
Chile 3.6 4.0 4.1
5. Asia
China 122.5 140.0 154.5
Japan 68.9 71.3 67.2
South Korea 15.3 17.1 17.7
Philippines 13.5 14.7 14.0
Thailand 4.2 5.1 6.6
Taiwan 4.6 4.9 4.3
India 3.0 3.6 4.3
Vietnam 2.3 3.1 4.2
World total 1,189.5 1,214.4 1,249.5
Source: Kunze (1999)
Between 1981 and 1983 alone, the brewing industry

in Nigeria was committed to an investment in plant and
machinery worth N600 million. Within the same period also,
the industry became the fastest growing branch of the
manufacturing sector as it witnessed a rapid expansion from
under 8 breweries in 1972 to 21 in 1981, rising to 31 in 1983
in response to consumer demand. Total investment in this
sector as at then was approximately N1.5 billion. The

financial contribution of the brewing industry to the Nigerian
economy was significant as it did not only declare profits and
paid dividends to their shareholders, but also made
substantial payments to the government by way of
corporate taxes and excise duties. For instance, in May
1984, excise duty on beer was 45% of the total excise duties
collected from all sectors (Fig. 1.1).
Dividends & Expansion
10%
Raw materials
20%
Wages & Benefits to workers

25%
45%
Excise/Import duties/taxes
Fig. 1.1: A schematic representation of the disposal of a

brewery income. Source: NIDB Market Survey (August,
1985)

If all the breweries at that time produced to full
capacities, the revenue that would have accrued to the
government would have been in the region of N1 billion. In
fact, the Federal government, many state governments as
well as individuals realized the financial profitability of the
brewing industry, hence, their attraction to substantial
equity holdings in a number of breweries. Even where
governments do not hold equity shares, the brewing
companies no doubt, boosted the economies of the states in
which they were located through employment of labour and
payment of rents, rates, taxes and other charges. In Nigeria,
it was estimated that out of the 500,000 people employed in
the manufacturing sector then, about 30,000 were found in
the brewing industry alone. Apart from those in direct
employment, other backward and forward linkage industries
like agriculture, hotels, shops, transportation, bottle crown
cork, cartons, crates, labels and other package
manufacturing industries provided employment
opportunities for well over 300,000 Nigerians.
Following a slide in Nigeria's economic fortune, many
of the breweries were closed down by the middle of the
1980. Less than 15 breweries survived and have been
operating since then. Though the volume of beer produced
in the country showed some increase in 1994, the level of
production was well below installed capacity. Today, the
Nigerian brewing sector seems poised for another round of
unprecedented growth. The NB Plc and Guinness Nigeria Plc
are the two largest capitalized companies in the Nigerian
Stock Exchange. With 6.2 percent of the total market
capitalization of the stock exchange, NB Plc leads some 188

other companies, followed by Guinness. Their products,
especially, Star Beer and Guinness Extra Stout, are staple
products in the Nigerian market.
Generally, world beer production has been on an
upward trend with minimum annual growth rate of 1.3 per
cent between 2000-2003. The growth in beer production
has been remarkable in Asia, Europe and America, while in
Africa and Australia production growth rate has remained at
less than 1 percent. Europe is the world-leading region in
beer production with a growth rate of 1.5 percent between
2000-2003, followed by the USA, Asia, Africa and Australia
(Table 1.2). Production of beer worldwide increased to an
annual growth rate of 2.3 per cent in 2005 to a volume of
about 153 billion litres.
Table 1.2: World Beer Production 2000-2003

(Figures in m.hl)
Region 2000 2001 2002 2003
Europe 481.3 492.3 506.0 509.8
America 480.8 497.8 497.8 487.2
Asia 350.5 380.0 380.0 385.7
Africa 61.7 63.6 63.6 64.2
Australia 21.1 21.5 21.5 21.5
World Total 1,395.4 1,420.7 1,450.9 1,468.4
Source: Beerweek (2003)

CHAPTER 2
TRADITIONAL BREWING PROCESSES

AND TRADITIONAL BEERS
Ø
The Saké beer
Ø
The Merissa beer
Ø
The Burukutu beer
Ø
The Kaffir beer
Although beer usually implies a beverage of Western

civilization, other cultures employ procedures similar to
classical brewing, often without systematized technology.
2.1 THE SAKÉ BEER

Saké is a fermented Japanese alcoholic beverage
(beer) made from rice, Koji rice (a special fungus-covered
rice) and fresh water. Like the barley wines, it has a higher
alcohol content (11 to 18%) than most beers, but it is a true
beer and not a wine as it is made from fermented grains
(rice) and not fermented fruit. As such, saké is brewed and
not vinted, although the actual processes differ from those
of brewing a lager beer. Saké can be clear or cloudy, light or
dark, spiced or pure, sweet or with a bite to it. It is a still
beverage, rarely carbonated but very sensitive to light and
movement and can be damaged easily during shipping.
Saké can be served warm or chilled. Though serving warm
saké is more popular, serving chilled one is often more
enjoyable.
Saké was introduced to the Japanese culture by
Korean emigrants about the end of 3rd century, who in turn

obtained the knowledge from China where it had long been
practiced. The first saké was called “Kuchikami no saka” or
chewing-in-the-mouth saké. This was because rice,
chestnuts and millet were chewed by a whole village and
then spat out into a tub to ferment. Soon, man discovered
the properties of Koji, and the production of saké changed to
a more hygienically correct method and one easier to
reproduce.
2.1.1 The brewing process

Saké is brewed in Japan using a specially selected kind of
rice known in Japanese language as “Shinpaku-mai” (Fig.
2.1). This is a short, pearl rice grain variety: Oryza sativa
japonica. This type of rice is rarely used for cooking and
often considered bland by those who have tried it.
(i) Preparation of the starter culture (Koji rice)

Some of the rice, “Shinpaku-mai”, is cleaned, washed,
soaked, steamed, cooled and introduced to a small amount
of tane, a yellowish powder consisting of the spores of the
fungus, Koji(Eurotium oryzeae). The fungus is allowed to
grow for 4 days in a carefully controlled environment, where
it multiplies and starts to convert the rice starches to sugars.
(ii) Preparation of the moto (mash)

Preparation of the 'moto' involves the initial combination of
rice, koji rice and fresh spring water. The ingredients are
mixed together and the resulting 'moto' is divided into two
separate wooden tubs, the “hangiri” and then kneaded by
hand for 2 hours to remove all the lumps. The next day, the
'moto' is stirred with wooden paddles called “Kai” and when

it has thinned somewhat, the hangiris are emptied together
into a larger tub, or “moto-oroshi” and covered. After a few
days, the “moto” is then heated by lowering a conically
closed tub; called “Kumume” or “darki”, filled with boiling
water, heating it as evenly as possible. After 3 days of
cooking, the “moto” is again placed in a hangiri to cool
before the start of the fermentation process.
Koji Powder Rice (Shinpaku-mai)
Spores of the fungus Washing
(Eurotium oryzeae) Soaking
Steaming
Cooling
Preparation of Koji Rice
(A starter culture)
Rice + Freshspring Water

Mixing
Moto
Wort or Mash
Wooden Tub Wooden Tub
(hangiri) (hangiri)
Kneading Kneading
Stirring Larger Tub Stirring
(Moto-Oroshi)
Boiling Water
Cooking
3 days
Cooling
1st Fermentation
The Soye Stage Stirring
2nd Fermentation
Fresh rice The Naka Stage
Fresh rice
Koji rice Sanjaku-oke Sanjaku-oke Koji rice
Fresh spring water 3rd Fermentation Fresh spring water
(The Shimai Stage)
To Huge vat
roku-shaku-oke
Filtration
Barreling
Fig. 2.1: A diagrammatic representation of the saké beer

brewing process

(iii) Fermentation
The fermentation process is made up of three stages:
soye, naka and shimai.
a) The Soye: The first phase of fermentation, the soye,

is where the cooled “moto” is placed into larger tuns
called “sanjaku-oke”, meaning literally, three-foot
tubes, and stirred every 2 hours for 2 or 3 days.
b) The Naka: In the naka stage, the moto (mash) is

divided into 2 halves and placed in separate “sanjaku-
oke”, where fresh rice, koji rice and fresh spring water
are added and the moto is again stirred for another 2
days.
c) The Shimai: Finally, the 'moto' is left standing for one

day before a final division and addition of fresh
ingredients is made. The 'moto' is moved to a huge vat
called “roku-shaku-oke”, about 3 times larger than the
“sanjaku-oke” and left to ferment for 3 days after
which the saké is filtered and barreled.
(iv) Filtration
The fermented “moto” called “moromi”, is placed in hemp
bags, set into a huge wooden press and put under high
pressure for 12 hours. The saké flows out of the press into a
container and is then placed in large wooden vats with two
holes near the base. After 2 weeks, the saké is drawn from
the top hole, later the bottom hole is unplugged and more
saké is drawn off.

(v) Barreling
Before barreling, the saké is heated and then barreled in
large wooden drums and sealed round with paper and glue.
The heating basically pasteurizes the saké prior to storage
and subsequent shipment.
2.1.2 Saké in modern times

Since the end of the World War I, it has been against the law
of Japan to ferment a beverage of over 1% (w/w) alcohol
without a license. Therefore, little homebrewing is carried
out in modern Japan. The World War II also affected the
saké beer industry as the shortage of rice forced brewers to
develop new ways of increasing their yields. By a
government decree, pure alcohol and glucose were added to
small quantities of the 'moto' (mash), increasing the yield by
as much as 4 times. Thus, 95% of today's saké is made using
the above technique, although experienced consumers
insist that the best saké or “junmaish” (pure rice saké) is still
made with just rice, koji rice and water only.
2.2 THE MERISSA BEER

'Merissa' is an alcoholic beverage widely consumed in
Sudan. It is prepared from sorghum and millet by a relatively
complex process. The brewing process occurs in three
distinct phases: (i) 'ajeen' fermentation, a lactic acid souring
of sorghum, (ii) 'deboba' fermentation, a starter activating
phase and (iii) 'merissa' fermentation, an alcoholic
fermentation. Compared to the processes involved in the
production of other African beers, the 'merissa' fermentation
process is a complex one (Fig. 2.2).

Sorghum grain
Malt
Fine flour Coarse flour
Well cooked Half-cooked Lactic fermentation

(futtara) (futtara) (ajeen)
Over cooked
(sorrij) Malt
Merissa
Water
Malt
Alcoholic fermentation
(deboba)
Alcoholic merissa fermentation proper

Water
Merissa Mushuk
(filtrate) (residue)
Fig. 2.2: A diagrammatic representation of the 'Merissa'

fermentation process
Source: Dirar (1978)

Although different varieties of sorghum can be used,
the bulk of 'merissa' is brewed from 'feterita' (Sorghum
bicolor var, feterita). The grains are soaked in water for 1 day,
thereafter, they are spread out and covered with wet
sackings or plant leaves. Germination is allowed for 2 days,
after which the germinated grains are sun-dried and milled
into coarse flour. Ungerminated sorghum is also milled into
fine flour. One-third of this flour is mixed with a measured
amount of water, just enough to moisten it. This is fermented
by lactic acid bacteria for about 36 hours at room
temperature. The fermented sour dough (called 'ajeen') is
then cooked in a hollow steel container without a further
addition of water. The material is continuously turned while
the cooking is continued until the product is dark-brown.
Care must be exercised not to leave any portion of the
material uncooked.
The over-cooked, intermediate moisture-laden
product (called 'sorrij’), which is extremely sour with a
pleasant caramelised flavour, is cooled to room temperature
by spreading it on a flat container. About 5% of malt flour is
thoroughly mixed with it. An equal amount of water and
about 5% of good 'merissa' are also added and the mixture is
left to ferment for about 4-5 hours. The new product (called
'deboba') is a vigorously fermenting, thick, dark suspension
which is too sour to drink.
Meanwhile, the other two-thirds of the sorghum flour
is cooked in two equal lots: one half-cooked to a greyish-
brown paste, the other well-cooked to a brown paste. The
two are mixed together on palm leaf mats and spread out to

cool. This product (called 'futtara') is a gelatinized solid
material. After cooking, portions of it are mixed with about
5% malt flour and successively added to the 'deboba'. The
liquefaction of 'futtara' by sorghum malt is astonishingly
quick, and haste is required in transferring the portions of
'futtara' to the 'deboba'. The 'futtara' is not stirred into the
'deboba'; rather it is left there to dissolve slowly.
Fermentation continues for 8-10 hours before the product is
strained through cloth bags. The filtrate constitute 'merissa'
while the coarse residue, 'mutshut', is used as animal feed.
The fermentation of 'merissa' is similar to that of other
African alcoholic beverages. 'Ajeen' fermentation, for
instance, is accomplished by lactic and acetic acid bacteria
as well as yeast at a pH of 4.0, an alcoholic content of 1%
(v/v) and lactic acid content of 2.5%. At the end of
fermentation, however, the alcoholic content of 'merissa'
increases to about 6% (Odunfa, 1985).
2.3. THE BURUKUTU BEER

Burukutu is a popular, traditional alcoholic beverage brewed
from guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare, Moench: Faparusi,
1970) and consumed in the Northern Guinea Savanna
regions of Nigeria, the Republic of Benin and Ghana.
Burukutu has a pleasant sour taste with a thin consistency
(Banigo, et al., 1987).

Sorghum Grains
Cleaning
Water
Steeping
Wetting
Steeping Water
Water
Grain Germination
Sun-Drying
Grinding
Water
Mixing
Cooking
Water
Garri
Mixing
Ground
Sorghum
malt
Fermentation
Filtration
Residue
Bottling
Fig. 2.3: Unit operations and processes in the traditional

preparation of burukutu beer
Source: Banigo, et. al. (1987)

2.3.1 The traditional preparation of burukutu
The preparation of burukutu involves cleaning and
steeping the grains in water overnight at an ambient
temperature following which excess water is drained.
Thereafter, the grains are spread out on a mat or tray,
covered with banana leaves and allowed to germinate.
During germination, the grains are sprinkled with water on
alternate days and turned over at intervals. Germination
continues for 4-5 days until the plumule attains a certain
length. The malted grains are spread in the sun to dry for 1-2
days, following which the dried malt is ground into powder.
Garri (a fermented cassava product) is added to the
mixture of the ground malt and water in a ratio of 1:2:6. The
resulting mixture is allowed to ferment for 2 days. Sorghum
malt contains primarily yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Saccharomyces chavelieri) moulds and bacteria
(Leuconostoc mesenteroides) associated with the
fermentation. The pH of the fermenting mixture decreases
from about 6.4 to 4.2 within 24 hours and to 3.7 after 48
hours. Thereafter, the fermented mixture is boiled for
approximately 4 hours with intermittent stirring and left to
mature in a covered pot for yet another 2 days . At the end of
the 2-day maturation period, species of Acetobacter and
Candida become the dominant microflora (Faparusi et al.,
1973). The matured mixture is filtered through a fine cloth
and bottled, ready for consumption. The unit operations in
the traditional preparation of burukutu are shown in Fig. 2.3.
Fully matured burukutu beer has an acetic acid
content which varies between 0.4 and 0.6% (Faparusi et al.,
1973) and an alcoholic content of 2.8 to 4.0% (v/v),

depending on the duration of fermentation (Banigo et al.,
1987).
2.4 THE KAFFIR BEER

Kaffir beer, also known as opaque beer, sorghum beer,
Bantu beer, or African beer, etc (Daiber & Taylor, 1995), is an
alcoholic beverage widely consumed in Southern Africa. It is
prepared from sorghum or millet malts but the use of mixed
millet and sorghum malts has been adopted in industrial
kaffir or opaque beer brewing in Centra Africa, Zambia and
Zimbabwe (Young, 1949). The origin of the art of Kaffir beer
brewing is arguably common with that of the barley beer
(Novellie, 1968; Novellie & DeSchaepdrijver, 1986;
Haggblade & Holzapfel, 1989).

The process of brewing Kaffir or opaque beer
comprises the following steps: (i) souring (lactic acid
fermentation), (ii) cereal cooking (starch gelatinization), (iii)
mashing & straining (separation of spent grain) and (iv)
alcoholic fermentation. These steps are illustrated in Fig.
2.4. The order of the steps varies between different brewing
localities. In the Kwazulu-Natal Province of South Africa,
souring takes place after washing (Novellie & De
Schaepdrijver, 1986), while in industrial brewing in
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, straining takes place during
fermentation. Two or more steps such as mashing, souring
and fermentation may take place simultaneously (Faparusi,
1970; Novellie & De Schaepdrijver, 1986).

Maize Grits Water Sorghum Malt
Souring One-Third of
(Lactic Acid Fermentation) sorghum malt
Cereal Cooking
Water 120min at pH 3.6
Mashing Two-third of
Water
120 min at 60°
c, pH4.0 sorghum malt
Straining
(Spent Grain Separation)
28° c
Active Dried Fermentation Strainings

yeast 28°c for 48 h (Spent Grain)
Fig. 2.4: A schematic representation of Kaffir beer brewing

process
Source: Daiber & Taylor (1995)
(i) Souring
Souring or lactic acid fermentation stage of Kaffir beer
brewing achieves three major functions: (i) the lactic acid
produced, imparts the beer with its characteristic sour taste;

(ii) it also lowers the pH of the beer, which slows down the
rate of microbial spoilage and inhibits the growth of
pathogenic organisms and; (iii) where the mash is acidified,
the low pH helps to prevent the complete hydrolysis of
starch into sugars. The resulting residual starch in the beer is
primarily responsible for its opaque, viscous character.
Souring involves the growth of lactic acid bacteria on
a slurry of approximately 8-10% sorghum malt. There are
two types of souring: spontaneous and inoculated.
Spontaneous souring is a chance occurrence whose success
is dependent on the presence of lactic acid bacteria which
form part of the natural microflora of the sorghum malt.
Inoculated souring, which is commonly used in both
industrial and many home brewing processes, occurs when
about 10% by volume of a previous sour containing a high
concentration of viable lactic acid bacteria is used to
inoculate the new sour. Pure strains of lactobacillus and
freeze-dried cultures have been prepared and are used for
inoculation in one of the breweries in South Africa and
Zimbabwe (Daiber & Taylor, 1995).
The conditions of temperature and time of souring are
highly variable. In homebrewing, temperature is not strictly
controlled. This can result in the growth of mesophilic,
heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (Vander Walt, 1956).
These organisms produce acetic acid, ethanol and carbon
dioxide in addition to lactic acid (Kandler, 1983), as well as
minor by-products such as formic acid and glycerin. The
flavour imparted to home-brewed beer by compounds other
than lactic acid may not be acceptable according to local
taste. In industrial brewing, the temperature of souring is

strictly controlled in the range of 48-50°C. This temperature
prevents the growth of mesophilic organisms and favours
the growth of the thermophilic, homofermentative L.
delbrueckii, which produces solely lactic acid. In industrial
practice, souring is carried out for up to two days with a final
concentration of lactic acid range of 1-2% and pH 3.0-3.2.
(ii) Cereal cooking

In traditional and industrial kaffir beer brewing,
unmalted cereal adjunct is used to supplement the malt with
a cheaper source of starch and protein giving the beer its
characteristic viscous body (Novellie & De Schaepdrijver,
1986). In home-brewing, unrefined sorghum and millets are
used while in industrial brewing, refined maize grits are the
major sources of cereal adjunct. The choice of an adjunct is
dependent on: availability, price, low fat content and
freedom from mycotoxins.
The purpose of the cooking operation is to gelatinize
the starch in the unmalted cereal adjuncts and make it
readily hydrolyzeable by the malt diastatic enzymes during
mashing. This is necessary because the starch in the cereal
adjuncts-maize, sorghum and millet has a gelatinization
temperature in the range of 62-75°C (Briggs, et al., 1981). A
number of cooking methods are used. For example, in
home-brewing, a slurry of the adjuncts is boiled with the
sour for 2 to 7 h (Haggblade & Holzapfel, 1989). The lactic
acid in the sour softens the endosperm protein which
encloses the starch granules and allows more rapid water
uptake by the starch and thus speeds up its gelatinization
(Novellie, 1968). A novel development is the use of high

temperature, short-time extrusion cooking to 'dry-cook' the
cereal adjunct (Joustra & Jansen, 1988).
(iii) Mashing
The mashing process involves the incubation at
optimal temperature of milled sorghum malt, with cooked
adjunct in aqueous suspension. The objective of mashing is
to physically and enzymatically solubilize components of the
malt and adjunct to produce a fermentable wort.
The most important solubilization process during
mashing is the hydrolysis of gelatinized adjunct starch and,
to a lesser extent, ungelatinized malt starch into
fermentable sugars and water-soluble dextrins by the malt
diastatic enzymes. Starch hydrolysis during mashing is
brought about by the joint action of the sorghum malt a -and
b-amylase enzymes (Taylor, 1989). Unlike barley beer
brewing, the aim of mashing in Kaffir beer brewing is not to
hydrolyze all the starch. A proportion of the gelatinized
adjunct starch must remain at the end of mashing (Novellie,
1966). This residual starch is primarily responsible for the
opaque character and high viscosity of the beer.
During mashing also, a certain amount of proteolysis
takes place due to the action of the sorghum malt proteolytic
enzymes on the malt and adjunct proteins (Taylor & Boyd,
1986). The products of proteolysis, free amino acids and
small peptides, are collectively referred to as free amino
nitrogen or FAN. The optimum mashing conditions for FAN
production are 510C and pH 4.6. Other substances in the
malt and adjunct such as lipids, vitamins and minerals are
physically solubilized or hydrolysed during mashing. Of

particular importance in Kaffir beer brewing is the
solubilization of the reddish anthocyanin pigments occurring
in sorghum malt (Glennie, 1983). These polyphenolic
compounds are solubilized during souring and mashing and
are responsible for the characteristic pinkish-brown colour of
opaque beer (Daiber & Taylor, 1995).
(iv) Straining
The objective of straining is to remove coarse particles
of the cereal such as malt pericarp from the mash or beer. In
traditional home-brewing, the fermented beer is strained
through a bag of woven grass, prior to consumption
(Novellie, 1968). Today, many home brewers use metal
screens of appropriate mesh sizes to strain the beer
(Haggblade & Holzapfel, 1989). In industrial brewing in
South Africa, straining is carried out directly after mashing
(prior to fermentation), using solid bowl centrifuges or
decanters (Novellie & De Schaepdrijver, 1986). Separation is
principally based on density and as a result, the spent grains
or strainings are made up of dense, ungelatinized starch and
insoluble protein. On a dry basis, strainings from industrial
brewing typically contain some 46% starch and 25% protein
(Van Heerden, 1987). The remainder is virtually all
carbohydrates in the form of sugars, dextrins and fibre.
(V) Alcoholic fermentation

In traditional home-brewing of Kaffir beer, alcoholic
fermentation is brought about by the growth of wild yeasts in
the wort. In industrial brewing, commercially produced
active dried yeast is used to inoculate the wort (Novellie & De

Schaepdrijver, 1986). Strains of top fermenting yeast,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which rapidly ferment Kaffir
beer wort at ambient temperature have been used in South
Africa for many years.
In industrial brewing, the beer is either packed shortly
after pitching with yeast or fermented at approximately 25°C
in batch-sized fermentors for at least 24 hours. Unlike barley
beer, the fermented Kaffir beer is not filtered nor is the yeast
removed from it. After fermentation, the draft beer is
transported by road tankers to its place of consumption.
There, the beer is dispensed by “Buckmeter” beer pumps into
beakers known as skaals of 2-or-4 litre capacities, from which
it is consumed. Kaffir beer is normally always consumed
while it is still actively fermenting.
Because Kaffir beer is not pasteurized and is
fermented at relatively high temperature, it is subject to
microbial spoilage despite its low pH. The lifespan of the beer
is in the range of only one to five days depending on how
hygienically it was prepared and fermented. Spoilage is
apparently primarily due to the growth of mesophilic lactic
acid bacteria (Haggblade & Holzapfel, 1989). The beer may
also be infected with acetic acid bacteria and wild yeasts (Van
der Walt, 1956).

CHAPTER 3
THE BEER INDUSTRY AND ITS GROWTH

IN NIGERIA
Ø
History and development of brewing in Nigeria
Ø
The ban on importation of brewing raw materials in
Nigeria
Ø
Sorghum as a brewing raw material
Ø
Problems of sorghum as a brewing raw material
Ø
Research and prospects of sorghum as a brewing raw
material
3.1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BREWING IN

NIGERIA
Traditional brewing had existed in Nigeria since time
immemorial, producing such alcoholic beverages like
'burukutu', 'pito' and 'otika'. However, modern brewing
industry came into existence in 1949 at the instance of both
the United African Company (UAC) International, UK and
Heineken of Holland with the establishment of the Nigerian
Breweries Limited (NBL) at Iganmu, Lagos. At inception, the
NBL was 100 % foreign-owned and started off with the
production of Star lager beer which became the first
indigenous product in the market.
By the early 1950's when it began full operation, some
indigenous traders already involved with its products were
invited to become shareholders. In 1957, the Company
opened its second plant at Aba and a third one at Kaduna in
1963. This ensured their monopoly of the beer trade across
the country for quite some time. In addition, the UAC was

the sole distributor of star lager beer in the country. Apart
from distributing the locally produced beer, it also imported
and distributed a second type of beer, 'Guinness' stout,
throughout the country. The trade was so profitable for NBL
that it decided to invest in the production of Guinness stout
locally.
In 1961, an Irish stout brewing company, Arthur
Guinness & Sons Limited in Dublin and its principal
distributor, the UAC, began the construction of Guinness
(Nig.) Breweries Limited at Ikeja, Lagos. Production of stout
in this brewery, however, started in 1962. Significantly, the
brewery was the first Guinness brewery outside the United
Kingdom and indeed the third in the world with the largest
bottling hall in any Guinness brewery worldwide.
In 1963, a third brewing company, the Golden Guinea
Breweries Limited, which came up with the production of
Golden Guinea Lager Beer, was built at Umuahia. This
brewery was principally established by the Eastern Nigeria
Development Corporation (ENDC) in coalition with a firm of
Italian industrialists.
In 1964, a fourth brewery, the West African Breweries
Limited, producers of Top lager beer, was established at
Abeokuta by the Western Nigerian Development Corporation
(WNDC). It should be observed that apart from the UAC and
Heinekens, all the later breweries established were
government-sponsored.
Under the indigenization policy of the early 1970's, the
foreign shareholders in the Nigerian Breweries Limited (NBL)
were forced to sell a significant proportion of their share
holdings. Today, the company is 60% Nigerian-owned and

40% foreign-owned. The 60% Nigerian stock is held mainly
by company employees and members of the public, while
the 40% foreign ownership is shared almost equally
between UAC Limited (for Unilever) and Heineken
Brouwengen, BV.
In 1970, the northern state governments joined their
southern counterparts to establish the North Breweries
Limited in Kano which introduced Double Crown lager beer
into the market. In 1972, NBL commenced the production of
its premium brown-bottled lager beer, Gulder. Closely
following this was the introduction of Harp lager beer by the
Guinness (Nig.) Limited in 1974 at its Benin factory. In 1976,
NBL added Maltina, a non-alcoholic malt drink to its two
major lager beer brands.
In 1977, Crystal lager beer, produced by Bendel
Breweries Limited, Benin City; Champion lager beer
produced by the then Cross River Breweries Limited, Uyo
and Premier lager beer produced by the Premier Breweries
Limited, Onitsha came into the market. In 1978, two new
breweries were established: The International Breweries
Limited, Ilesha and Kwara State Breweries Limited, Ilorin,
producers of Trophy and Noble lager beers, respectively,
while the Guinness Benin plant was expanded to
accommodate a second stout brewery. Still, in 1979, three
new breweries joined the market namely: Jos International
Breweries Limited; Superbru Limited Ughelli; and the
Continental Breweries Limited, Ijebu-Ode; makers of Rock,
Skol and “33” Export lager beers, respectively.
The year 1980 was spectacular in the sense that while
the previous years witnessed a large number of breweries

and their products, the year saw the introduction of no new
lager beer into the market. Instead, one stout brand
Mackenson stout was introduced. The year 1981 witnessed
the establishment of the Standard Breweries Limited,
Ibadan, producing Club lager beer; Africana Breweries
Limited, Ibadan, producing Castel lager; the International
Beer and Beverages Industry (IBBI), Kaduna, producing
Kronenbourg lager beer; and Green Sands Shandy, a
lemonade-flavoured beer produced by the NBL. The latter
was shortly withdrawn from the market due to lack of
patronage.
In 1982, the NBL expanded its production base with
the commissioning of an ultra-modern plant at Ibadan with
an installed capacity of 1,000,000 hl. In the same year,
another brewery was built by Guinness (Nig.) Limited at
Ogba, Lagos to brew Harp lager beer. This too, was later
expanded to include Guinness stout and is reputed to be one
of the most modern and technologically driven breweries in
Africa. In 1983, Pabod Breweries Limited, Port Harcourt and
Sparkling Breweries Limited, Ughelli started brewing Grand
and Sparkling lager beers, respectively. In the following year
(1984), Diamond Breweries Limited, Enugu; Life Breweries
Limited, Onitsha; Dubic Breweries Limited, Aba, Benue
Breweries Limited, Makurdi; Pal Breweries Limited, Aguata,
Continental Breweries Limited, Awo-Omama; and Olympic
Drinks Limited, Abagana; joined the beer market with
Diamond, Life, Dubic, More, Pal, Monarch and Olympic lager
beers, respectively.
The growth history of the beer industry in Nigeria has
revealed that between 1949 and 1960, Nigeria had only one

brewing company. This figure increased to about 5 in 1970
and from this period to 1984, the industry witnessed rapid
expansion as beer was produced in all the states of the
Federation except Bauchi, Borno, Gongola, Niger and
Sokoto. In response to consumer demand, there were a total
of 33 breweries (Table 3.1) producing more than 40 brands
of beer in addition to 5 brands of stout and 5 brands of non-
alcoholic malt drinks. In 1949 also, the total beer production
volume was about 0.11 million hectoliters. Twenty years
later, production volume catapulted to about 6.03 m hl. With
the establishment of more breweries in the country between
1979 and 1983, the total annual production capacity in the
industry rose to 14.45 m hl. As at 1985, the nation's brewing
industry had an installed capacity of about 15.55 m hl of beer
annually (NIDB, 1985).
In 2003, the Nigerian Breweries Plc (formerly NBL),
commissioned a N40 billion ultra-modern Ama Greenfield
Brewery at Amaeke-Ngwo in Udi LGA of Enugu State. The
brewery, which is reported to be the biggest in Africa south of
the Sahara, has an installed capacity of 3 million hectoliters
per annum or 1 million carton units per week. On May 5,
2004, Guinness (Nig) Plc also commissioned a N4.2 billion
ultra-modern brewery at the Osisioma Industrial Layout
(formerly, Dubic Breweries Ltd) Aba with an installed
capacity of 400 hl.
3.2 THE BAN ON IMPORTATION OF BREWING RAW

MATERIALS IN NIGERIA
The idea of foreign materials deletion from beer brewing was
mooted as far back as 1979 when brewers were summoned

on the 9th of March that year, at the instance of the then
Federal Minister of Industries, Dr. R. A. Adeleye, to a meeting
in Lagos chaired by Mr. G. C. Njoku of the Ministry. The
brewers were instructed to start a backward integration into
agriculture with a view to sourcing their raw materials locally
(Uhiara, 1987). Brewers were not only shocked, but jolted;
for none of them was prepared to run the gauntlet of heavy
investment in new technology, agriculture and worse-still,
putting out products that might be rejected by consumers
whose taste would prefer to maintain the status quo.
Two factors triggered government's stand on the new
thinking: (1) the dwindling foreign exchange earnings and
(2) the need to develop a branch of local technology with a
view to generating employment for thousands of job
seekers. It became a very opportune moment for
researchers to advise the Federal Government. One such
group was from the Federal Institute of Industrial Research,
Oshodi (FIIRO), led by Dr. (Mrs.) O. Olaniyi who had done
some work on brewing with sorghum. The other was a
microbiological group from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
led by Professor Nduka Okafor, who not only had done similar
work but had also produced a Ph.D graduate whose
contributions in local brewing grains had been acknowledged
worldwide.

Table 3.1: Brewery Plants in Nigeria Before 1985
S/N Name & Location of Year of Installed Brand(s)
Brewery Establishment capacity
(000 hl)
1. NBL, Iganmu 1949 1,000 Star, Gulder, Rex,
Maltina, Amstel
2. NBL, Aba 1957 400 Star, Gulder, Rex,
Maltina, Amstel
3. Guinness, Ikeja 1962 1,000 Guinness Stout
4. NBL, Kaduna 1963 400 Star, Gulder, Rex,
Maltina, Amstel
5. Golden Guinea, Umuahia 1963 750 Golden Guinea,
Bergedoff, Eagle Stout
6. West African, Abeokuta 1964 400 Top
7. North Brewery, Kano 1970 800 Double Crown
8. Guinness, Benin City 1974 500 Stout, Salzenbrau
9. CRBL, Uyo 1977 500 Champion, Choice
10. Bendel Brewery, Benin 1977 350 Crystal
11. Premier Brewery, Onitsha 1977 750 Premier
12. Kwara Brewery, Offa 1978 350 Noble
13. International Brew, Ilesha 1978 350 Trophy
14. Continental, Ijebu-Ode 1979 600 33 Export
15. Superbru, Agharha-Otoh 1979 400 Skol
16. Jos Int, Brewery, Jos 1979 500 Rock, Class
17. Standard, Ibadan 1981 700 Club
18. Africana, Ibadan 1981 500 Castel
19. IBBI, Kaduna 1981 500 Kronembourg
20. Guinness, Ogba 1982 700 Harp, Merit
21. NBL, Ibadan 1982 1000 Star, Gulder, Rex,
Maltina, Amstel
22. Sona Brewery, Sango- 1982 600 Gold
Otta
23. Associated, Lagos 1983 750 Baron
24. Dubic, Aba 1983 200 Dubic
25. Sparkling, Ughelli 1983 200 Sparkling
26. Life, Onitsha 1983 350 Life
27. Pabod, Port Harcourt 1983 300 Grand

28. Benue Brewery, Markudi 1984 200 More
29. Safari, Arondizogu 1984 300 Hercules
30. Continental, Awo-Omama 1984 750 33 Export
31. Diamond, Enugu 1984 400 Monarch
32. Olympic Drinks, Abagana 1984 200 Olympic Beer
33. Pal Breweries, Oko- 1984 400 Pal
Aguata
Source: NIDB Market Survey (August, 1985)
Consequently, a research controlling body was

formed, made up of representatives from the Federal
Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi (FIIRO), the
University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) and brewers,
represented by NBL, Guinness (Nig.) Limited, Golden Guinea
Breweries Limited, West African Breweries Limited and the
Federal Ministry of Industries. Both FIIRO and the UNN
submitted research proposals which were harmonized,
FIIRO doing micro-malting and UNN doing micro-brewing.
Funds were made available by the brewers to purchase
suitable equipment identified by Dr. (Mrs.) O. Olaniyi and
Professor Nduka Okafor both of whom visited Europe at the
expense of the brewers to acquaint themselves with recent
developments in their areas of research relative to
equipment. Brewers also made funds available to run the
research expenses.
A lot of furore was generated over the foreign element
deletion policy. Arguments raged at different levels, some
with acrimonious expatiations irrespective of the depth of
knowledge of the issue at stake. Some even betrayed traits
of subliminal animosities incurred and bottled up waiting for
occasions such as an informal debate on the issue. There

appeared however, to be nothing wrong with the noble
idea, but what upset the apple cart was its implementation.
Sometimes, infuriating utterances came from quarters
where circumspection was expected, thus giving the wrong
impression that the action taken was punitive.
The introduction of the Structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) in 1986 saw a decline in the growth of the
brewing industry. This was as a result of the restrictions on
the importation of barley malt, a major raw material in beer
production. Many breweries tried to adapt to the situation
by partially replacing barley malt with local grains (as
adjuncts). New brands of beer were introduced into the
market with this new chemistry. Some of the new brands
included: Choice by Champion Breweries, Uyo; Rex by NBL,
Class by Jos International Breweries and Merit by Guinness
(Nig.) Ltd. They were however, later phased out because of
poor market performances. Research into the use of local
grains like sorghum, millet and maize came alive as these
breweries tried to scramble out of the difficulty.
When finally, government placed a total ban on the
importation of barley malt in 1988, capacity utilization fell to
an all-time low of about 30%. Some of the weaker
breweries collapsed while the others contracted in output.
Thus, the growth of the brewing industry in Nigeria became
stalled by the downturn of the economy. Plans for the
expansion of the existing breweries and the construction of
new ones, which had reached advanced stages, were
inevitably suspended (Table 3.2).

The search for local substitutes for imported barley
malt led most of the firms into expensive experiments with
Research and Development (R & D) departments as well as
substantial plant conversion expenses. Increasing
successes with local substitutes for barley malt and the use
of expensive imported enzymes improved capacity
utilization rate to about 64% in 1991.
Twelve years later, in the year 2000, the ban was
lifted as government bowed to pressures to liberalize trade.
However, some breweries today still find that brewing with
sorghum, using some external enzymes, remains less
expensive, while others have resorted to the use of barley
malt substitution (at certain percentage of the mash) to
eliminate (or minimize) the use of external enzymes
(EtokAkpan, 2005).

Table 3.2: Proposed Brewery Plants in Nigeria By 1985*
S/N NAME & LOCATION PROPSOED CAPACITY
(HL)
1. Alliance Brewery Ltd, Akure 200
2. Bekka Brewery Ltd, Akure 500
3. Best Brewery Ltd, Nnewi 400
4. Carlsberg Brewery Ltd, Agbara 200
5. Dalad Brewery Ltd, Ejigbo 200
6. Edewor Brewery Ltd, Eku 200
7. Ejagham Brewery Ltd, Obudu 350
8. Gongola Brewery Ltd, Yola 500
9. Guinness (Nig) Ltd, Enugu 500
10. Lagsbrew Ltd, Agbowa 400
11. Oluyole Brewery Ltd, Ibadan 250
12. Oshogbo Brewery Ltd, 500
Oshogbo
13. Owerri Brewery Ltd, Owerri 200
14. Peks Brewery Ltd, Benin City 200
15. Sahara Tekel Brewery Ltd, 200
Kano
16. Sarimi Brewery Ltd, Ilesha 250
17. Summit Brewery Ltd, Asaba 300
18. West African Brewery Ltd, 600
Asaba
19. Western Brewery Ltd, Iperu 200
20. Yakon Brewery Ltd, Uromi 300
* Source: NIDB Market Survey (August, 1985)
3.3 SORGHUM AS A BREWING RAW MATERIAL

Sorghum is an indigenous African cereal produced mainly in
the savanna and grassland areas where it became adapted
from its primary origin in Ethiopia some 5000 years ago

(Obilana, 1985). During its migration westwards, the crop
diversified into more than 200 different varieties world-wide
(MacFadden & Clayton, 1989). Hence, we have brown, pink,
red, white, yellow and mixed varieties (Rooney, 1969). The
crop is draught-resistant, requires little or no fertilizers or
pesticides, matures in 110-180 days, is biodegradable and
therefore, environmentally-friendly (FAO, 1995). As a world
food-grain, the cereal is ranked fifth after wheat, maize, rice
and barley (FAO, 1995). The main sorghum-producing
countries of the world are: the USA, China, India, Argentina,
Nigeria, Mexico and Australia.
Two of the best known sorghum species: Sorghum
vulgare and Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench, locally called
guinea corn, are the most extensively grown cereal grains in
Nigeria (Aba et al., 2004). With an estimated annual
production volume of 7.0 million tones (Obilana, 2005),
Nigeria is the largest sorghum producer in the West African
sub-region, accounting for about 71% of the total regional
sorghum output. Globally, the country leads in sorghum
production for human consumption and has risen from its
fifth position in 1995 (FAO, 1995) to be the third largest
sorghum producer in the world after the USA and India
where more than 90% of their sorghum harvest is used as
animal feed (Obilana, 2005).
In Nigeria also, sorghum is used as raw material for
lager beer brewing (Aisien & Muts, 1987). The most
promising varieties for this purpose are:SK5912, KSV8 and
ICSV 400 (Ezeogu, 1996; Ogbonna, 2002; 2007a). However,
large-scale beer brewing with sorghum malts initially proved
very difficult due to some biochemical problems
necessitating the advocacy for its use only as an adjunct in

the form of grits or whole grain (Palmer et al., 1989; Little,
1994; Hallgren, 1995) or mashing raw sorghum with some
commercial enzymes (MacFadden & Clayton, 1989; Dale et
al., 1990; Bajomo & Young, 1992; Agu, 1994; Agu & Palmer,
1998b; Goode et al., 2002).
Once the biochemical obstacles inherent in the
sorghum malts are completely tackled, process efficiency in
sorghum beer brewing will be achieved, beer production cost
would be reduced, while a Pilsner-type of lager beer would
be produced with 100% sorghum malt.
3.4 PROBLEMS OF SORGHUM AS A BREWING RAW

MATERIAL
Some of the major biochemical problems in sorghum beer
brewing are shown in Table 3.3. They include:
i) High malting loss which is estimated at 10-30% as

against 8-10% for barley (Briggs et al., 1981; Nout &
Davies, 1982; Ilori & Adewusi, 1991). Moreover,
potassium bromate (KBrO3), a growth inhibitor widely
used to moderate malting loss in germinating barley
(Palmer & Bathgate, 1976; Briggs et al., 1981), has
shown no influence on the germination properties of
sorghum (Morrall et al., 1986). Dilute ammonia (0.1N)
solution, which successfully reduced malting loss in
some Nigeria sorghum varieties, significantly
suppressed enzyme development as well as cold and
hot water extracts in these grains (Ilori & Adewusi,
1991).
ii) High gelatinization temperature which limits starch

solubilization and hydrolysis by the amylolytic
enzymes during mashing. In barley, the large starch

granules gelatinize at about 62 to 63oC, while the small
granules which account for only 10% of its total starch
weight, gelatinize at about 75 to 80oC (Palmer, et al.,
1989). In contrast, the bulk of the starch granules of
sorghum malt gelatinize at about 75oC. Such
differences in gelatinization temperatures are bound
to affect the rate at which starch is solubilized and
hydrolyzed by the amylolytic enzymes during mashing.
Table 3.3: A comparative composition of sorghum·

·
and barley malt wort
Sorghum Barley
malt/wort malt/wort
Malting loss (%)* 10 - 30 8 - 10
o o
Starch gelatinization temperature 75ÿ C 62 - 63ÿ C
o
Starch solubility in 100ÿ C water
ÿ · Amylopectin Partly soluble Soluble
ÿ · Amylose Soluble Soluble
o o
65ÿ C hot-water extract (ÿ L /Kg) 112.0 295.0
o o o o
45ÿ C - 80ÿ C - 65ÿ C HWE (ÿ L /kg) 268.0 290.1
a - Amylase dextrinizing unit (DU) 50.0 35.0
Diastatic power (DP), b -amylase 20.0 80.0
mainly
Free a -amino nitrogen (FAN: 100.00 160.00
mg/L)
Total soluble nitrogen (TSN: %) 0.7 0.7
b-D-Glucan (%) 0.5 0.5
Pentosan (%) 1.5 10.5
Source: Palmer, et al. (1989); * other sources

iii) Low extract yield/low diastatic power (Aisien & Muts,
1987) due to poor endosperm modification caused by
inadequate hydrolytic enzyme activities especially, b
-

Amylase (Palmer, 1983; Palmer, et al., 1989; Dufour, et al.,
1992). b -amylase is the major enzyme in starch
saccharification during mashing and is believed to be
deficient in sorghum malts (Aisien et al., 1983; EtokAkpan &
Palmer, 1990; EtokAkpan, 1992; Dufour et al., 1992;
Ezeogu & Okolo, 1994). Consequently, sorghum malt worts
contain significantly lower levels of maltose which makes
them less fermentable.
iv) Low free a -amino nitrogen (FAN) as a result of

inadequate proteolysis, limits yeast growth during
fermentation (Taylor & Boyd, 1986; Pickerell, 1986).
v) High wort viscosities/beer filtration problems (Skinner,

1976; Palmer, 1983; Aisien & Muts, 1987) arising from
low endo b -1,3 and 1,4-glucanase activity on the
endosperm cell walls which causes the release of
some b -glucans during mashing (EtokAkpan & Palmer,
1990). Sorghum malt worts also have higher levels of
dextrins which can cause beer-filtration problems as
well as haze formation (Glennie, 1984; Glennie &
Wright, 1986; Aisien & Muts, 1987)
3.5 RESEARCH AND PROSPECTS OF SORGHUM AS

A BREWING RAW MATERIAL
Strident research efforts using some improved
Nigerian sorghum malt varieties have recorded some
encouraging results in the following areas:
(i) Malting loss
While it would be economically desirable to reduce

malting losses in sorghum malting, the methods which had
been employed for this purpose have either been completely
ineffective or adversely affected the development of extract
and some other very important malt quality parameters
(Ilori & Adewusi, 1991). It is therefore, worthy of note that
malting loss and kernel growth have been significantly
reduced in three improved Nigerian sorghum varieties using
a steep regime which combined air-rest cycles with a final
o
warm water steep at 40 C (Ezeogu & Okolo, 1994). Indeed,
malting loss reduced progressively as the length of air-rest
increased (Ezeogu & Okolo, 1995) and was more
significantly repressed when dilute alkaline (0.1% NaOH)
liquor was incorporated in the steep regime (Okolo &
Ezeogu, 1996a). The use of warm water steeps in barley
malting to prevent rootlet growth is well documented
(Hudson, 1986; Briggs, 1987). Pool (1962; 1964) used final
o
warm water at 40 C and a combination of air-rest cycles
during steeping to make good barley malts, which not only
had negligible rootlet growths and malting losses but also
had good extract and enzyme development.
(ii) Special mashing methods for starch

gelanization temperature
(a) Sorghum malt-mashing by the decantation
process
The differences in gelatinization and saccharification
temperatures of sorghum malt starch have been resolved
through the development of a decantation mashing method
(EtokAkpan, 1988; Palmer, 1989). In this process, mashing
is carried out at 45oC for 30 minutes. Thereafter, the active

enzymic wort is decanted while the starchy grist residue is
o o
heated to 80 C or 100 C to gelatinize the starch. The mash is
then cooled while the decanted, enzymic wort is re-added to
o
achieve a conversion temperature of 65 C (Igyor, 1987;
EtokAkpan, 1988). Although this mashing method produced
worts with starch extracts comparable to those of barley
malts (Table 3.3), their fermentable extracts were still lower
than those of barley malt worts, possibly, due to lower levels
of b-amylase enzyme with a consequent lower levels of
maltose. However, the viscosities of the sorghum malt worts
were similar to those of barley malts (Igyor, 1987;
EtokAkpan, 1988).
(b) Brewing with 100% raw sorghum

When mashing with 100% unmalted sorghum
industrially, a single infusion method is recommended (Fig.
o o
3.1) with temperature stands at 50 C, 80-95 C and finally
o
60 C (MacFadden & Clayton, 1989; Little, 1994; O'Rourke,
1996). In this method, the raw sorghum is milled finely and
o
mashed-in at 50 C with a liquor: sorghum ratio of 3:1.
Thereafter, the mash pH is adjusted from 6.5 to 7.0 through
2+
the addition of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to give a Ca
ion concentration of 100 mg/L. This is followed by the
addition of a mixture of enzymes comprising some neutral
proteases, a thermostable a -amylase and a range of b -
glucanases. After a 30-min stand, more thermostable
bacterial a -amylases are added and the mash heated at the
rate of 1oC/min, to 80oC. After a 10-min rest, the mash is
heated to 90oC, held at this temperature for 50 min and
cooled to 60oC while the pH is adjusted once again to 5.5 by

the addition of HCl. The mash is further treated to a cocktail
of enzymes comprising a blend of neutral proteases, some
themostable and normal a -amylases, amyloglucosidase and
b -glucanases to ensure a proper attenuation limit. The mash
o o
is held at 60 C for 30 min, then 75 C for 20 min and finally
transferred for clarification through a mash filter. Since
sorghum worts are usually deficient in nitrogenous
materials, they are often supplemented with some yeast
nutrients for optimum fermentation.
(c) Mashing with unmalted sorghum, malted

barley and commercial enzymes.
In this method, addition of a small proportion of barley malt
and some commercial enzymes improves the potentials for
the brewing of high quality lager beer from unmalted
sorghum (Goode et al., 2002). Both the unmalted sorghum
(80%) and malted barley (20%) are milled and weighed into
a mashing beaker to give a total grist weight of 100g. The
grist mixture is mashed into a 300 mL liquor to give a liquor:
grist ratio of 3:1. Some commercial enzymes (Hitempase and
Bioproteases) are added at the mashing-in temperature of
o
50 C with a rest for 60 min (Fig. 3.2) for proteolysis.

100 Gelatinization
80
Transfer to
Mash filter
Temperature ( oC)
70
Sacchar-
ification
60
Cocktail of
Enzymes
50 Proteolysis Enzyme mixture
- neutral protease
- thermostable a - amylase
40
- b - glucanase
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (Minutes)
Fig. 3.1:Temperature/time mash profile with 100%

sorghum using exogenous enzymes
Source: MacFadden & Clayton (1989)
100
Gelatinization
90
80
Mashing-off
Bioferm
Temperature (oC)
70
60 Hitempase
Saccharification
50
Proteolysis
Bioprotease
40
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (Minutes)
Fig. 3.2:Temperature/time mashing profile of unmalted

sorghum, malted barley and commercial enzymes
Source: Goode et al. (2002)

Thereafter, the temperature of the mash is raised at the rate
o o
of 1.5 C/min, to 95 C for 40 min for starch gelatinization and
o
then cooled to 60 C while another enzyme, bioferm, is added
and allowed to stand for 30 min for saccharification. The
o
temperature of the mash is then increased to 78 C, held for
10 min and mashed-off at the same temperature. At the end
of mashing, the total weight of the mash is made up to 500 g
with the addition of distilled water.
(d) Using sorghum as unmalted adjunct
Sorghum grains which have mealy endosperm are best
suited for malting while those with steely (hard) endosperm
are suited for grit production (Palmer, et al., 1989).
Endosperm grits of maize, rice and sorghum are used as
adjuncts in brewing. The grits are usually cooked to
gelatinize and solubilize the starchy endosperm (Glennie,
1984; Palmer, 1989). Such adjuncts dilute wort proteins but
give the beer some improved stability.
(iii) Extract yield: Extract yields have been reportedly

increased in sorghum varieties ICSV400 and KSV8
when both grains were malted by a steep regime
incorporating air-rest cycles and final warm water
(40oC) steep (Ezeogu & Okolo, 1994, 1995). Recently,
higher extract values were reported in all the three
sorghum malt varieties through the use of cysteine
hydrochloride (Cyst.HCl) as an extractant (Ogbonna,
2007a). This suggests that extract yield in sorghum
malt varieties could be higher than those of barley
malt if proper extraction procedures were adopted.

(iv) Diastatic power/b -amylase activity: Diastatic
power, a -amylase and b -amylase activities have been
reportedly (Ezeogu & Okolo, 1994, 1995) increased
significantly in both sorghum varieties (ICSV400 and
KSV8) when malted in a steep regime involving air-rest
o
cycles and final warm water (40 C) steep. Similarly,
these malt properties were greatly enhanced when the
grains were exposed to alkaline (0.1% NaOH)
steeping, air-resting and final warm water (Okolo &
Ezeogu, 1996a). A significant enhancement of the
sorghum malt b -amylase activity, especially in variety
KSV8, through steeping in dilute calcium hydroxide
o
(Ca(OH)2) solution and kilning at 40 C has equally been
reported (Okungbowa et al., 2002).
(v) Low FAN and inadequate proteolysis: Greater

proteolysis has been achieved through the use of
cysteine hydrochloride (Cyst.HCl) as an extractant
with a consequent increase in FAN development
(Ogbonna et al., 2003b; 2004a) as well as a better
understanding of the physico-chemical, catalytic and
molecular properties of the sorghum malt proteases
(Ogbonna et al., 2003b; 2004 a & b); Ogbonna &
Okolo, 2005; Ogbonna, 2007a). In some similar
reports, protein modification and mobilization in
sorghum malting, including FAN development had
been significantly optimized through the application of
air-resting (Okolo & Ezeogu, 1995) and alkaline (0.1%
NaOH) steeping (Okolo & Ezeogu, 1996b).
(vi) High wort viscosities/beer filtration problems:

A proposal has since been made to enhance the
extractability of the b
-glucan-degrading-enzymes (b
-

glucanases) from sorghum malt varieties using novel
extractants, purifying the enzymes using
fractionation and chromatographic techniques and
finally, characterizing the enzymes using their
physico-chemical, catalytic and
molecular/immunological properties (Ogbonna,
2006).

CHAPTER 4
RAW MATERIALS IN BEER BREWING
Ø
Water
Ø
Malt
Ø
Yeast
Ø
Hops
Ø
Adjuncts
The basic raw materials employed in beer brewing are:

water, malt (barley), yeast and hops. In addition, unmalted
cereals such as maize, rice, sorghum, barley, wheat or
products made from them, are often used as adjuncts
(Russell & Stewart, 1995). The quality of these raw materials
has a decisive influence on the quality of the final product.
Thus, the knowledge of their properties and effects on both
the brewing process and the final product forms the basis for
their handling and processing. With such knowledge, it
becomes possible to control the technological processes very
efficiently (Kunze, 1999).
4.1 WATER
Water is a clear, colourless and odourless liquid with an
insipid taste. It is the major raw material used in the
production of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Water
accounts for approximately 95% of the total beer volume
(Hough, 1985; Russell & Stewart, 1995). For centuries,
water quality has been recognized as a major factor in

determining beer quality. Brewing centres developed where
water quality was consistent and suited the production of a
particular brand of beer. Thus, water from Burton-on-Trent,
with high content of calcium sulphate (CaSO4), became ideal
for the production of strong, pale ales. In contrast, the soft
waters of Pilsen in the Czech Republic, was ideal for the
production of pale lagers. Indeed, such lagers are commonly
referred to as 'Pilsner' beers. Similarly, water rich in calcium
bicarbonate (temporary hardness) proved excellent for the
production of darker, more mellow beers, hence, Munich,
London and Dublin became famous for such beverages
(Hough, 1985).
Table 4.1: Ionic composition (mg/L) of waters from

various brewing centres
Na+ Mg2+ Ca2+ NO3- Cl- SO42- HCO3-
Burton-on- 54 24 352 18 16 820 320
Trent
Pilsen 32 8 7 - 5 6 37
Munich 10 19 80 3 1 6 333
London 24 4 90 - 18 58 123
Dublin 12 4 119 - 19 54 319
Dortmund 69 23 260 - 106 283 549
Sources: Bernstein & Willox (1977); Hough (1985)
When chemical analysis was developed at the end of the 19th

century, it was possible to understand the chemical
composition of these local waters as shown in Table 4.1. It
therefore became practicable to add selected salts in

appropriate concentrations to waters from other locations
to create water similar to that of Burton-on-Trent, Pilsen, et
cetera. The term 'Burtonization' refers to the addition of
calcium sulphate (CaSO4) and sometimes, other salts to the
water so that its composition will be similar to that of the
Burton well-water. Invariably, the most common situation is
the need to reduce the level of hardness in the water. This
may be either temporary hardness caused by the presence
of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, or permanent
hardness associated with the sulphates of these metals.
4.1.1 Sources and uses of water in maltings and

breweries
Water, often referred to as liquor in a brewing
context, can be obtained from three major sources, namely:
surface water, underground water and municipal water (Fig.
4.1a). It can be used for either production or general
services (Fig. 4.1b)
Sources of Brewing Water
Surface water (e.g. Underground water Municipal water

streams, rivers, (Borehole) (Treated & supplied by
ponds, lakes) public water corporation
or water boards)
Fig. 4.1a: Sources of brewing water

The volume of water required varies between breweries but
generally about six-and-a-half times the total volume of beer
produced. Additional water is lost during general services as
effluent, as water vapour from boiling and in the spent hops
and grains.
Utilization of Brewing Water
Production General Services

(Fairly hard) (Fairly Soft)
Preparation of solutions Washing/Cleaning

Sparging Boiler operations
Beer dilution Pasteurization
Refrigeration
Wort production
Steeping during malting
Fig. 4.1b: Uses of water in maltings and breweries
4.1.2 Suitability of water for brewing

The basic requirements for good brewing water are as
follows (Bernstein & Willox, 1977; Hough et al., 1981):
i) It must be microbiologically pure. The microbiological

safety of water is measured by testing the water for
coliform bacteria. This test serves as an indicator as it
is based on the assumption that water that is free from
coliform bacteria is also free from other potential

pathogenic microorganisms. An average coliform
density for all portable water should not exceed 1 per
100 ml of water when membrane filter technique is
employed. Experience shows that water from any
source which consistently meets the coliform
standard can rarely be responsible for the
transmission of water-borne diseases. Chlorination is
the most common method of sterilizing water
supplies.
ii) It must be clear, colourless, odourless and free from
any objectionable taste and if surface water, free from
organic matter.
iii) It must have a neutral pH (pH 7.0) or be very slightly

acidic (O'Rourke, 1998).
iv) Alkalinity should be 50 mg/L or less and preferably

less than 25 mg/L (Briggs et al., 1981). The alkalinity
of water is a measure of the amount of its titrable
- -
bicarbonate (HCO3 ), carbonate (CO3 ) and hydroxide
(OH-) ions, usually expressed in terms of equivalent
amount of calcium carbonate. High alkalinity
counteracts the beneficial effects of calcium and
magnesium ions.
vi) It should have a calcium concentration of 50 mg/L and

since over 50% of the calcium is lost during the
mashing process, a further 50 mg/L is usually added
to the kettle.

4.1.3 Water composition and beer quality
Water composition can influence beer quality in three major
ways, namely:
§ Microbial contamination and beer spoilage
§ Mineral composition and pH of brewing water and
§ Organic composition and beer flavour
4.1.3.1 Microbial contamination and beer spoilage

Generally, most of the water used for brewing is heated prior
to mashing and boiled in the kettle, thus making it free from
non-sporulating microorganisms. However, additional water
used for diluting worts or beer or rinsing plants may not be
microbiologically sterile. The brewery may wish to undertake
some sterilization treatments, including:
i) Chlorination: This is the most common method of

sterilizing water supplies. However, it should not be
used for water that goes directly into the beer because
compounds which act as sources of chlorine either
directly as in chlorination, or indirectly through
hypochlorite, can produce phenolic taints in beer.
Sterilization of water can be achieved in this way using
a determined quantity of calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(OCl)2. The calcium hypochlorite will dissociate in
2+ -
water to form calcium (Ca ) and hypochlorite (OCl )
ions.
Ca(OCl)2 Ca2+ + 2OCl-
The hypochlorite ion will combine with

+
hydrogen (H ) ion of the water to form a weak
hypochlorous acid which is toxic to microorganisms
that may be contained in the treated water.
+ -
H + Ocl HOCl
ii) Chlorine dioxide: This functions as an oxidising

agent. As a gas in water, it does not release halogens
which can react to produce taints. It is used at a
maximum level of 0.5 ppm to treat final rinse water
after disinfection.
iii) Ozonisation: This treatment has a strong oxidising

effect which kills microorganisms very rapidly.
iv) UV irradiation: UV light at a wavelength of 200 to

280 nm destroys the DNA in microorganisms provided
the correct dose is applied. Unlike chemical
treatments, it has no residual effect. To be effective,
the water must be colourless and free from suspended
materials, or the sterilization will be ineffective.
v) Sterile filtration: Physical water treatment such as

reverse osmosis and distillation will give sterile
products. Sterile filtration through a 0.2 micron filter
(or 0.45 micron) will produce sterile water at the point
of use.

4.1.3.2 Mineral composition and pH of brewing
water
The mineral content of brewing water has long been
recognized as making an important contribution to the beer
flavour. As stated elsewhere, this played a key role in
determining the location of breweries specializing in the
production of particular brands of beer (Table 4.1). Mineral
ions have two basic functions in brewing, these include:
§
Their effects on the acidity or pH of the water caused
by hardness and
§
The role of individual mineral ions in the biochemistry
and the final taste profile of the beer.
4.1.3.2.1 The meaning of pH in water chemistry

pH is the term used to describe the concentration of
+
hydrogen (H ) ions present in a solution. A water molecule
+ -
(H2O), contains hydrogen (H ) ions and hydroxyl (OH ) ions.
0 -7 +
In one litre of water at 25 C, there are 10 hydrogen (H ) ions
-7 -
and 10 hydroxyl (OH ) ions. Their ratio determine the pH of
water, as shown below:
(H+) > (OH-) -----------> acid pH (low)

(OH+) > (H+) -----------> alkaline pH (high)
+ +
(OH ) º (H ) -----------> neutral pH
pH is expressed as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the

hydrogen ion concentration:
1
pH = log [H+]

A pH scale (Fig. 4.2) indicates whether a solution is
alkaline, neutral or acidic. The scale ranges from 0 to 14.
Seven (7) is the mid-point, and a solution with pH 7.0 is said
to be neutral. Higher pH values (i.e. from 7 to 14) denote
alkalinity, lower values (i.e. 0 to 7) acidity. Because it is a
logarithmic scale, the units increase by a factor of 10 at each
interval.
ACID ALKALINE
0 7 14
Neutral
Fig. 4.2 A standard pH scale
4.1.3.2.2 Effect of pH on brewing water

The pH of water has a profound effect on many processes
during beer production. For instance, the pH of the washing
liquor plays an important part in the enzymic conversion of
starch and protein during mashing. In addition:
§ The optimum pH for starch conversion and sugar
production is between pH 5.3- 5.4
§ The proteolytic enzymes act best at pH 4.6-5.0 to
ensure adequate production of free alpha amino
nitrogen (FAN) for yeast metabolism during
fermentation.
§ A mash pH of below 4.5 can cause a set mash due to
the reduction in the activity of the amylase enzymes.
§ High alkaline mash pH causes the extraction of
phenols, which impart astringent character to the
beer.

§
The low pH value (pH 4.2) of beer makes it difficult for
most bacteria to thrive.
4.1.3.2.3 Water hardness

Hardness is that property of water that makes it 'collapse'
soap lather by forming insoluble salts of fatty acids.
Hardness is a measure of the concentration of calcium (Ca2+)
and magnesium (Mg2+) ions present in a water sample. That
part of hardness which disappears after boiling is referred to
as temporary hardness and is essentially a measure of the
calcium (Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 ) and magnesium (Mg(HCO 3 ) 2 )
bicarbonates. During boiling, these are converted to
carbonates, which are precipitated as a result of their low
solubilities.
Permanent hardness, on the other hand, is the
hardness which remains after boiling and includes: sulphate
2- - 2-
(SO4 ), chloride (Cl ) and nitrate (NO3 ) ions of calcium and
magnesium not precipitated as carbonates.
The unit of measurement of hardness is the Degree
German (°G). 1°G means that the water sample contains 10
mg of calcium oxide (CaO) per litre or 7.2 mg of magnesium
oxide (MgO) per litre. The sum of the carbonate and non-
carbonate hardness denotes the total hardness (Fig. 4.3).

Hardness of water
(Total Hardness)
Temporary Permanent
Ca(HCO3)2 Mg(HCO3)2 CaSO4 MgSO4 CaCl2 MgCl2 Ca(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2
Fig. 4.3: Types and causes of hardness in water
4.1.3.2.4 Effect of water hardness on beer brewing

2+
§ High concentration of calcium ions (Ca ) in brewing water
leads to low mash pH because it combines with the
phosphate (PO4-) ions in malts to release hydrogen:
3 Ca2+ + 2H2PO42- Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H+
§
Hard water causes scale formation in the steam boilers
and other hot water installations.
§
Some types of hardness (e.g, temporary hardness) make
the water alkaline and therefore increase the pH
throughout the brewing process.
4.1.3.2.5 Water treatment in the brewery

The type of treatment given to water depends on its intended
use in the malthouse or brewery. In the brewhouse,
treatment of water is aimed principally at reducing alkalinity
and/or providing the correct level of permanent hardness
due to Ca2SO4. Water treatment in the brewery can be
chemical or physical.

(i) Chemical water treatment
The commonly found cations and anions in water-treatment
problems are: H+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Al3+, Fe2+ (cations) OH-, Cl-,
CO3-, SO4-, NO3-, PO4-, SiO3- (anions). Addition of chemicals
will alter the mineral salt balance of the brewing water:
a) Removal of hardness by boiling: Boiling the water

breaks down the soluble calcium bicarbonate into
insoluble carbonate:
Ca(HCO3)2 heat CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
OR
heat
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2
If this treatment is chosen, then it is necessary to boil

all the water for brewing, including mashing, sparging
and dilution water for about 30 minutes. This
treatment will also help in removing chlorine and
sterilizing the water.
b) Removal of hardness by the addition of lime

Lime reacts with the soluble calcium bicarbonate to
form insoluble carbonate:

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
OR
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 MgCO3 + CaCO3 + 2H2O
The lime must be allowed to stand for 24 hours before use to

let the precipitate settle. Iron, silicates, oxalates and some
organic matter are also removed. If too much lime is added,
free Ca2+ ions are again made available for hardness.
C) Removal of hardness by the addition of acids
A number of acids: sulphuric (H2SO4), phosphoric
(H3PO4), lactic acid (CH3CHOHCOOH) and rarely
hydrochloric acid (HCl) may be used to remove
carbonate, and where the calcium-acid salt is
insoluble, part of the calcium is removed as well. The
type of acid used will influence the ionic composition
of the water and hence, the beer flavour as stated
earlier.
Ca(HCO3)2 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

(ii) Physical treatment of water
As an alternative to the addition of chemicals to reduce
temporary hardness, there are a number of purification
techniques that can be used to remove unwanted mineral
ions from water and to produce a very clean and chemically

pure water. Once the water quality has been assured, its
mineral composition can then be adjusted by adding specific
mineral ions to give the exact composition necessary for the
production of the desired beer (O'Rourke, 1998). There are
three principal methods of purifying water:
a) Distillation: This process involves boiling the raw

water in a double phase change from liquid to vapour
and back to liquid. The dissolved mineral salts
remaining in the boiling flask are periodically removed
through discaling. Freshly distilled water is sterile
although volatile impurities such as ammonia and a
variety of organic compounds are carried over to the
distillate.
b) Membrane separation (reverse osmosis):

Reverse osmosis has been used by a number of
breweries to desalt brackish water and can reduce the
mineral content to about 5%. This technology also
removes all suspended solids and most organic
contaminants (Ormrod, 1986).
When equal volumes of water are separated by a semi-

permeable membrane, osmosis occurs as the pure water
permeates the membrane to dilute the more concentrated
solution. If the system is left undisturbed, an equilibrium will
be attained at which there will be no difference in height
between the two columns representing the osmotic
pressure.

Pressure applied is
greater than osmotic pressure
Pure
Impure Water
Water
Membrane
(excludes particles in the range: 0.0001 to 0.001vm)
Fig. 4.4: Membrane separation OR reverse osmosis
If a physical or hydraulic pressure is applied in excess of the

osmotic pressure and in a reverse direction to the normal
osmotic flow, then, a reverse osmosis occurs. Water is forced
through the membrane from the impure solution to the pure
solution, leaving the bulk of its contaminants concentrated
behind the upstream side of the membrane (Fig. 4.4). The
concentrated contaminants are constantly flushed to drain,
thus, rejecting the contaminants from the systems.

c) Ion exchange (de-alkalization and de-
ionisation)
Ion-exchange involves chemically binding the unwanted
mineral ions on a fixed exchange resin bed and releasing
more soluble but less problematic ions into the water. Water
softening often involves passing the water through a cation
exchange resin, which consists of an interlocking network of
cross-linked polymers to which are attached immovable
cationic moieties such as sulphonate groups which are
negatively charged and are associated with sodium (Na+)
ions. On coming into contact with the hard water, the resin
exchanges its sodium for calcium and magnesium ions, thus
softening the water:
+ 2+ 2+ +
2R --- Na + Ca R2 --- Ca + 2Na
Þ
The process is irreversible but on depletion of the sodium,

the resin can be regenerated by treatment with NaCl.
Sodium ion-exchange is often used for softening water for
boiler treatment or cleaning-in-place (CIP), by converting
the calcium and magnesium salts to sodium salts which are
not scale-forming. On its own, it is not suitable for treating
brewing water as it will be high in sodium chloride, but it may
be used as a pre-treatment for further ion-exchange.
§
Demineralization: This is achieved by replacing the
sodium ion-exchange resin with a hydrogen ion-
exchange resin, making it possible to swap the
calcium and magnesium (and any other sodium) ions
for hydrogen.
§
De-ionization: For de-ionisation, the water is passed

through an anion exchange resin which exchanges
the sulphate, carbonate, and chlorides for the
hydroxyl (OH-) ions. The salt, represented by MAn is
adsorbed on to the resins as shown:
Acid resin (Ra): RaH + MAn Þ RaM + Han
Basic resin (Rb): RbOH + HAn Þ

RbAn + H2O
-
Here, the hydroxyl (OH ) ion, reacts with the hydrogen
+
(H ) ion to reproduce a very pure water similar to distilled
water in mineral ion composition, but it may still contain
organic residues and silicates from the source water.
De-alkalisation: The effect of adding hydrogen (H+)

§
ions to the water is to convert the dissolved salts into
their corresponding acids, and the water cannot be
used until the acids have been removed or
neutralized. It is possible to add alkali such as lime or
dilute sodium hydroxide to neutralize the acid.
4.1.3.2.6 The role of mineral ions in brewing

Apart from their effects on pH, different mineral ions affect
the biochemistry and beer flavour characteristics and
development.
2+
i) Calcium (Ca )
§ Plays a major role at each stage of the brewing
process.
§
Responsible for both permanent hardness (in

2-
association with SO4 ) and temporary hardness (in
association with HCO-3).
§
Responsible for the fall in pH during mashing, boiling
and fermentation by reacting with buffering
compounds such as phosphates to form an insoluble
+
compound which releases hydrogen (H ) ions causing
a drop in pH.
3Ca2+ + 2HPO42- Þ
2H+ + Ca3(PO4)2
§
Improves run-off and wort filtration by its
combination with colloidal substances in wort e.g,
protein
Protein+ Ca2+ Ca proteinate++++
§
Protects a -amylase against thermal denaturation,
thus facilitating the liquefaction process in the cooker.
§
Improves extract recovery.
§
Improves protein precipitation during wort boiling.
§
Limits the extraction of coloured, bitter, astringent
and siliceous substances, thus causing a decrease in
wort colour and hop bittering potential.
§
Improves yeast flocculation and removal of trubs.
§
Precipitates oxalates as calcium oxalates, thus
preventing haze and gushing.
§
Stimulates and stabilizes protelolytic and some
amylolytic enzymes, thus improving brewhouse

extract and wort free-and-soluble-nitrogen.
ii) Magnesium (Mg2+)

§ Brewing water may contain about 10-50 mg/L, but
the bulk of Mg2+ (approximately 130 mg/L) comes
from malt. It has similar reactions with calcium, but
since magnesium ions are more soluble, the effect on
the wort pH is less.
§ Provides the beer with a slightly bitter or sour flavour
detectable at levels above 15 ppm.
§ In excess, magnesium salts, particularly magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4), may cause flatulence (discomfort
due to accumulation of gas in the stomach).
§ Has a laxative effect in humans.
§ Acts as a co-factor for certain fermentation enzymes,
e.g. pyruvate decarboxylase.
+
iii) Sodium (Na )
§ At low concentrations (ca 75 ppm), sodium gives a
sweet flavour and adds to palate-fullness of beer.
§ At higher concentrations (ca 150 ppm), it gives a salty
flavour.
iv) Potassium (K+)

§ Like sodium, it gives a salty flavour but not normally
added to beer.
§ It is an essential co-factor for certain enzymes.

§
At high concentrations, it can have a laxative effect.
v) Iron (Fe2+ or Fe3+)

§ Not desirable and therefore should be absent in
brewing water.
§
At concentrations above 0.2 mg/L, it can prevent
complete saccharification of the mash and also gives
hazy worts and spargings.
§
It weakens the yeast at a concentration above
0.1mg/L, leading to bland beers without palate
fullness
§
In packaged beer, iron acts as a catalyst in the auto-
oxidation of polyphenols, accelerating the production
of irreversible hazes in beer.
§
It imparts a metallic taste to beer.
§
It also leads to liver diseases.
vi) Zinc (Zn2+)

§ At high concentrations, zinc has toxic effect on yeast.
§ It inhibits amylase activity and contributes to beer
haze.
§ In trace amounts (0.15 to 0.20 ppm), zinc acts as a
yeast nutrient, where it is involved as a co-enzyme for
normal yeast metabolism.
§ Zinc requirement by yeast is strain-dependent.

vii) Copper (Cu2+)
§ At high levels (above 10 mg/L), copper is toxic to
yeast.
§ At lower concentrations, it acts as a catalyst in the
auto-oxidation of polyphenols accelerating the
formation of irreversible hazes in beer.
viii) Manganese (Mn2+)

§ It is an important enzyme co-factor in yeast but not
required above 0.2 mg/L in brewing water.
ix) Chloride (Cl-)

§ At levels up to 300 ppm, chloride ion increases palate-
fullness, gives a generally more mellow flavour to beer
and improves clarification and colloidal stability.
§ Above 500 ppm, it can inhibit yeast flocculation, slows
fermentation and gives unpleasant taste to beer.
x) Carbonates (CO32-) and Bicarbonates (HCO3-)

§ Carbonate ions are opposite in effect to calcium by
absorbing hydrogen (H+) ions preventing a fall in pH.
§ The bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions react with phosphoric
acid (H2PO4) to produce hydrogen phosphate (HPO42-),
causing a rise in pH.
§ Should not exceed 50 mg/L in brewing water as an

-
alkalinity (HCO3 ) of 100 mg/L decreases the
brewhouse yield very significantly.
2-
xi) Sulphate (SO4 )
§ Suphate ions, particularly MgSO4, give drier, more
bitter flavour in beer.
§
This is a source of SO2 and H2S that can be formed by
yeast during fermentation or when acted upon by
bacteria.
xii) Nitrite (NO2-) and Nitrate (NO3-)

§ Though hardly found in water, nitrite must be
removed even when noticed at a very low
concentration.
§ Nitrite is toxic to yeast and will adversely affect
fermentation if found in brewing water.
§ At concentration above 10 mg/L, nitrate (NO3-) may
be indicative of sewage pollution.
§ At concentration above 20 mg/L, nitrate causes slow
fermentation, poor yeast growth and unpleasant
taste.
xiii) Silicate (SiO32-)

§ Levels in brewing water should not exceed 30 mg/L.
§ It combines with Ca2+ and Mg2+ to give scales and
hazes.

4.1.3.3 Organic composition and beer flavour
Water picks up organic compounds (fungicides, pesticides,
fertilizers, phenols, mineral oils and poly-aromatic
hydrocarbons) as it passes through the soil and decaying
vegetation. When such waters are chlorinated, a range of
soluble organo-halides can be formed. If the chlorine is not
removed from the water before brewing, similar reaction will
occur with the raw materials in the beer.
Many of these compounds have very low flavour
threshold and can impart undesirable flavours and aromas
to the beer. The phenolic compounds have a taint often
described as medicinal or TCP, detectable at levels below
1ppb.
An effective way of removing unwanted contaminants
is to use carbon filter for all the water used for brewing and
other processes such as high gravity dilution.
4.2 MALT
Malt is any cereal grain that has gone through the processes
of steeping, germination and kilning (Macleod, 1977a). It is
the major raw material in brewing and provides appropriate
substrates and enzymes to yield a soluble extract called wort
(Hough, 1985). Although the art of malting originated in pre-
historic times (Macleod, 1977b), it is reasonable to assume
that by processes of trial and error, the early maltsters
developed their craft to a modest level of efficiency. Over the
last 20 years, there has been a better understanding of the
physiology and biochemistry of the cereal seed germination
(Stewart & Russell, 1985). Much of this knowledge has been
applied to the development of the malting practice.

4.2.1 Cereals
Cereals are the flowering plants of the family, Gramineae,
whose seeds (grains) are used as food. They include: wheat,
rice, maize, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, rye, etc. Cereal
grains have always been used as one of the primary raw
materials for beer brewing (Robert, 1847). This is mainly
because they provide a nutritious extract (wort) which when
fermented by yeast is pleasant to drink (Palmer, 1989).
Of all the cereal grains, barley has been and is still
preferred for malting and beer brewing. Barley has retained
its pre-eminence as a cereal of choice for many reasons
among which are:
§
Abundance of the crop which is mainly cultivated in
the Northern hemisphere.
§
The presence of husk which facilitates the filtration
process during brewing.
§
The ease with which it germinates during the malting
process.
§
The possession of high diastatic power in its malt
which ensures the provision of water-soluble
components in its extract called “WORT”.
§
The presence of a good balance of nutrients (amino
acids, sugars, minerals and vitamins) suitable for
yeast metabolism.
§
The absence of high protein content which may cause
undesirable cloudiness or haze in beer.
In fact, barley is the fourth largest grown cereal in the world,

coming after wheat, rice and maize (Table 4.2). However,
only about 10% of its total annual harvest is required for

brewing purposes. The rest is used as feed for animals, for
distillation as adjuncts or for the preparation of malt
concentrates.
Although barley is acknowledged world-wide as the
grain best suited for malting and brewing, other cereals such
as wheat, rye, oats, sorghum, millet and triticale (Wheat
[Triticum] x Rye [Secale]) have been processed into malt
(Daiber & Novellie, 1968; Pomeranz et al., 1970; Hoeser &
Kieninger, 1971; Mandl, 1972; Pomeranz & Shands, 1974).
Success with these cereals has been limited due to their low
diastatic power, unacceptable colours and flavours as well as
poor shelf-life of the final products. Research work is still in
progress to harness the potentials of these grains especially
sorghum, which is now grown locally to produce malt of
acceptable quality.

Table 4.2: Cereal Production World-wide
Cereals Area Yield Production
cultivated (kg/ha) (X103 tons)
(ha)
Wheat 236,586 2,027 479,475
Rice 143,602 2983 428,368
Maize 126,670 3282 415,738
Barley 79,410 2,030 161,194
Sorghum 47,565 1,434 68,214
Millet 42,008 0694 29,134
Oats 26,360 1661 43,776
Rye 16,955 1693 28,702
Others 8,477 1412 11,967
World total 727,633 12,296 1,666,568
Source: FAO (1977)
For now, it is preferred to use these grains in the unmalted

state as extra-carbohydrate sources or brewing adjuncts.
Generally, malted or raw cereals in milled, refined flakes or
cooked forms provide virtually all the grist used in the
brewery mash tun.
4.2.2 The barley grain

Barley (Hordeum spp) is the traditional raw material for
brewing the European-type of beers: the ales and the lagers.
It belongs to the family Gramineae, to which belongs other
cereals. A grain of barley is a dry, indehiscent fruit known as
a caryopsis. It belongs to the tribe Hordeae which contains
as many as 25 species. In spite of this wide range of

botanical forms, brewing barley may either be 2-rowed or 6-
rowed. The flowers (spikelets) of a 2-rowed barley have two
developed grains on each node of the rachis while those of a
6-rowed barley have six. In Europe and Australia, 2-rowed
barley is mainly used for malt production while the 6-rowed
variety is used in America and Canada. Though a 6-rowed
barley will produce more corns per plant, the 2-rowed barley
tends to give a higher extract per plant because its corns are
larger. In countries which allow the use of unmalted grain
adjuncts, the 6-rowed, enzyme-rich varieties are preferred.
4.2.3 Morphology and anatomy of barley grain

The barley grain is elongated, slightly compressed and
consists of two main parts: a small embryo which gives rise
to a new plant and a large endosperm which is a storage
tissue (Briggs, 1964). The longitudinal section of the grain
(Fig. 4.5) shows the following layers:
i) Husk: The husk surrounds the entire grain and

accounts for about 10% of its dry weight. It is made up
of dead, empty honey-comb - like cells that provide
mechanical protection and acts as an efficient filter
material in the mash tun during brewing. Structurally,
the husk consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose,
lignin and a small quantity of protein. Although it does
not contribute to the brewer's extract, it can indirectly
impede the development of the extract during malting
by controlling the rate of grain germination (Pollock et
al., 1955a).

Coleorhiza
Root initials
Leaf initial Starchy endosperm
Coleoptile Aleurone Layer
Scutellum
Pericarp - testa
Epithelium
Husk
Fig. 4.5: A longitudinal section of the barley grain
ii) The pericarp-testa: In the barley grain, the testa

(seed coat) and the pericarp (fruit wall) are fused
together to form the pericarp-testa. The pericarp
consists of a mass of compressed cellulosic cells
separated from the husk by a thin but completely
waxy coating and from the testa by a peculiar
alignment of large, flat, lignified cross-cells running at
right angles to the furrow of the grain (Palmer, 1969).
The pericarp-testa is semi permeable in nature,
allowing entry of water while restricting those of a
wide range of salts (Brown, 1907; Palmer, 1974).
iii) The aleurone layer: The aleurone layer lies

between the testa and the starchy endosperm and
covers the later except at the furrow and at the
interface with the scutellum. In barley, the aleurone

layer consists of 2-3 cells in cross section whereas
those of other cereals such as triticale, wheat, rye,
sorghum, maize and oats usually consist of a single
layer (Palmer & Bathgate, 1976). The aleurone cells
are living and in response to gibberelic acid, they
produce and secrete important hydrolytic enzymes
such as a -amylase, endoproteases and endo-b -
glucanases which are essential during malting and
subsequent mashing processes. Generally, the
aleurone cells of wheat, barley, rye and oats respond
to gibberallic acid and produce a -amylase, etc.
(Eastwood et al., 1969; Palmer, 1970; Pomeranz &
Shands, 1974), whereas those of sorghum are
insensitive to this homone (Daiber & Novellie, 1968).
It is also noteworthy that the aleurone layers of
different barley varieties respond differently to
gibberallic acid (Palmer & Bathgate, 1976).
iv) The starchy endosperm: This is the main tissue of

the grain and its main foodstore. It is made up of dead
and thin-walled cells packed with starch granules,
embedded in a protein matrix. The endosperm is not
homogenous because the protein and b -amylase
contents are highest at the sub-aleurone layer, where
the cells are comparatively small. In section, the
starchy endosperm of a good malting barley appears
'white', 'floury' or 'mealy' due to the presence of
numerous small, air-spaces between and around the
starch granules. In contrast, a poor quality grain, often
relatively rich in protein, has a 'greyish', 'translucent',
'vitreous', 'glassy' or 'steely' appearance.

V) The embryo: The barley embryo accounts for about
4-5% of its dry weight (Palmer, 1983). Like the
aleurone layer, the embryo is a living structure
developing metabolic activities when the grain is
wetted. The embryo is made up of three distinct
regions, namely:
i) The root system with a root initial covered by
the coleorhiza
ii) the acrospire with a foliar shoot covered by the
coleoptile
iii) the scutellum, demarcated from the
endosperm by a layer of epithelial cells.
During germination and subsequent seedling growth,

the embryo produces and secretes natural
gibberellins (GA1 and GA3) into the adjoining
endosperm (Cohen & Paleg, 1967; Radley, 1967,
1969). These hormones induce the synthesis and
development of the hydrolytic enzymes which convert
the tough starchy endosperm into friable (brittle)
malt. The scutellum has both absorptive and
secretory functions and contains some reserve
substances.
4.2.4 Morphology and anatomy of sorghum grain

Unlike the barley grain which is spindle-shaped, the
sorghum grain is basically a flattened sphere with variable
sizes and colours (Palmer, 1989; Ogbonna, 1992). Unlike
barley, harvested sorghum grain has no husk but is made up
of the following anatomical structures:

i) Pericarp-testa: The pericarp (fruit wall) which is the
outermost layer that encloses the internal structures
is composed of four microscopically different
portions; namely, the epicarp, the mesocarp, the
cross cells and the tube cells (Fig. 4.6). The last two
portions are sometimes referred to as the endocarp.
The epicarp has a thick cuticle that gives the grain a
shiny appearance, and unlike other cereals, it
contains deposits of small starch granules.
Stylar area
Aleurone layer
Outer (Steely)
starchy endosperm
Inner (mealy)
starchy endosperm
Intermediate
Coleoptile
Acrospire
(crushed) layer
Foliar Epithelial cells
shoot
Scutellum
Root
Coleorhiza
(chit) (1) 1. Epicarp
(2)
2. Mesocarp
Pericarp-testa
(3) 3. Cross cells
(4) 4. Tube cells
Fig. 4.6: A longitudinal section of the anatomy of a

sorghum grain
Source: EtokAkpan (1988)

Another layer, the testa (seed coat), fuses with the pericarp
to form the pericarp-testa. In some varieties, this layer may
harbour some polyphenolic materials (Rooney, 1969; Daiber
et al., 1973) which manifest themselves as red, brown,
yellow or pink pigments. These varieties are unpalatable to
birds, and as such are often referred to as 'bird-proof'
varieties.
ii) The aleurone layer: The aleurone tissue of sorghum

comprises a single layer of cells in contrast to that of
barley which is usually three cells in thickness except
over the scutellum where it is a single-cell layer
(Palmer, 1989). During germination, the plant
hormone, gibberellic acid (GA3), induces the aleurone
cells of barley to produce large quantities of
endosperm-degrading enzymes such as a -amylase,
proteases, pentosanases and endo-b -1,3:1,4-
glucanases (Palmer, 1989). This plant hormone does
not have similar effects on the sorghum aleurone layer
(Daiber, et al., 1973; Aisien, et al., 1983). Indeed, there
is no evidence that the aleurone layer of sorghum can
produce and secrete endosperm-degrading enzymes
during malting (Palmer et al., 1989).
The internal structure of the sorghum grain which has

been the subject of many scientific investigations,
consists of two major tissues: the embryo and the
starchy endosperm.

iii) The embryo: The embryo of sorghum is larger than
that of barley (Table 4.3) and contains two distinct
regions: the axis and the scutellum. As in barley, the
axis of sorghum embryo consists of a foliar shoot,
enclosed by the coleoptile to form the acrospire.
Unlike the barley embryo which has four root initials,
sorghum embryo has only a single primary root
enclosed by the coleorhiza (chit). The scutellum
consists of a single layer of columnar epithelial cells
situated at the endosperm surface as well as
irregularly-shaped storage parenchyma cells. The
scutellum produces and secretes the enzymes, a -
amylase (Daiber & Novellie, 1968; Daiber, 1975;
Aisien & Palmer, 1983; Aisien et al., 1983; Palmer,
1987). Like barley, sorghum contains the B-group
vitamins such as thiamine, niacin and riboflavin which
are presumed to be located mainly in the embryo and
the aleurone layer (Pomeranz, 1987).
iv) The starchy endosperm: The starchy endosperm is

the largest tissue in both sorghum and barley grains.
It consists mainly of starch granules, storage proteins
and cell-wall materials. In both cereals, the starch
granules and storage proteins (prolamins and
glutelins) are enclosed in the endosperm cells.
Sorghum contains more prolamins (alcohol-soluble
storage proteins) than barley. However, barley grains
contain significantly more albumins and globulins
(enzyme proteins) than sorghum grains (Hoseney,
1986; Pomeranz, 1987; Palmer, 1989). The cells of

the inner endosperm of sorghum are loosely packed
and contain some air spaces, giving it a mealy
(opaque) or floury texture. On the other hand, the
cells of the outer area of the endosperm are tightly
packed, giving it a hard (steely), vitreous or rather
corneous texture (Aisien & Palmer, 1983). The starch
granules of sorghum endosperm are similar in size
and about 10m m in diameter while those of barley are
two types: the large ones (approx. 25m m in diameter)
and the small ones (approx. 2 to 5mm in diameter).
Table 4.3: Proximate composition of sorghum and barley

grains
Sorghum grain Barley grain
(%) (%)
Embryo 8.0 4.0
Endosperm 86.0 80.0
Pericarp-testa 6.0 6.0
Protein (N x 6.25) 10.0 11.0
Starch 70.0 65.0
Lipid 4.0 3.0
b-D-glucan 0.4 3.3
Pentosan 2.5 9.0
Ash 1.6 3.0
Source: Palmer, et al. (1989)
The endosperm cell-walls of barley contain, by weight,

about 25% pentosans, 70% b -D-glucans, and about 5%
protein. In contrast, the corresponding cell-walls of sorghum

endosperm contain 4% pentosan, 25% b -D-glucans and
about 62% protein (EtokAkpan, 1988; Palmer, 1989).
4.2.5 Grain reception, handling and storage

Rapid and efficient reception, processing and storage of
grain is essential to prevent deterioration and losses. On a
large scale, the losses incurred through poor handling and
storage are enormous. Bad storage allows decreases in bulk
and in quality.
(i) Pre-reception treatments

Old grain or malt stores are usually infested with rodents
such as rats and mice. In properly designed and managed
stores, rodents are never seen. Systematic poisoning with
'warfarin' (which causes foetal haemorrhages in them) or
related compounds have been effective in rodent control.
However, 'warfarin-resistant' strains now occur, so that it is
necessary to use much more dangerous poisons for rodent
control. Cats are the natural but ineffective regulators of
rodent numbers.
Even healthy grains carry a population of micro-
organisms including fungi such as Aspergillus, Mucor,
Penicllium and Fusarium spp. These occur in the dust, on
the grain surfaces, and between the husk and pericarp
structures. During storage, the population of
microorganisms changes in composition: 'field-fungi'
decline while 'storage-fungi' increase in numbers. Generally,
the size and nature of the population of microbes depend
strongly on storage conditions.
Insect infestation also occurs during grain storage.

Some species of insects are able to survive and multiply in
grains of widely differing moisture contents and over a range
of temperatures. Common serious insect pests are the saw-
toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus surinamensis), the grain
weevil (Sitophilus granaries), and the rust-red or flat grain
beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus). In addition to the loss in
grain weight consumed by mature insects or their larvae,
much of the grain is damaged and the percentage
germination may be seriously reduced by those insects
which selectively eat the embryos. In malt stores, where the
relative humidity (rh) is very low and insecticides may not be
used, the saw-toothed grain beetle and the Khapra beetle
(Trogoderma granarium), the rust-red flour beetle
(Tribolium castaneum), the grain borer (Rhyzophila
dominica), flies (Drosphila melanogaster) as well as the
floor mites (Acarus siro) which bind grains together and
may prevent a bulk of grain flowing.
The best safeguards against pest infestations are:
§ Properly designed stores,
§ Holding the grain under optimal storage conditions,
§ Exclusion of insect-contaminated grains, sacks,
farmfeed or vehicles from the neighbourhood of the
maltings,
§ Vigorous application of 'good' house-keeping rules
and
§ The use of approved poisons.
(ii) Grain reception

Generally, many maltsters prefer to receive grains as soon as
possible after harvest and then dry, clean and store them to

ensure that their quality is maintained. On arrival and before
unloading, samples are taken from the grains at various
places and from different depths. The samples are then
mixed, a sub-sample from the mixture is compared with the
purchase sample, paying particular attention to the
appearance, the moisture content and the nitrogen
contents. If it is substandard, the bulk may be rejected or
may be accepted at a reduced price. If accepted, grain is
then discharged into ground-level gratings leading to the
conveyors. Depending on its moisture content, fresh grain
may be dried immediately or may be held in well-ventilated
bins until the drier is free to process it.
(iii) Grain handling

Grain handling systems vary according to the following:
§ Quantities to be moved
§ Rate at which it must be handled
§ Number of stores to be filled and emptied and
§ Location and the extent of the machinery.
Modern grain handling involves pneumatic conveyors

which are flexible and can work over long distances. They
are self-cleaning and can remove the last trace of grain from
stores. There are different conveyor systems generally
employed, namely:
§
Screw conveyors,
§
Belt and bucket conveyors,
§
Chain-and-flight conveyors,
§
Moving rubber-belt conveyors,

§
Flexowell conveyors,
§
Hovertube conveyors,
§
Speed-up conveyors,
§
Oscillating-jumping conveyors and
§
Endless-belt conveyors.
The endless-belt conveyors are more common and may

work in open or inside buildings, generating little dust and
are also gentle to the grains in addition to being self-
cleaning. Sometimes, grains are moved by oscillating-
jumping conveyors. Each section of the conveyor throws the
grains forward in little jumps 1 to 8 cm by an upward and
forward jerking actions. These are also very gentle to the
grains but cumbersome and slow.
At each stage of handling, grain is weighed. Trucks
may be weighed on a weigh-bridge on entering and leaving
the premises. Bulk grains may be weighed in an overhead
hopper. The grain flows in until a certain weight is reached,
then the flow is cut off. The grain is then discharged either
through the bottom or by tipping. Sometimes, grain is
measured by volume.
(iv) Grain cleaning and grading

Grain arriving in the factory might be contaminated with
several non-grain materials such as dust, chaff, short straws,
leaves, insects, weeds, seeds, stones, soil, snail shells,
string pieces, metal fragments, broken grains and other
cereals. Grain received must therefore be pre-cleaned as
these contaminants may:
§ Affect its keeping quality,

§
Cause damage to the handling machines,
§
Give false weight and
§
Reduce the desired quality of the grain.
Dust may be removed from the grain by winnowing. The

separated impurity may be reprocessed to recover any grain
and the impurities may then be graded into broken or mixed
cereals, seeds and other classes so that they can be sold.
Grains may be separated into grades differing in width
by screening. This may involve separating the grains into 3
or 4 classes using apertures of 2.8 mm, 2.5 mm and 2.2 mm
or less. In the case of barley, medium sized 'bold' grain is
preferred for malting but separating the grains into many
grades is not strictly necessary.
(v) Grain drying process and equipment

When warm, dry air is forced through a bed of grain, it
removes moisture from it. Moisture is removed from
materials to enhance their keeping quality as well as to save
cost. The principle underlying grain drying is that in a closed
container or environment, the moisture in a given material
comes into equilibrium with the moisture in its surrounding
atmosphere. This equilibrium-moisture content can be
expressed as the equilibrium-relative humidity (rh), which is
defined as a percentage of moisture that is required to
saturate the atmospheric air at a given temperature. At
higher temperature, the rate at which moisture in a material
equilibrates with the moisture in its surrounding atmosphere
increases. If air with an rh below the equilibrium rh is passed
through a layer of grains, then it dries it until its moisture is in
equilibrium with the air stream.

(vi) Types of driers
Many types of driers are used, they include:
a) Platform driers: These have apertures for
ventilation. Such driers are simple and relatively
cheap but laborious to use. In addition, the grains are
treated unevenly.
b) Storage bins and silos: These have perforated
floor allowing vertical flow of air through the grain.
They may be conical in shape.
c) Tower-type grain driers: In a tower-type grain
drier, grain is fed into the top of a tower. As it descends
at a controlled rate, it then meets a current of warm,
dry air which successively warms and removes water
from it. Finally, it is cooled in a current of air at
ambient temperature.
Although water is removed faster at higher

temperatures, moist grain is more readily damaged by heat
than dry grain because enzymes are destroyed, browning or
caramelization occurs while melanoidin formation is equally
achieved. Grains may take up to 2 hours to pass through a
tower drier during which time, the 'air-on' temperature that
it may encounter may rise from 54-66oC. The air is cooled by
evaporation from the grain so that the 'air-off' temperatures
o o
may be 43 C and 52 C, respectively. In the cooling section,
the ambient air may reduce the grain temperature to about
o
30 C or less if it is to be stored warm initially. Grain cooling
may be achieved in a special 'flow-through' heat exchanger.
Usually, grain is cooled by the fan-driven passage of cold,
dry air.

(vii) Grain storage facilities
Popular grain storage facilities include:
a) Pits: Grains may be stored in pits or heaps in the open
with a fence to keep off wandering animals and
perhaps, a coating of mineral dust to discourage
insects. Such storage is generally unacceptable as it
does not keep off rodents, birds, rain, drought or
moisture-laden air and may be contaminated with
dust.
b) Sacks: Small quantities of grain may be stored in

sacks. This should be housed in a dry, pest-free and
clean environment.
c) Bins or silos: Grains are better stored in bins or

siloses. Bins and siloses may be made in many sizes
and of many materials including wood, concrete, steel
and may have individual capacities up to 3000 tons.
The silos or bins may be mechanized to fill by delivery
from above, employing some suction or from below
by hopper-bottoms over a conveyor system. Limited
ventilation may be achieved by sucking or blowing a
stream of air through the grain. Such aeration cools
the grain, supplies oxygen to maintain its viability and
can achieve limited drying. A silo will also minimize
the risk of damage by insects or microorganisms.
Probes and thermocouples are incorporated to
monitor the temperature and moisture content of the
stored grain.
d) Woods: Wood structures are simple to erect but

difficult to keep sound, clean and uncontaminated.
Steel and concrete buildings are preferred.
4.2.6 Barley malting technology

Malting is defined as the controlled germination of a cereal
grain so as to produce enzymes which will catalyse the
hydrolysis of polymerized reserved materials notably,
proteins and starches, thus extracting fermentable materials
(Macleod, 1977a). The objectives of malting include:
§ To produce hydrolytic enzymes such as peptidases,
endo-b -glucanases and a -amylase which will catalyse
the hydrolysis of polymerized reserve materials.
§ To make the cell walls of the endosperm cells soluble
thus enabling the enzymes to act.
§ To secure the hydrolysis of protein by peptidases into
polypeptides, peptides, and amino acids
§ To improve the digestibility and palatability of the raw
grain.
Malting involves three unit operations, carried out in a
malthouse (Fig. 4.7), namely: steeping, germination and
kilning.

Silos
For Malt
Clean Polisher
Barley
Kiln to Dry
the Malted
Barley Collecting
Tank with
Scales
Steeping
Tank
Hot Air
From Heater
Air
Inlets
Cleaner to Remover Malt Silos
The Barley Roots
Germinating Box Malt to Brew house
Fig. 4.7: A schematic lay-out of the malthouse

Source: Heineken (1990)
(i) Steeping
Steeping simply means soaking the grains in water. Steeping
hydrates the grain to a moisture level that will meet the
water requirement of the aleurone layer for both enzyme
production and migration through the multicellular
endosperm complex (Palmer & Bathgate, 1976). Steeping
involves a short initial steep period (6- 8 hrs), followed by a
longer 'air-rest' period to remove water-sensitivity and
encourage even germination (Essery et al., 1954). In
addition to this conventional method, there is also the re-
steeping process where the germinating grain is re-steeped
in warm (40-45oC) water to reduce root growth and malting
loss (Palmer, 1983).
The rate of water uptake in grain is correlated to its

malting quality (Hartong & Kretshemer, 1960) and may be
affected by many factors including corn size, nitrogen
content and initial moisture level (Brookes et al. 1976). In
barley and other seeds (Wellington & Durham, 1961), water
uptake occurs in three phases (Fig. 4.8). In the first phase
(6-12 h), water uptake is rapid and physical due to the
imbibition of water previously lost during ripening by seed
colloids, primarily proteins and carbohydrates (Wellington,
1964; Brookes et al., 1976).
50
40
Moisture content (%)
Phase II
30 Phase III
Steep ripe
Plateau
20
Phase I
(Imbibition
10 of water)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Steeping time (h)
Fig. 4.8: Water uptake during barley steeping

Source: Brookes et al. (1976)

In the second phase (Toole et al., 1956), water uptake is
usually slow or ceases entirely. This period is associated
(Oota, 1958) with the hydrolytic conversion of starch into
sugar, which probably increases the osmotic pressure within
the tissues and results in the uptake of more water. In the
third phase, water is taken up at a steady linear rate and is
correlated (Dewez, 1964) with metabolism, probably as a
result of the initiation of the activity of the cytochrome
system (Oota, 1958). During this stage, there is a visible sign
of germination as the rootlets emerge, probably due to the
elongation of their meristematic cells which, according to
Palmer (1971), take up water and become vacuolated.
Some additives to steep liquor

Various substances can be added to the steep water to
influence malt quality:
§ Lime water (Ca(OH)2): to check microbial growth
and leach out some phenolic materials from the grain.
§ Formaldehyde: to reduce phenols and improve
germination.
§ Gibberellic acid (GA3): to accelerate all aspects of
grain modification and break dormancy.
§ Potassium bromate (KBrO3): to control the
development of soluble nitrogen and thus reduce
malting losses.
§ Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): to secure rapid and
even germination and break dormancy.
§ Chlorine or hypochlorite solution (NaOCl): to
reduce the growth of algae and fungi. However,

chlorine imparts a 'disinfectant' flavour to the malt
and destroys the enzyme producing action of
gibberellic acid of the grain.
(ii) Germination
Germination is the second stage in the malting process.
Here, the chitted grain is allowed to grow and develop the
hydrolytic enzymes which will degrade the endosperm cell
wall, proteins and starch to useful extract (Palmer, 1983).
This degradation, which is referred to as modification in
malting, is technically important (Sandegren & Beling, 1959)
and a proper control of it is essential for the production of
good malt.
During germination, the cell wall acts as a barrier to
the movement of the hydrolytic enzymes and must
therefore, be degraded before the reserves (starches and
proteins) can be mobilized. The cellwalls of the starchy
endosperm cells are composed mainly of about 75% b -
glucan, 15% arabinoxylan, 5% protein and 3%
glucomannam (Fincher, 1975). In barley, the b -glucan is a
linear polymer of glucose and contains b -1, 3-and b -1, 4-
linkages. It forms an insoluble complex matrix with protein
(Forrest & Wainwright, 1977). On the other hand, the
arabinoxylan consists of chains of b -1, 4-linked xylose units
with arabinose units attached to the xylan chain. The
hydrolysis of b -glucan is initiated by an acidic enzyme, b -
glucan solubilase, which breaks the linkage between b -
glucan and protein and renders the former soluble
(Bamforth et al., 1979). The high viscosities caused by the
solubilized b -glucan give rise to technical problems such as

slow wort filtration during brewing (Enari & Sopanen, 1986).
The soluble b -glucan is further hydrolysed by at least three
enzymes: endo-1,3-b -glucanase (Manners, & Wilson,
1974), endo-1, 4-b -glucanase (Briggs, 1964) and barley
endo-b -glucanase (Manners & Wilson, 1976). The synthesis
of b -glucan solubilase starts at the beginning of germination
(Bamforth & Martins, 1983) and is soon followed by the
synthesis of endo-b -glucanase (Macleod et al., 1964;
Bourne & Pierce, 1970). This sequence of synthesis is
consistent with the view that b -glucan is first released by
the solubilase and then hydrolysed by the endo-b -
glucanase. In the geminating grain, cellwall degradation
starts adjacent to the embryo and spreads from the surface
of the scutellum (Gibbons, 1980; Briggs & MacDonald,
1983) indicating that b -glucanases are secreted by the
scutellar epithelium. Later, cellwall degradation is observed
beneath the aleurone layer, which also seems to secrete b -
glucanase (Macleod et al., 1964; Gibbons, 1980; Briggs &
MacDonald, 1983).
Storage proteins (hordein & glutelins) are broken
down by the proteolytic enzymes into amino acids which are
used mainly for the synthesis of new proteins needed for the
growth of the seedling (Enari & Sopanen, 1986). The
proteolytic enzymes of the barley grain are classified into
two groups, namely: the proteinases or endopeptidases and
the peptidases or exopeptidases. The proteinases are made
up of two sulphydryl enzymes, three metal-activated
enzymes and an acid proteinase while the peptidases consist
of five carboxypeptidases, four neutral aminopeptidases and
two alkaline peptidases. About one-third of the endospermal

reserve proteins are localised in the living cells of the
aleurone layer (Mikola & Kolehmainen, 1972) where they are
deposited in protein bodies as aleurone grains. Similar but
not identical protein bodies are also present in the scutellum
(Gram, 1982). Roughly two-thirds of the reserve proteins are
localized in the starchy endosperm, where they are
especially abundant in the cells beneath the aleurone layer
(Enari & Sopanen, 1986). Mobilization of protein in the
germinating barley grain involves all the main parts of the
grain (aleurone layer, scutellum and the starchy endosperm)
and is a result of a concerted action of all or most of the
enzymes enumerated above and can be divided in three
phases (Mikola, 1983). In the first, early phase, the proteins
in the protein bodies of the scutellum and the aleurone layer
are degraded (Gram, 1982). This process has not been
studied in detail in barley; however, studies with other seeds,
e.g. mung bean (Sunblom & Mikola, 1972; Chrispeels &
Boulter, 1975), indicate that degrading protein bodies
contain both acid proteinases and carboxypeptidases. The
aleurone layer of barley contains both of these groups of
enzymes (Mikola & Kolehmainen, 1972; Sunblom & Mikola,
1972), and it is likely that the degradation of protein in the
protein bodies is a result of their combined action. The free
amino acids and small peptides (FAN) liberated apparently
pass into the cytosol, where the peptides are hydrolysed by
the neutral aminopeptidases and/or the alkaline peptidases.
The amino acids liberated are mainly used to synthesize
hydrolytic enzymes which are secreted into the starchy
endosperm. In the second phase of storage protein
mobilization, the proteins of the starchy endosperm are

hydrolysed by the acid proteinases which split them into
soluble peptides. The soluble peptides then become
substrates for the five carboxypeptidases which liberate
amino acids from them. The hydrolysis of proteins in the
starchy endosperm does not go to completion but results in
a mixture of free amino acids and small peptides. In the third
phase of protein mobilization, the small peptides and amino
acids are taken up into the scutellum by active transport
(Higgins & Payne, 1977; Sopanen et al., 1977; Sopanen, et
al., 1980; Sopanen & Vaisanen, 1985). There, the peptides
are hydrolysed into free amino acids by the neutral amino
peptidases and or the alkaline peptidases in the scutellum
(Mikola & Kolehmainen, 1972).
Starch is the most abundant component of the barley
grain, comprising about two-thirds of its dry weight. The
starch of barley is composed of two types of glucose
polymers: amylose, the minor component (Aspinall &
Greenwood, 1962) is a linear polymer formed from glucose
units joined bya -1, 4-glucosidic linkages; amylopectin, the
major component, also has a -1, 4-linkages, but occasionally
the glucose chains are branched through a -1, 6-linkages.
During germination, starch is hydrolysed by the amylolytic
enzymes to glucose, which is used partly as a source of
energy and partly as a starting material for the synthesis of
new compounds necessary for the growth of the seedling.
The amylolytic enzymes of barley grain are: a -amylase, b -
amylase, debranching enzymes and a -glucosidase. Alpha-
amylases are endo-enzymes hydrolyzing a -1,4-glucosidic
linkages randomly in the chain and leaving the terminal
sugar in a -configuration, hence, the name, a -amylase.

Alpha-amylase in germinating barley is heterogenous,
consisting of a number of isoenzyme forms. No a -amylase
can be detected even in inactive form in ungerminated
barley grain, but high activities appear during germination
(MacGregor et al., 1984) due to de-novo synthesis of the
enzyme which is triggered by the gibberellins (Filner &
Varner, 1967). b -amylase, on the other hand, is synthesized
in a dual form: soluble or free form and latent or bound form
in the starchy endosperm during grain development. During
germination, the free b -amylase increases while the latent
form decreases and finally disappears. In addition to a -and
b -amylases, germinating barley also contains at least two
so-called debranching enzymes which can hydrolyse a -1, 6-
linkages thus removing the branches in amylopectin or a -
limit dextrins. One of the amylolytic enzymes already
mentioned can hydrolyse maltose which is a product of their
action on starch, this is accomplished by a -glucosidase
(maltase) which hydrolyses maltose to glucose (Jorgensen,
1965).
Mobilization of starch involves both the scutellum and
the aleurone layer, and apparently all the hydrolytic enzymes
discussed above. At the start of germination, hydrolysis of
intact starch granules is initiated by a-amylase secreted by
the scutellum (Gibbons 1979; MacGregor et al., 1984; Ranki
& Sopanen, 1984). Later, the bulk of activity seems to come
from the aleurone layer where gibberellins induce a massive
synthesis and secretion of a -amylase (Briggs, 1964; Filner &
Varner, 1967; Palmer, 1982; MacGregor et al., 1984; Ranki &
Sopanen, 1984). Large dextrins are released by a -amylases
and further hydrolysed partly by the same enzymes and
partly by b -amylase whose activity increases considerably,
possibly due to liberation of its bound form by the

endospermal proteinases. The debranding enzymes
hydrolyse the a -1, 6 branch points, liberating new
substrates for a - and b -amylases. One debranding enzyme
is synthesized during the development of the grain and
probably liberated from a bound form like the b -amylase,
while another seems to be secreted by the aleurone layer in
response to gibberellins (Hardie, et al., 1976). It is evident
that glucose liberated from starch must be taken up into the
scutellum. There, it is mainly converted to sucrose, the
major long-distance translocation form of sugars in plants
(Enari & Sopanen, 1986) and then translocated to the
seedling.
(iii) Kilning
Kilning is the drying of germinated grain under controlled
temperature and time (Palmer & Bathgate, 1976; Briggs, et
al., 1981; Bemment, 1985; Seaton, 1987). The purposes of
kilning are:
§
To arrest the growth and enzymic activities of the
green malt at the end of the germination process.
§
To reduce the moisture level from about 43% to about
3-5% so that the malt can be stored without
deterioration.
§
To develop malt flavour, beer quality and colour-
forming characteristics (e.g. caramels, polyphenols,
melanoidins, etc) by a complex of chemical and
biochemical reactions (Narziss, 1974).
§
To coagulate proteins which might reduce beer clarity
or form haze (Karel, 1965).
When malt is transferred from the germination vessel to the

kiln, its moisture content is usually not less than 40%. At the

initial stage of kilning, an air stream at about 50-70oC is
passed through a bed of germinated grain. This brings the
o
temperature of the drying malt to about 25-30 C because the
latent heat of evaporation absorbs some of the heat energy
of the air stream (Narziss, 1970a). After about 10 hours into
the first phase, the 'break point' is reached when
evaporation slows down while the temperature of the malt
o
begins to rise above 30 C (Fig. 4.9).
AIR-OFF
DARK ALE MALT
TEMP (°C)
COLOUR
100 PALE LAGER MALT FORMATION
80
TEMPERATURE ( C)
60
ENZYMES ACTIVE ENZYMES DECAYING ENZYMES DESTROYED
40
20 DRYING STAGE CURING STAGE
5 10 15 20 25
Break Point
TIME (HRS)
Fig. 4.9: Schematic representation of the kilning process in

relation to temperature and time
Source: Palmer & Bathgate (1976)

During this first phase, the green malt enzymes, especially
those degrading carbohydrates and proteins are very active.
They produce sugars and amino acids which react to form
melanoidins (Kaiser, 1966; Barrett et al., 1967; Barwald,
1972; Bathgate, 1973; Narziss, 1974) and other compounds
which give colour to the resultant wort and beer. In the
manufacture of lager and pale malts, these enzymes and
chemical reactions are kept to a minimum. After about 18
hours, the malt temperature reaches about 60-65oC and the
moisture level of the green malt falls from about 43% to
about 5-8% (Palmer, 1983). However, for the manufacture
of traditional ale malts, the dried malt is subjected to a final
curing phase, during which the temperature is raised to
1000C for about 2 hours.
Dimethyl sulphide (DMS) at 20- 80 g/L is an important
flavour compound in lager beers. Studies at the Brewing
Industry Research Foundation (Anderson et al., 1975; White
& Parson, 1975) showed that the precursor, S-
methylmethionine or dimethylsulphoxide (Niefend & Spath,
1973) to DMS formation comes from malt but transformed
to DMS by yeast metabolism. Thus, malt drying at a high
o
initial temperature of about 70 C tends to destroy the
o
precursor(s) while at low temperature (50 C), it survives
kilning and is extracted into the wort.
4.2.7 Principles of sorghum malting technology

Like in barley, the technology of sorghum malting,
comprises three unit operations, namely: steeping,
germination and kilning.

(i) Steeping: Before steeping, sorghum grains are
sorted to remove non-grain materials, surface-
sterilized by immersion for at least 40 minutes in
sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution containing 1%
(v/v) available chlorine, to discourage microbial
activity (Ezeogu, 1996; Ogbonna, 2002). Thereafter,
the grains are drained of the sterilant, washed
vigorously three times in tap water (Morrall et al.,
1986), and steeped in a grain/water ratio of 1:2.
Steeping should be done for at least 45 hours in three
cycles each comprising: 6-hour wet-steeping period,
after which the grains are transferred to a sieve
previously sterilized with the NaOCl solution for a 3-
hour of air-resting, followed by a 6-hour re-steeping
0
in warm water at 40 C (Ezeogu & Okolo, 1994) to
obtain a final out-of-steep moisture content of 40%
(w/w). In general, steeping should not only give an
optimal germination, it should also cause adequate
hydration of the starchy endosperm, thereby
encouraging rapid and uniform enzymic breakdown of
the endosperm food reserves (Palmer et al., 1989).
(ii) Germination: At the end of steeping, the chitted

grains are drained of water and subjected once again
to surface-sterilization by immersion for 20 minutes in
a 1% NaOCl solution, rinsed for 3 minutes in tap
water, drained again and germinated for 5 days in an
atmosphere of near water saturation at 300C
(Ogbonna, 2002). During germination or the growth
phase of malting, water loss from the huskless

sorghum grains can be very rapid. Excessive water
loss impairs endosperm breakdown and retards
seedling growth (Morrall et al., 1986). It is often
necessary to turn the grains and spray them with
water daily and place them in a humid environment
during malting.
As stated earlier, the plant hormone, gibberellic acid

(GA3) appears to have very little effect on the rate at
which sorghum grain will malt. This is different from
the malting barley where, at low concentrations (0.1
to 0.2 ppm), the GA 3 accelerates enzyme
development and endosperm breakdown (Palmer,
1989). Similarly, potassium bromate (KBrO3), a
growth inhibitor widely used to moderate malting loss
in germinating barley (Palmer & Bathgate, 1976;
Briggs, et al., 1981) has shown no influence on the
germination properties of sorghum (Aisien, 1980;
Morrall et al., 1986; Palmer, 1989). Hence, malting
loss of sorghum malts is 10- 30% while that of barley
0 0
is 8-10% after 5 days of growth at 30 C and 16 C,
respectively (Briggs et al., 1981; Nout & Davies, 1982;
Ilori & Adewusi, 1991).
In malting barley, the combined actions of the endo-

b-glucanase and proteases render the hard
endosperm friable. In malting sorghum, endo-b -1,3-
glucanase and proteases tend to effect limited attack
on the endosperm cell walls causing some b -glucans
to be released during mashing. Microscopic studies of
the endosperm of malted barley and malted sorghum

show that while the cell walls of the former are
extensively degraded during malting, those of the
latter are left virtually intact, except for small portals
(openings) through which amylolytic and proteolytic
enzymes probably pass to degrade starch and protein
reserves, respectively (Glennie et al., 1983;
EtokAkpan & Palmer, 1990).
(iii) Kilning: At the end of germination, kilning of

sorghum malt is often carried out for 24 hours in a
forced-draught oven, pre-set at 50oC (Novellie, 1960;
o
Narziss, et al., 1973). While kilning at above 50 C may
enhance malt flavour and reduce volatile compounds,
it may however, damage the enzymic activity of the
sorghum malt (Aisien & Muts, 1987).
4.2.8 Types of malt

Various types of malt are made by the alteration and
modification of the existing malting-kilning procedure,
especially temperature and time. Hence, we have:
i) Green malt: These are prepared by kilning or

stewing malts at very high temperature.
ii) Chocolate or black malt: This is prepared from

uniform barleys having a moderate nitrogen content.
o
These are roasted to high temperature of 221-233 C
for 2-2½ hours in a slowly rotating cylinders heated
on burning gas.
iii) Roasted malt: This is prepared with raw, unsteeped

grains which are roasted in drums. The malt has a
characteristic flavour and is used in making dark
stouts.
iv) European brumalt: This is made from highly

steeped malts which are placed for 24 hours in a bed
about 20 cm deep and covered so that the
o
temperature rises to about 50 C.
v) Crystal or caramel malt: This is prepared from well

modified malt which is rich in sugar and wetted and
o
rewetted after light-kilning at 65-77 C for 1½ - 2
hours with minimal ventilation.
vi) Amber malt: This is prepared from well modified

malts which are kilned to 3-4% moisture level.
Ambering is done by heating rapidly to about 93oC in
15-20 min then gradually to 138-149oC. The high
temperature is maintained until correct colour is
developed.
vii) Brown malt: These are normal malts which are dried
on fires, heated with hard wood faggot and from oaks.
Temperature is 177oC for 2½ hours.
4.3 YEAST
The role of yeast in alcoholic fermentation was first debated
in the 19th century when Charles Cagniard-Latour
suggested in 1837 that alcoholic fermentation was
associated with the budding yeast cells (Enari, 1995). This

hypothesis was further developed in 1839 by Theodor
Schwann who assumed that sugar acted as both food and
growth factor for the yeast. Many famous organic chemists
including Justus von Liebig and Fredrich Wöhler disputed
this view insisting that alcohol was produced from sugar in a
purely chemical process in which dead, decaying yeast cells
merely participated. This dispute was finally settled in 1857
by Louis Pasteur who proved that alcoholic fermentation
was associated with the whole metabolizing yeast cells. He
further extended his theory by showing that each
fermentation: alcoholic, lactic or acetic acid, was caused by
a different organism. But the chemical view was,
nonetheless, supported in 1897 when a German chemist,
Eduard Buchner was able to obtain alcohol and carbon
dioxide (CO2) from sugars using a cell-free yeast extract.
Buchner's work was followed by Harden's and Young's
findings in 1905 that in-organic phosphate (Pi) is converted
to an organic form. The process was, however, much more
complicated than the early chemists envisaged. Following a
long period of research by eminent scientists, basic enzymic
processes involved in the alcoholic fermentation by yeast
were discovered and finally clarified via the glycolytic
pathway also known as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway
by Hans Krebs and his co-workers in 1940.
4.3.1 Yeast ecology and industrial application

Yeasts are found in diverse ecological niches especially soft
fruits such as strawberries (Barnett, 1971; Buhagier &
Barnett, 1975), marine habitat, coconut fluid (Yamagata,
1980), palm oil (Nakahara et al., 1982), palm wine (Bassir,

1962; Okafor, 1972; Ogbonna, 1987) and even on animals
(Bruce & Morris, 1973). Several industrial products such as
beer, cider, saké, spirits and wines are produced by yeasts of
the genus, Saccharomyces (Davenport, 1975). Some
amylolytic enzymes such as alpha-amylase, gluco-amylase
and pollulanase are also synthesized by some yeast genera
especially those of Endomycopsis, Schwanniromyces,
Pichia and Saccharomyces. Many growth factors such as
thiamine, riboflavin, biotin, pantothetic acid and folic acid are
synthesized by yeasts, mainly due to their high contents of
Vitamin B.
4.3.2 Yeast taxonomy

Yeasts represent a wide range of fungi where the usual
growth form is unicellular (Hough et al., 1982). They do not
constitute any taxonomic unity although they comprise
subdivisions of slightly related species. Most yeasts are
grouped under the class Ascomycetes while others belong to
the class Deuteromyces. They generally stain readily with
mycological reagents such as lactophenol blue and exhibit
positive Gram reactions.
Yeasts used in brewing have basic similarities in their
properties and as such can be classified as one of the two
species of the genus, Saccharomyces: S. uvarum
(carlsbergensis) and S. cerevisiae (Piesley & Lom, 1977).
Lager and ale, the two main types of beer are fermented with
strains of Saccharomyces uvarum (carlsbergensis) and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, respectively.
Traditionally, lager is produced by 'bottom-fermenting
o
yeasts' at 7-15 C, which, at the end of primary fermentation,

flocculate and collect on the bottom of the fermenter. 'Top-
fermenting yeasts', used for the production of ale, ferment at
temperatures between 18 and 22oC. At the end of the
fermentation, the culture forms into loose clumps of cells that
are adsorbed on the CO2 bubbles and is carried to the surface
of the wort. Consequently, top yeasts are collected
(skimmed) for re-use from the surface of the fermenting
wort; whereas, bottom yeasts are collected (cropped) from
the bottom of the fermenter. The difference between lager
and ales on the basis of bottom and top cropping has become
less distinct with the advent of cylindroconical fermenters,
where the yeast sediments to the base of the vessel, and
centrifuges, where the yeast remains in suspension
throughout the fermentation.
Taxonomically, the two yeast species are distinguished
on the basis of their ability to ferment the disaccharide,
melibiose. While strains of S. uvarum (carlsbergensis)
possess the MEL gene(s) (Russell & Stewart, 1995) that
enables them to produce the extracellular enzyme, a -
galactosidase (or melibiase) with which they can metabolise
(utilize) melibobiose, strains of S. cerevisiae do not produce
a -galactosidase and, therefore, are unable to utilize
melibiose. Meanwhile, yeast taxonomists have amalgamated
both S. uvarum (carlsbergensis) and S. cerevisiae into one
species, S. cerevisiae (Barnett et al., 1983; Kreger-van Rij,
1984). The number of species within the genus
Saccharomyces has equally been reduced from 41 (Lodder,
1970) to 10 (Barnett et al., 1990).

4.3.3 Structure and composition of the yeast cell
The cells of a brewing yeast strain are usually spherical or
eliipsoidal in shape and their sizes vary between species,
strains and even within a culture (Hough et al., 1982). A
yeast cell contains about 75% water while its dry matter
consists predominantly of proteins, carbohydrates, fat,
minerals, vitamins (especially, B1 and B6) and enzymes. All
members of the genus Saccharomyces reproduce by
multilateral budding (Fig. 4.10).
Yeast cell buds
Old yeast cell
Fig. 4.10: A budding yeast cell
Yeast cells, which can only be seen under a microscope

consist of different distinct regions (Fig. 4.11), namely:
i) The cell wall: A typical yeast cell is bounded by a wall
which gives it shape and stability and may bear one or
several scars. It is relatively elastic. Chemically, the
wall is a very large complex macromolecule, the chief
components of which are 30- 40% a -mannan (the so-
called yeast gum) and 30- 40% b -glucan (Kunze,

1999). In addition, the wall contains proteins, fat and
inorganic substances. The mannan, which is
deposited on the outside, is esterified with phosphate
while the glucan is located inside. Integrated in the
total complex are proteins with disulphide bonds as
well as enzymes. The proportions of glucan to
mannan vary according to the strain of yeast and are
influenced by the conditions of growth. The cell wall
confers certain brewing properties to the yeast cell.
Thus, some brewing yeasts rise to the surface of the
fermenting wort towards the end of fermentation (top
yeasts) while others sediment (bottom yeasts). This
distinction is a reflection of some differences in
composition of the yeast cell wall.
Budding Scar
Ribosomes
The Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Storage granule
The cell wall
Mitochondria The cell membrane
Phosphate
reserves
Vacuole
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Fig. 4.11: The ultra-structure of the yeast cell

ii) The cell membrane (plasmalemma): Within the
wall lies the cell membrane which is invaginated to
protrude into the cytoplasm. The cell membrane is the
site of: (i) cell wall synthesis, (ii) excretion of
metabolites, (iii) secretion of extracellular enzymes
and (iv) the regulated uptake of nutrients. In fact, the
membrane forms the osmotic barrier of the yeast cell.
It controls the osmotic pressure in the cell and
exhibits an ATPase activity that may be involved in the
movement of molecules against concentration
gradients.
iii) The cytoplasm: Within the free space of the
cytoplasm reside all those intracellular enzymes
which are not located in the organelles; for example,
the enzymes of the glycolytic pathway, the fatty acid
synthase complex, the protein synthesizing system
and all other enzymes involved in the metabolism of
the yeast cell. In the cytoplasm also are numerous
organelles, such as:
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum: These are

connected with the membrane and extend into
the cytoplasm. From the ER, spherical vesicles
develop which can penetrate the plasmalemma
and release their contents. Such vesicles
appear to be involved in the synthesis of the cell
wall of developing yeast buds.
(b) Ribosomes: These are sites for protein

synthesis.

(c) Mitochondria: Yeast cells contain several
mitochondria. Each is bounded by a double
membrane. The main function of a
mitochondrion is to provide energy for the cell
during respiration.
(d) The vacuole: Yeast cells in a stationary phase

of growth often contain a large vacuole. Within
this organelle are several dense 'granules' filled
with aqueous cell liquid in which the yeast cell
temporarily stores its phosphate reserves as
well as metabolic products.
(e) The nucleus: This is surrounded by a nuclear

membrane. Chemically, the nucleus consists
mainly of deoxyribose nucleic acids (DNA) and
proteins. It controls the metabolism of the
yeast cell in addition to storing its genetic
information.
(f) Storage granules: Here, reserve

carbohydrates of yeast especially glycogen (a
branched polysaccharide consisting of glucose
units) and trehalose (consisting of only two
glucose units) are deposited and broken down
to produce energy when there is a nutrient
shortage.
4.3.4 Pure yeast culture and propagation

The concept of using pure yeast cultures in brewing was
initiated by Emil Christian Hansen, who developed a method

of isolating a single yeast cell and propagating it to a
quantity needed for pitching a commercial-scale brew
(Piesely & Lom, 1977; Campbell, 1983; Russell & Stewart,
1995). The first pure yeast culture was introduced into a
Carlsberg brewery on a production scale in 1883; from then,
the benefits of using a pure culture quickly became clear.
Many countries and some breweries, including those in the
North America, installed Hansen's pure culture plant and
were using pure lager yeast cultures as early as 1892 (Von
Wettstein, 1983; Anderson, 1993). However, while lager
pure cultures became almost universally used, the practice
has been less readily accepted in ale brewing which uses a
mix culture of strains.
It is now normal practice in many breweries to
propagate fresh yeast every 8-10 generations (i.e.
fermentation cycles) or earlier if contamination or a
fermentation problem is identified. The systematic use of
clean, pure and highly viable cells ensures that bacteria, wild
yeast or yeast mutations inducing respiratory deficiencies do
not lead to inconsistent fermentations and off-flavour
development (Hough, 1973; Smith, 1991).
The modern pure yeast culture propagation plant has
evolved from the original version of Hansen and Hühle and
may operate either in batch or semi-continuous fashion.
Usually, it consists of three stainless vessels of increasing
sizes equipped with attemperation control, sight glasses and
non-contaminating venting system (Fig. 4.12).

Exhaust Boiled, cooled
wort
ast
ul u m
r y ye
Inoc
Seed Seed
orato
Exhaust vessel
re)
vessel
(Lab
(E)
cultu
(D)
Master
culture Filtered Filtered
(A) air air
100ml
(B)
1000ml
(C)
Filtered
air Yeast to fermenter
Fig. 4.12: Schematic diagram of a pure yeast culture

propagation plant
Sources: Priesley & Lom (1977); Campbell (1983)
The vessels are equipped with a CIP system and often

have in-place heat sterilizing and cooling systems for both
the equipment and the wort. The yeast propagation system
is ideally located in a separate room from the fermenting
area with positive air pressure, humidity control, an air
sterilization system, disinfectant mats in doorways and
limited access by brewing staff.
Typically, the process starts with a master culture kept
in a yeast bank. It is used for inoculation of series of
individual 200 ml flasks containing 100 ml of sterile wort.
0p 0p
Wort gravities normally range from 10 to 16 and
depending on the yeast strain, zinc or a commercial yeast

food can be added (Russell & Stewart, 1995). Wort sterility is
normally achieved by boiling for 30 minutes or the wort can
be 'pasteurized' using a plate heat exchanger passed into
sterile vessel and then cooled. After 2 days' incubation at
o
25 C the 100ml cultures are microscopically examined and
those tubes in which vigorous growth and normal cell
development is observed are used for further propagation in
larger volume of sterile wort, say, 1000 mL of wort in 2000
mL flasks. Again, the incubation is carried out for 2 days at
o
25 C, and the yeast re-examined. Then the content of one or
several 200 mL flasks may be used for inoculation of the
propagation plant. When not needed, they may be kept at
4oC for up to 3 weeks as a stock culture, ready to be used for
inoculation.
Through a special orifice, the laboratory prepared
innoculum of 1-5 litre volume is introduced and the content
mixed by a gentle stream of sterile air. At the height of
fermentation (high Kraeusen) the content of the small
vessel(s) is transferred as innoculum into a larger vessel
containing about 500 L of sterile aerated wort. This way,
there is no lag-phase and vigorous fermentation commences
immediately. Similarly, the content of the second propagator
is transferred (by means of sterile air pressure) into another,
still larger vessel containing about 4000 L, where the wort
may be allowed to ferment to completion so that yeast may
be harvested. The quantity of yeast generated there may be
enough to pitch a production-scale fermenter.
4.3.5 Yeast contamination

Pitching yeasts collected from brewery fermentations are
never absolutely free of microbiological infection. In spite of

the care and sanitary precautions taken, some
contaminating microorganisms, wild yeasts or bacteria, will
still find their way into the mass of pitching yeast.
(i) Wild yeasts

A wild yeast is any yeast not deliberately inoculated and
cannot be controlled (Russel & Stewart, 1995). They can
originate from very diverse sources such as beer, brewing
yeast, cleaned empty bottles, hops, priming sugars and
washed casks (Black, 1987). Among the wild yeasts
identified as beer spoilers are species of the genera
Brettanomyces, Candida, Debaromyces, Hansenula,
Kloeckera, Pichia, Saccharomyces, Rhodotorula,
Torulopsis and Zygosaccharomyces. They may cause
biological hazes, off-flavour development, formation of
pellicle and deviant attenuation. The wild yeast of the
Saccharomyces species are the most widespread, as 80%
of contaminants in pitching yeast belong to this genus
(Piesley & Lom, 1977), such yeasts as Saccharomyces
cerevisiae var ellipsoideus, S. cerevisiae var turbidans, S.
pastorianus and S. willianus can affect beer very seriously.
For instance, one cell of S. cerevisiae var turbidans in
16,000,000 pitching yeast cells will produce haze in beer
although turbidity may also arise from species of Torulopsis
which comprise very small cells that are slow in
sedimentation. In addition, wild yeast such as S. cerevisiae
var ellipsoideus often produce a phenolic off-flavour due to
the presence of the POF gene (Russell & Stewart, 1983).
Others like S. diastaticus can utilize wort maltotetraose and
dextrins resulting in an over-attenuated beer that lacks

body.
Wild yeasts can be detected using a number of tests:
a) Microscopic appearance: Spoilage yeasts are
morphologically different.
b) Heat resistance: Wild yeasts show greater

0
resistance to heat (50 C for 10 min).
c) Sporulation: Most wild Saccharomyces species

form ascospores very readily in contrast to brewing
yeasts, which do so with great difficulty.
d) Selective media: Many wide yeasts exhibit stronger

resistance to higher levels of the antiobiotic, actidione,
than culture yeasts that are killed at a concentration of
approx. 0.2 ppm. Similarly, a wide range of wild yeasts
can grow on media containing lysine as the sole
source of nitrogen whereas no culture yeast can do so.
e) Serological tests: In recent years, serological

techniques have been developed for identifying and
enumerating wild yeasts in the presence of culture
yeasts. It is possible by fluorescent antisera to detect,
under an ultra-violet microscope, certain wild yeasts
(including those in the genus Saccharomyces) at
6
levels as low as one cell per 10 culture yeasts.
Generally, elimination of wild yeasts or at least holding their

numbers low can be achieved by using pitching yeast free of
wild yeasts. Regular microbiological checks need to be
carried out on cooled worts, sterile air lines, pitching yeast,

finings, primings and dry hops as well as all equipment used
for storage, transport, treatment, and dispense of beer if
absolute sterility is to be achieved (Hough, et al., 1982).
(ii) Bacteria
There are eight common genera of bacterial contaminants in
the brewery. They are divided into two groups on the basis
of their Gram reactions (Piesley & Lom, 1977).
Bacterial Contaminants
Gram-positive Gram-negative
* Lactobacillus spp Lactic acid * Acetobacter spp.
* Pediococcus spp. } bacteria * Acetomonas spp.
* Zymomonas spp.
* Obesumbacterium proteus
* Escherichia spp.
* }
Aerobacter spp coliform bacteria
Many Gram-positive bacteria are inhibited by hop bittering

substances when these compounds are present in very high
concentrations, but Gram-negative bacteria are usually
unaffected. Unfortunately, Lactobacilli and Pediococci,
though Gram-positive, are generally insensitive to hops.
The most troublesome Gram-positive bacteria are the
lactic acid bacteria belonging to the genera Lactobacillus
and Pediococcus. Lactobacili can range in shape from long
slender rods to short cocco-bacilli. Brewing lactobacilli are
heterofermentative and homofermentative, and produce
lactic and acetic acids, carbon dioxide (CO2), ethanol and

glycerol as end products with some strains also producing
diacetyl (Russell & Stewart, 1995). They are acid-tolerant
and have complex nutritional requirements. Some species
such as Lactobacillus brevis and L. plantarum can grow
quickly during fermentation, aging or yeast storage,
whereas others such as L. lindneri grow relatively slowly.
Lactobacilli spoilage is most problematic during conditioning
of beer and after packaging, where it gives rise to a 'silky
turbidity' (Priest, 1987).
Pediococci are homofermentative cocci that occur in
pairs and tetrads. Six species have been identified, but the
ones predominantly found in beer is Pediococcus
damnosus, which is characterized by lactic acid and diacetyl
formations. They may also cause ropiness in beer due to the
production of polysaccharide capsules (Russell & Stewart,
1995).
Important Gram-negative beer spoilage bacteria
include acetic acid bacteria (Acetobacter and
Gluconobacter), certain members of the family
Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia, Aerobacter, Klebsiella,
Citrobacter, Obesumbacterium) as well as Zymomonas,
Pectinatus, and Megasphaera (Van Vuuren, 1987). Acetic
acid bacteria can convert ethanol to acetic acid and tend to
produce a ropy slime. This type of spoilage is most often
observed in draft beer. The Enterobacteriaceae are aerobes
or facultative aerobes and do not tolerate high ethanol
levels. They are usually found early in the fermentation and
can produce celery-like, cooked cabbage, cooked vegetable
and rotten egg aromas, especially if pitching of the wort is
delayed.

4.3.6 Yeast preparation and pitching
(i) Yeast viability
Every yeast which is about to be withdrawn from storage for
pitching into fresh wort must be examined by the laboratory.
While microscopic examination is not the ultimate
assessment, it remains the best available quick cheek for
yeast quality. The general cell morphology, granulation,
vacuolation, cell-wall structure, shape and size of yeast cells
are checked. The most widely used method for the
determination of cell viability is the selective staining of non-
viable cells using buffered methylene blue or Rhodamine B
which on microscopic examination, show dead cells as blue
or red, respectively (Piesley & Lom, 1977). If there is more
than 5-10% dead cells, or if the yeast shows signs of
morphological irregularities, the pitching yeast should not
be used.
Simultaneously, the yeast are examined for bacterial
infection, although microscopic examination for detecting
bacterial infection is suitable for detecting massive
contamination only. Consequently, microscopic examination
must be supplemented by other tests, such as plating on
differential media, fermentation tests and flocculation tests.
The brewer must use the information from all these sources
to keep his plant under control.
(ii) Yeast washing

Some breweries incorporate yeast washing as a routine part
of the operation while others do so only if the yeast show
signs of bacterial infection. There has been considerable
controversy over the practice of yeast washing and its effect

on subsequent fermentation. Studies carried out at the
Brewing Research Foundation International in the United
Kingdom (Simpson, 1987; Simpson & Hammond, 1989)
suggest that the problems often ascribed to yeast washing,
i.e. reduced cell viability/vitality, reduced rate of
fermentation, changes in flocculation, yeast crop size and
excretion of cell components, occur when yeast washing is
carried out incorrectly.
There are three commonly used procedures for
washing yeast: (i) sterile water wash; (2) acid wash, and (3)
acid/ammonium persulfate wash.
(a) Sterile water wash: Cold sterile water is mixed with
the yeast slurry, the yeast is allowed to settle and the
supernatant water is decanted. Bacteria and broken
cells are removed through this process. This can be
repeated a number of times.
(b) Acid wash: A number of acids such as phosphoric,

citric, tartaric or sulfuric acids are commonly used.
The yeast slurry is acidified with diluted acid to a pH of
2.0 with intensive agitation and allowed to stand for a
maximum period of two hours.
(c) Acid/ammonium persulfate wash: An acidified

ammonium persulfate treatment has also been found to be
effective and can yield some savings in material cost. 0.75%
(w/v) ammonium persulfate is added to a diluted yeast
slurry in a ratio of 2 parts water: 1 part yeast and the slurry
acidified with phosphoric acid to pH 2.8 (Brenner, 1965;
Simpson, 1987). If a pH of 2.0 is employed, a one hour
contact time is maximum.

Simpson & Hammond (1989) have listed a set of
criteria which, if followed, would alleviate most of the
problems associated with yeast washing. They are:
§ Use a food-grade acid (phosphoric or citric acid are
good choices as they offer the advantage of being
weak acids and yeast pH is more easily controlled);
§ Wash the yeast as a beer or water slurry;
§ Chill both the yeast slurry and the acid to less than
5°C;
§ Stir constantly and slowly while adding the acid to the
yeast;
§ If possible, stir throughout the wash;
§ Never let the temperature exceed 5°C during the
wash;
§ Check the pH of the yeast slurry;
§ Do not wash for more than two hours;
§ Pitch the yeast immediately after washing; and
§ Do not wash unhealthy yeast or yeast from
fermentations with greater than 8% ethanol present.
(iii) Yeast pitching

Wort already cooled to approximately 15°C is run into the
fermentation vessel. Some slight turbulence improves
solution of oxygen from the air, but excessive turbulence
creates frothing and must be avoided. In some breweries,
the wort is aerated in the pipeline (online) between the
cooler and the fermenter. Wort in the fermenter must be
inoculated (with culture yeast) as quickly as possible
otherwise contaminant yeasts and bacteria from the air have
a chance of growing in the absence of competition from

actively growing culture yeast.
Pitching rate is governed by a number of factors such as:

§ Initial wort gravity,
§ Wort composition,
§ Wort temperature,
§ Degree of wort aeration and
§ Previous history of yeast.
The pitching rate should ensure a minimum lag-phase for a

rapid start of fermentation and fast decrease in pH
necessary for the suppression of bacterial growth. Pitching
rates employed vary from 5-20 million cells/mL of wort
(Russell & Stewart, 1995), which would correspond to about
¼ to ¾ litres of liquid yeast per hectoliter of wort. In order to
ensure uniform fermentation cycles, it is imperative to pitch
a unit volume of wort with the same number of yeast cells
each time. A simple method for the determination of uniform
amount of pitching yeast was devised by Palmer (1969). The
pitching rate in terms of number of the yeast cell/mL needed
for pitching a brew is expressed in kilograms of centrifuged
yeast solids, free of extraneous matter. A chart is prepared
relating the quantities of yeast slurries with varying amounts
of yeast solids to the standard quantity of yeast required for
pitching. As a matter of routine, 50g sample is taken from
the yeast slurry to be used for pitching and centrifuged with
2 mL of 35% NaOH. The alkali dissolves all extraneous
matter (gums, trubs, tannins, etc) and the percentage of
yeast solids in the slurry can be read.
As a matter of routine control, the pitching rate can be

determined by a number of methods such as dry weight,
turbidimetric sensors (Reiss, 1986; Boulton & Besford,
1992), haemocytometer and electronic cell-counting.
Recently, in-line biomass sensors that utilize the passive
dielectrical properties of microbial cells and can discriminate
between viable and non-viable cells have been made
commercially available (Boulton et al., 1989).
Oxygen initially dissolved in the wort is quickly
consumed, and it is the custom in many breweries to aerate
after 1 day by briefly bubbling-in air or by transferring the
wort from one vessel to another. Such “rousing” allows
further synthesis of the fatty acids and sterols which the
yeast is unable to synthesize under the anaerobic conditions
of the remaining part of the fermentation. In the first few
hours after pitching, there is little sign of yeast growth. This
is the lag phase. By 6-10 h after pitching, bubbles of CO2
begin to rise and by 24 h, the fermentation is vigorously
bubbling with a proportion of the cells remaining on the
surface as the yeast head. This logarithmic phase of growth,
of rapid reproduction of the cells, is limited by a number of
factors, including:
§ Depletion of oxygen,
§ Exhaustion of nutrients mainly readily assimilable
amino acids and
§ Accumulation of inhibitory metabolic products
mainly alcohol.
4.3.7 Yeast performance

During the brewing process, overall yeast performance is
controlled by a number of factors including:

— The yeast strain employed,
— The concentration and category of assimilable
nitrogen,
— The concentration of ions,
— The fermentation temperature,
— The pitching rate,
— The tolerance of yeast cells to ethanol,
— The wort gravity and
— The wort sugar spectrum level at pitching.
These factors influence yeast performance either individually
or in combination with others (D' Amore, 1992; Zheng et al.,
1994a)
4.3.8 Yeast nutritional requirements

(i) Oxygen
Wort fermentation is largely anaerobic, but when the yeast is
first pitched into the wort, some oxygen must be made
available to it. Indeed, this is the only point in the brewing
process where oxygen is beneficial, aeration later in the
fermentation will promote beer flavour instability due to high
level of diacetyl formation (Campbell, 1983).
The need for oxygen arises because: (a) brewing
yeasts are unable, in the absence of molecular oxygen, to
synthesize sterols and unsaturated fatty acids, which are
essential components of their cell membrane. Certain yeast
enzymes such as oxygenases involved in the synthesis of
these lipids, only interact with oxygen, and this cannot
happen by other hydrogen acceptors (b) Sterols and
unsaturated fatty acids are normally present in wort in
suboptimal quantities. Although they are abundant in malt,
normal manufacturing procedures prevent them from

synthesis by yeasts. (c) Since the cell membrane controls
the uptake of nutrients and excretion of metabolic products
by the yeast, obviously the availability of oxygen, sterols and
fatty acids has an important effect on fermentation
behaviour. (d) It is also evident that impairment of
membrane structure reduces the ability of the yeast to
survive in the high ethanol levels of the fermentation
(Campbell, 1983).
(ii) Uptake and metabolism of wort carbohydrates

Wort contains sugars (sucrose, fructose, glucose, maltose,
and maltotriose) as well as other dextrin materials. In a
normal situation, brewing yeast strains (ale and lager
strains) are capable of utilizing sucrose, glucose, fructose,
maltose and maltotriose in this approximate sequence (Fig.
4.13), although some degree of overlap does occur (Stewart
& Russell, 1986). Majority of the brewing strains do not
ferment maltotetraose and other dextrins but
Saccharomyces disastaticus is able to do so by secreting an
extracellular enzyme, glucoamylase.

50
40
Sugar concentration (g/L)
30
20
10
24 48 72 96 120
Time (hour)
Fig. 4.13: Uptake of the major wort sugars; maltose ,

maltotriose , glucose , dextrin .
Source: Stewart & Russell (1986).
The initial step in the utilization of any sugar by yeast

is usually either its passage intact across the cell membrane
or its hydrolysis outside the cell membrane, followed by a
subsequent entry into the cell by some or all of the
hydrolysis products. Maltose and maltotriose are examples
of sugars that pass intact across the cell membrane,
whereas sucrose (and dextrin with Saccharomyces
disataticus) is hydrolysed by an extracellular enzyme while
the hydrolysis products are taken up into the cell.
Maltose and maltotriose are the major sugars in the
brewer's wort, and as such, the ability of a brewer's yeast to
use these two sugars is vital but genetically controlled.
Brewer's yeast posses some uptake mechanisms (maltose

and maltotriose permease) that transport the two sugars
across the cell membrane into the cell (Zheng et al., 1994b).
Once inside the cell, both sugars are then hydrolysed to
glucose units by the a -glucosidase system. It is important to
stress that the transport, hydrolysis and fermentation of
maltose is particularly important in brewing, since maltose
accounts for about 50- 60% of the fermentable sugar in the
wort.
Maltose fermentation in Saccharomyces yeasts
requires at least one of five independent MAL (maltose) loci
consisting of three genes encoding the structural gene for a -
glucosidase (maltase): (MAL S), maltose permease (MAL T)
and an activator (MAL R) whose product co-ordinately
regulates the expression of the a -glucosidase and permease
genes. The uptake and hydrolysis of maltose and
maltotriose from the wort is also dependent on the glucose
concentration. Thus, the expression of MAL S and MAL T is
regulated by maltose induction and glucose repression.
When glucose concentrations are greater than 1% (w/v),
the MAL genes are repressed, and only when about 40-50%
of the glucose has been taken up from the wort will the
uptake of maltose and maltotriose commence. Hence, the
presence of glucose in the fermenting wort exerts a major
repressing influence on wort fermentation rate (Ernandes et
al., 1993). Using the glucose analog 2-deoxy-glucose (2-
DOG), which is not metabolizable by Saccharomyces
strains, spontaneous variants of brewing strains have been
selected in which the maltose uptake is not repressed by
glucose and, as a consequence, these variants (called de-
repressed) have increased wort fermentation rate (Russell
et al., 1987).

Yeast strains may lose, by mutation, the ability to
transport maltotriose, resulting in fermentations that fail to
attenuate satisfactorily. Once the sugars are inside the cell,
they are converted through the glycolytic pathway to ethanol
and CO2 via the pyruvate.
(iii) Uptake and metabolism of wort nitrogen

Active yeast growth requires the uptake of nitrogen,
mainly in the form of amino acids, for the synthesis of
proteins and other nitrogenous compounds of the cell. Later
in the fermentation, as yeast multiplication stops, nitrogen
uptake slows down or ceases entirely. In wort, the main
source of nitrogen for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids
and other nitrogenous cell components, is the variety of
amino acids formed from the proteolysis of barley proteins.
Brewer's wort contains 19 amino acids, and their uptake
occurs in a sequential manner independent of the conditions
of the fermentation and strains of yeast used (Jones &
Pierce, 1964).
Four groups of amino acids (Table 4.4) have been
identified on the basis of their assimilation pattern. Those in
group A are utilized immediately following yeast pitching,
whereas those in group B are assimilated more slowly.
Utilization of group C amino acids commences when group A
types are fully assimilated.

Table 4.4: Classification of amino acids according to
speed of assimilation by Yeast
Group A Group B Group C Group D
Fast Intermediate Slow Little or no
absorption absorption absorption absorption
Glutamic acid Valine Glycine Proline
Aspartic acid Methionine Phenylalamine
Asparagine Leucine Tyrosine
Glutamine Isoleucine Tryptophan
Serine Histidine Alanine
Threonine
Lysine
Arginine
Source: Enari (1995)
Proline, the most abundant amino acid in wort and the sole
group D amino acid, is utilized poorly or not at all. Hence,
proline is usually present in the final beer at 200- 300 mg/L.
Under aerobic conditions, proline is assimilated after the
exhaustion of the other amino acids, since its uptake requires
the presence of a mitochrondrial oxidase. Amino acids are
also classified according to how essential they are for yeast
(Table 4.5).
Table 4.5: Classification of amino acids on the basis

of their essential nature
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Aspartic acid Isoleucine Lysine
Asaragine Valine Histidine
Glutanic acid Phenylalanine Arginine
Glutamine Glycine Leucine
Threonine Tyrosine
Serine
Methionine
Proline

Class 1 amino acids are not important since yeast can readily
synthesize them. The concentration of class 2 amino acids is
critical in the latter stages of fermentation as they are
especially important for flavour formation; while class 3
amino acids are derived entirely from exogenous parent
amino acids, and yeast is, in this respect, dependent on wort
composition (Enari, 1995). The regulation of amino acid
uptake by the brewer's and other related yeast strains is
complex, involving carriers specific to certain amino acids
and a general amino acid permease of broad substrate
specificity. The utilization pattern of wort nitrogen is due to a
combination of the range of permeases present. Two general
permeases may be involved: one showing specificity for
group A and C and another transporting group B amino acids.
The metabolism of assimilated amino nitrogen is
dependent on the phase of the fermentation as well as the
quantity provided in the wort. When amino acids enter the
yeast's cell, their amino groups are removed by a
transamination reaction with a -ketoglutarate that yields the
corresponding a -keto acid plus glutamate (Fig. 4.14).
+
NH3 O
| ||
R- CH- COO- -
OOC-CH2-CH2-C-COO- NH4+ + NADH + H+
-Amino acid
a a-Ketoglutarate Glutamate
Aminotransferase dehydroqenase
+
O NH3
|| |
R-C-COO- -
OOC-CH2-CH2-CH-COO- H2O + NAD+
a -Keto acid Glutamate
Fig.4.14:Transamination followed by oxidative deamination

After the aminotransferases have gathered most of the a -
amino groups into glutamate, the enzyme glutamate
dehydrogenase liberates the amino groups as ammonia and
regenerates a -ketoglutarate. The synthesis of amino acids
by the yeast cell then proceeds by transfer of the amino
group of glutamic acid to a -keto acids in the pools. The a -
keto acids may be derived from the amino acids present in
the wort or from carbohydrate metabolism. In the latter
instance, de novo synthesis of amino acids occurs and the
penultimate reaction is usually transamination.
The a -keto acid pool generated by the transaminases
and anabolic reactions is a precursor of aldehydes and fusel
alcohols (Fig. 4.15). Fusel alcohols (higher alcohols) are so-
named because they are found in fusel oil, the fluid that
remains after the distillation of ethanol from fermented
liquids. These substances have higher boiling points than
ethanol and are potently aromatic exerting a considerable
influence on beer flavour/aroma. Thus, the main nitrogen
composition of wort has far-reaching effects on
fermentation performance and beer flavour. Where malt is
used as the principal source of extract, the quantity and
composition of amino acids are such that these problems are
not encountered. However, care must be exercised when
using adjuncts, many of which are relatively deficient in
amino nitrogen.

Fermentable
Carbohydrate
Aldehyde Carbohydrate
metabolism
Amino acid biosynthesis

Co2
a - fusel Aldehyde - Keto acid pool

a
alcohols
a - Ketoglutarate
NAD + NADH+H + [NH+4 ]
glutamate
Amino
acids Yeast cell
a - Keto
acids
Protein
Glutamate Amino acids
Fig. 4.15: Summary of the metabolism of wort amino acids
4.4 HOPS
The hops used for brewing are the dried cones or strobili of
the female hop plant (Humulus lupulus). It is grown
throughout the temperate regions of the world, notably,
Northern Europe, West Central Asia, Japan and North
America. Hops contribute to beer quality in two distinct
ways: the hop resin gives rise to the bitter taste while the
volatile oil gives aroma and flavour (Moir, 1989). Over 60%
of the commercial crop is processed into powder, pellets or
extracts. Hops have been used since ancient times (Enari,
1995), but their regular use as a beer additive is attributed to
the German monks in the 12th century (Russell & Stewart,
1995). The use of hops became popular due to their
bacteriostatic effect when used at high ratios (ca: 400 g/hL).
Hops also contribute to the aroma, flavour, stability and
foam head retention in beer.

4.4.1 Botany of hops
There are three recognized species of Humulus:
Humulus lupulus L., the species used for brewing; Humulus
japonicus Sieb., an annual ornamental climbing plant from
Japan which is devoid of resin and thus has no brewing
value; and Humulus yunnanensis, grown in the Yunnan
province of China. The genus, Humulus belongs to the
family Cannabinaceae which also includes the species,
Cannabis sativa commonly known as Indian hemp,
marijuana or hashish. Although there are similarities
between the two plants, the resins of the species are
different, with those of the hop plant providing the bitter
principles of beer while those of the cannabis plant provide
the psychotomimetic principles of the drug (Hough et al.,
1982). Cannabis and Humulus species have been grafted,
but the characteristic resins did not cross the grafts
(Crombie & Crombie, 1975).
The hop is a hardy climbing herbaceous and perennial
plant. The root stock stays in the ground from year to year
while the vines are trained onto strings which are supported
on a wire trellis. In the USA, the hop fields are plowed in
March, the vines trained onto the strings in May and
harvested from August to September. The first resins are
usually detected in early August, while synthesis of a-and b
-
acids is almost completed by the end of the month (Russell &
Stewart, 1995). The hop cone or strobilus (Fig. 4.16)
consists of valueless stipular bracts and seed-bearing
bracteoles attached to a central axis or strig.

Stipular
bract
Fruit (seed)
Bracteole Lupulin glands
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 4.16: (a) A single mature hop cone

(b) Bracteole with seed and lipulin glands
(c) Lupulin gland magnified
At the base of the bracteoles, the hupulin glands and seeds

develop as the hop ripens. The lupulin glands contain the
brewing principles, both the resins and the essential oils.
Harvested hop cones or strobili are separated from leaf and
stem wastes. Freshly picked cones contain about 80%
(w/w) moisture and are quickly dried in a kiln to a moisture
level of 6-12% to maintain quality. The hops are cooled,
packed into bales and stored cold to minimize or slow down
deterioration.

Table 4.6 Percentage chemical composition of
hops
a-Acids 2-12
b-Acids 1-10
Essential oils 0.5-1.5
Polyphenols 2-5
Protein 15
Cellulose 40-50
Water 8 - 12
Salts 10
O O O O
R R
OH O OH
O
HO
- acids
a - acids
b
Fig. 4.17: Structure of a

- and b
- acids

4.4.2 Hop chemistry
Hop chemistry (Verzele, 1986) started by the end of the 19th
century when Hayduck divided the bittering compounds into
lead-precipitable a -acids and “the other fraction”, the b -
acids. The chemical composition (Table 4.6) as well as the
general structure of the a -and b -acids (Fig. 4.17) were
elucidated by Wölmer in 1916 and Wieland in 1925. In the
USA, Rigby showed that the a - and b -acids are mixtures of
homologs and analogs (Table 4.7) and named the three
major b -acids as: humulone, cohumulone and adhumulone
while those of the a -acids are: lupulone, colupulone and
adlupulone. In Belgium, hop research started in 1945 at the
University of Gent where the organic chemists, Verzele and
De Keukeleire clarified the structure of hop bittering
compounds and their oxidation and reduction reactions as
well as isomerization during wort boiling (Verzele, 1986).
Consequently, the next major historical step was the
recognition that the a -acids are the major bittering
compounds of hops and that they are chemically
transformed during wort boiling into the more soluble iso-a -
acids which account for most of the bitterness of beer
(Howard, 1956; Verzele, 1979). From the standpoint of the
brewer therefore, the chief chemical changes that take place
in the a-acids are: (i) oxidation and polymerization during
storage; and (ii) isomerisation during wort boiling.

Table 4.7: Percentage composition of - and
a
b- acids
-Acids
a
Humulone 35- 70
Cohumulone 20- 55
Adhumulone 10- 15
Prehumulone 1- 10
Post humulone 1- 5
-Acids
b
Lupulone 30- 55
Colupulone 20- 25
Adlupulone 10- 15
Prelupulone 1- 3
O O O O O O
OH OH
O HO
HO O OH
(a) humulone (b) iso-humulone (c) humulinic acid
Fig. 4.18: Isomerisation products of the a

-acid
When a -acids are boiled for 20 min with 0.05 M sodium

carbonate, they isomerise to give iso-compounds (Fig. 4.18
b). Thus, humulone produces iso-humulone, cohumulone
gives iso-cohumulone and adhumulone yields iso-
adhumuone. The isomerization involves contraction of the
six-membered ring to a five-membered one and a
lengthening of the side-chain in position 4. These

compounds are far more soluble and bitter than the a -acids.
They represent the principal bitter substances of beers
made with fresh hops. If the boiling with carbonate
continues longer, the yield of iso-compounds would fall due
to the gradual production of a non-bitter material, humulinic
acid, in which the side-chain of position 4 has been cleared
(Fig. 4.18 c). The chemistry of the iso-compounds is made
more complex because of the existence of cis-and trans-
isomers and the presence of other isomers-
alloisocompounds, which have the double bond in the side-
chain at position 4 placed differently (Fig. 4.19).
O O O O
HO OH OH
HO
O O
(a) cis-isohumulone (b) trans-isohumulone

O O O O
OH
O OH HO
HO
HO
(c) qallo-isohumulone (d) rho-isohumulone
Fig 4.19: Structures of the cis-, trans- and other isomers of

the iso-compounds

All these isomers are bitter, although not equally so. Hence,
cis-isohumulone is considered more bitter than the trans-
(Hough, 1983). Iso-compounds are sensitive to sunlight and
when “sun-struck”, the side-chain at position 4 is broken and
reacts with the thiol or sulphur-containing compounds
(amino acids or proteins) to produce an objectionable odour,
the so-called “skunky” aroma. This problem is normally
eliminated through the formation of reduced derivatives of
the isocompounds which are not affected by sunlight to the
same degree. These are called rho-isohumulones” (Fig. 4.19
d). b -acids also oxidize readily but do not isomerise during
boiling.
Essential oils, like resins, tend to oxidize. They are
volatile and therefore lost from the hops during storage.
There are two groups of essential oils, the hydrocarbon
fraction and the oxygenated fraction. The hydrocarbon
fraction comprises mainly monoterpenes and
sesquiterpenes. Monoterpenes may be regarded as two
isoprene units joined together and have the formula C10H16
e.g. Myrcene. Sesquiterpenes are made up of three isoprene
units and their formuala is C15 H24 e.g. humulene and
caryophyllene. Essential oils influence beer flavour and
aroma but majority of the constituents are lost during the
wort boiling process. To increase the hop aroma of the beer,
brewers have traditionally added a selection of aroma hops
late in the boil or to the beer during conditioning in the tank
a process referred to as 'dry hopping'.
4.4.3 Hop products

Various forms of processed hops or hop products are
available (Clarke, 1986). They offer the brewer such
advantages as: (1) more consistent bitterness between

successive brews; (2) improved hop utilization; (3) improved
stability on long-term storage; and (4) reduced transport,
storage and handling costs. These hop products include:
i) Hop powder/hop pellets: Hop pellets or powder

are produced by hammer-milling dried hop cones to a
fine powder and then running the powder through a
high pressure palletizing die. The lupulin glands in the
hops are ruptured and the released resin binds the
other vegetable matter together to form a dense
pellet. Hop pellets have become available over the
past 10-15 years as a more convenient alternative to
hop cones.
ii) Enriched hop powder/enriched hop pellet: This

is a type of hop product consisting of dried, hammer-
milled hop cones that have subsequently been
concentrated by mechanical sieving at temperatures
of 20°C or less. The resultant powder contains about
45% of the original hop weight and about 90-95% of
the original a -acids and can be packaged in this form
or pelletized before packaging.
iii) Special hop powder/hop pellet: This type of

product is normally packaged and used in the pelleted
form. Prior to pelleting, materials such as hop extract
or inorganic salts are blended into the powder.
iv) Hop extracts: These are concentrations of the a -

acids from which beer bitter substances are produced
as a result of isomerisation during wort boiling. The
extracts are normally obtained by treating hops with
organic solvents followed by evaporation. The a -acid

content of such extracts will depend on: (a) the level
of a -acid in the hop, (b) the age of the hop and
conditions of storage and (c) the organic solvent
employed. Hop extracts are used as a direct
replacement for hops in the kettle. Commercial
quantities of hop extracts have been available since
the turn of the century; however, it was only during
the last 20 years that significant quantities have been
used by the brewing industry (Stewart & Russell,
1985).
v) Special hop extracts: This is a hop extract which

has incorporated inorganic materials or increased
amount of hop oil through selective extraction.
vi) Hop oil: A steam distilled oil from hops, either in
concentrated form or as an emulsion in water.
vii) Isomerized hop extract: This is a sophisticated

form of hop product in which a specific group of
compounds, the a -acids, have been isolated from the
hops, converted to the isomeric bitter form, with or
without chemical reduction, and formulated into a
concentrated liquid or solid product in which the
active component consists of the salts of the isomers
or reduced isomers of the a -acids. Isomerized
extracts are used to best advantage by addition to
beer in the conditioning or aging tank (Laws, 1981).
On a worldwide basis, about 6% of the 1978 crop was
processed into isomerized hop extracts (Hudson,
1979). When isomerized extracts are added to beer
after fermentation, the utilization of the bitter
substances is often in excess of 80%. Substantial
savings can be made by employing isomerized

extracts to bitter beer and the United States, Australia
and British brewing industries all use significant
amounts of such extracts (Russell & Stewart, 1995).
4.5 ADJUNCTS
4.5.1 Definitions and early history
Adjuncts are defined (Bradee, 1977; Russell & Stewart,
1995), as non-malt carbohydrate materials of suitable
composition and properties which beneficially complement
or supplement the barley malt. The German 'purity law'
defines an adjunct (or secondary brewing agent) as “ …
anything that is not malt, yeast, hops and water (Narziss,
1984), while the UK Foods Standards Committee defines it
as “… any carbohydrate source other than malted barley
which contributes sugars to the wort (Collier, 1986).
Similarly, Briggs et al. (1981), defines adjuncts as any
material other than malt which contributes to the brewer's
extract. These include materials that alter the character of
beer such as non-malt enzymes used in producing extract or
altering its nature by increasing its fermentability.
Malted barley was the principal and in some cases, the
only source of fermentable extract in the wort. In certain
countries such as Germany, malt is the only permitted
source of fermentable extract except when brewing beers
destined for export. In England, a sort of 'purity law' equally
existed, as the government placed restrictions on materials
used in brewing because it was in their interest to maximize
revenue by ensuring that only malt was used as a source of
extract. However, poor barley yields in the early 1800's led
the English Parliament to introduce a legislation allowing a
temporary use of up to 25% sugar in their grist. This law was
made permanent in 1847, principally, to help colonial sugar
producers who needed new market for their products.

Initially, sugar was only seen as a cheap replacement for
malt. But once the brewer saw the benefits of sugar in
controlling fermentability and flavour, its usage became
more widespread. Early, in the history of American brewing,
it was realized that malts produced from barleys grown in
the United States differed from those of Europe in that they
contained higher nitrogen levels and had thicker husks. As a
result of these differences, their use in all-malt brewing
produced beers with poor physical stability. It was later
observed that the thicker husks provided efficient filter bed
for lautering while the high nitrogen levels gave rise to
higher enzymatic activities. Brewers were quick to learn that
the higher diastatic activity of the malt was sufficient enough
to convert a much larger amount of starch than that of the
malt. Thus, various other starch-containing materials were
tried and used to obtain more extract at a lower cost. It was
also found by experience, that the proteins of cereals such
as corn and rice were not entirely solubilized during mashing
and therefore, could be used to dilute the high soluble
nitrogen content of the malt to produce a beer with an
enhanced physical stability.
Currently, a considerable amount of adjunct is used all
over the world to make beer and official figures show that by
1979, about 29% of the total brewer's extract was provided
by unmalted adjuncts (Palmer, 1983). In the United States
alone, non-malt adjuncts are estimated at 38% of the total
brewing materials employed (Marchbanks, 1987).
4.5.2 Classification of brewing adjuncts

Adjuncts are classified (Fig. 4.20) with reference to where
they are used in the brewing process: i) those which are

added to the mash-tun or solid adjuncts and ii), those added
to the brew kettle or liquid adjuncts. The mash-tun adjuncts
consist of cereal products whose starch is either in its native
form or “cooked” (pre-gelatinised). The major liquid
adjuncts used in brewing are: i) brewing or glucose syrups;
ii) cane sugar or sucrose syrup, and iii) invert sugar syrup
Brewing adjuncts
Solid adjuncts Liquid adjuncts

(Mash-tun) (Brew kettle or copper)
Cereal products Cereal products Brewing Cane sugar Invert sugar

(Native starch) (Cooked or pre- or glucose or sucrose syrup
gelatinized) syrup syrup
·
Raw cereal grains ·
Cereal flakes
Grits
· ·
Torrefied cereals
Flours
· ·
Micronized cereals
Refined starches ·
· Extruded cereals
Fig. 4.20: A schematic classification of brewing adjuncts
4.5.3 Solid adjuncts

These are mainly derived from maize, rice, wheat, barley,
sorghum, rye, oat and the man-made cereal, triticale (rye x
wheat) as well as dried starch from potatoes. As stated
earlier, solid adjuncts are normally used in the following
forms: i) cereal products with native starch or ii) cereal
products with pre-gelatinized starch.

(i) Cereal adjuncts with native starch
(a) Raw cereal grains
Low starch-gelatinization temperatures, low oil contents and
trials show that, when suitably milled, raw barley, wheat, rye
and triticale grains are adjuncts that can be used directly in
the mash-tun without prior cooking. Raw barley grain, for
example, is selected for cleanliness. The grain contributes
useful amount of b -amylase and possibly limited amounts of
other enzymes such as proteases and phosphatases to the
mash.
(b) Grits
Grits consist of uncooked, nearly pure fragments of starchy
endosperm derived from cereal grains. They may be used
directly in brewing where they must be cooked or flaked. The
removal of the surface layers of the grains reduces the lipid,
ash and fibre contents of the materials and results in an
enrichment of the starch.
Rice grits are usually fragments of the endosperm
produced after the removal of the hulls, bran and embryos.
The products must be cooked before they can yield their
extracts. Rice grit imparts a 'neutral' flavour to beer and is a
popular adjunct. Maize grits usually prepared from yellow
corn, are the most widely used adjuncts in the USA (Canales,
1979). The grits are prepared by one of several dry-milling
processes. Selected maize grain is screened and washed,
conditioned in steam to soften the surface layers of the
endosperm, the skin and the germ, milled and successively
passed through screens to prepare pure grit fractions. The
grits are rich in starch and contain less oil and fat than the
original grain. After cooking, they yield a good extract during

mashing. The use of sorghum grits as adjuncts in lager beer
brewing had equally been reported (Hahn, 1966). Sorghum
grits are prepared using improved varieties and processed
like maize grits and appear equal to them in quality. Both
give rise to extracts with bland (mild) flavour. Generally,
before added to the mash-tun, all grits must be mixed with a
small proportion (about 5%) of highly diastatic malt or
microbial amylase and cooked to disrupt them and gelatinize
their starch.
(c) Flours
Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour is prepared from whole
wheat grain. It is a by-product of the bread flour industry.
Brewer's wheat flour is usually treated to reduce protein
content. It can be pelleted to reduce handling and dust
problems in the brewhouse. However, pelleting does not
reduce the mash-tun run-off problems, which can be caused
by wheat flour. It is not essential to gelatinize wheat flour
starch before adding it to the mash-tun, however, the flour
can be pre-soaked in water before use in mashing.
(d) Refined starches

Refined starches can be prepared from many cereal grains
or potatoes. Maize starch is prepared from selected grains,
by a continuous wet-milling procedure. The clean grain is
steeped in warm-water (48-52oC), below its gelatinisation
temperature for about 2 days. The steep water normally
contains sulphur dioxide (0.1-0.2%) to limit microbial
growth. The softened grain is coarsely ground and the
released embryos which are rich in oil are separated by
flotation. The degermed material is ground more finely, the
hulls and fibres collected on sieves while the starch slurry is

purified by counter-current washing as the protein is
recovered by centrifugation.
Refined corn starches are the purest mash-tun
adjuncts available to the brewer (Coors, 1976). As with
flours, some handling problems may be reduced by
'granulation' or pelletizing. Potato and wheat starches
having low gelatinization temperatures, can be added
directly to the grist while maize starch must be cooked.
Cooking is carried out as in grist while starch may be mixed
with a source of a -amylase to ensure liquefaction. Refined
starches contain very little nitrogenous material and extracts
of about 350-380 Lo/kg. Since starches are wholly converted
to soluble materials, they do not cause run-off problems and
make no contributions to beer flavour.
ii) Cereal adjuncts with pre-gelatinized starch

(a) Cereal flakes
In a conventional flaking process, the cereal (e.g. barley,
maize or rice) is exposed to steam to soften the endosperm,
which is then rolled flat and dried. Gelatinisation occurs
during the steaming process. Barley is treated 'whole' while
maize is gritted. With maize, very coarse grit particles are
used in the production of brewer's flakes. The grits are
moistened slightly with steam and passed to the flaking
machine consisting of two heavy-duty rollers running at
different speeds. Sufficient heat is generated so that the
coarse, moist grit particles are not only flattened but their
starch granules gelatinised at the same time. After leaving
the rolls, the flaked particles are rapidly dried and cooled by
currents of cold air before they are packed into bags ready
for delivery to the brewery. Since the starch granules of corn
flakes are gelatinized, they can be added directly to the
mash-tun.

(b) Torrefied cereals
In the torrification process, barley or wheat grain is
subjected to high heat at 260oC or above which makes their
endosperm to expand and 'pop'. Torrified barley or wheat
grain contains no active enzyme but by virtue of the heating,
their starch is pre-gelatinised while the grain's internal
structure is partly disrupted. The products are easily handled
and milled to yield modest extract above those obtainable
from raw grain. Heating partially degrades the b -glucan and
other hemicelluloses so that extracts from torrified grains are
less viscous than those from the raw materials. Similarly,
most of the nitrogen is denatured in the kernel and is not
solubilized, and hence, the cereal acts as a wort nitrogen
0
diluent. Presently, barley may be pre-wet with water at 65 C
to a moisture content of 14-18% and cooked in a stream of
o
hot air at about 220 C till it swells and pops.
(c) Micronized cereals

Micronization of cereal grains (barley or wheat) occurs when
0
their temperature is raised to about 140 C using infrared
rays. The rise in the internal water-vapour pressure of the
grain makes it soft and turgid before swelling and fracturing.
The starches of micronized grains are gelatinized and ready
for optimal conversion by the amylases. Most of the nitrogen
is denatured, hence, the cereal also acts as a wort nitrogen
diluent.
(d) Extruded cereals

Extrusion cooking is described as a process by which starchy,
proteinaceous food materials are plasticised and cooked in a
tube by a combination of high temperature, pressure and
shear (Pyke, 1981). The technology of extrusion cooking is

relatively simple and therefore, suitable for use in
developing countries for the processing of locally grown
cereal grains. Extrusion is an efficient way of pre-gelatinising
brewing raw materials (Delcour, et al., 1989), while the use
of extruded cereal adjuncts in mashing may offer a cheap
and high yielding source of extract relative to malt (Dale, et
al., 1989). Mashes containing extruded cereal adjuncts are
reported (Briggs, et al., 1986) to contain high values of wort
viscosity which gives rise to poor wort filtration that can be
corrected when the mash is supplemented with industrial
enzymes (Albini, et al., 1987).
The extruder consists of a barrel with a tightly fitting
screen and a cone-shaped end. The outside of the barrel
may be heated or cooled. The raw material may be whole
cereal grains which are forced along the barrel by the action
of the screw, then mixed, compressed and heated to
o
temperatures of about 100-180 C for periods of 10-20
seconds before being forced through a restrictive die nozzle.
The pressure at the nozzle normally varies from 20-40
atmospheres. Starches are gelatinised and proteins
denatured as the grains are worked upon, restructured and
expanded in a single controlled operation. Extruders come in
a single or twin-screw types, and a number of different
screw configurations may be used to suit particular
applications.
4.5.3 Brewing with solid adjuncts

Unmalted cereal adjuncts often contain no active enzymes,
and therefore usually rely on the malt or exogenous
enzymes for starch conversion. Some of the cereals may
require milling before use while their starches must be
liquefied (gelatinised) before hydrolysis. The requirements
for processing in the brewery depend on the nature and type
of liquefaction temperatures. If these are above the normal

malt saccharification (starch hydrolysis) temperature
(usually 62oC), then a separate starch gelatinisation process
is required before the adjuncts can be added to the main
mash. The typical starch gelatinisation temperatures for
various adjuncts are shown in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8: Gelatinisation temperature of various

starches
Source of Starch Gelatinization

O
Temperature (ÿÿC)
Maize 70 - 75
Sorghum 70 - 75
Rice 68 - 75
Wheat 52 - 65
Raw barley 60 - 62
Potato 56 - 69
Source: Palmer (1983)

Where the starch gelatinisation temperature of an adjunct is
higher than the saccharification temperature (>650C) of the
mash, for example, when using maize, rice or sorghum, it is
necessary to boil the adjunct in a separate cereal cooker to
ensure liquefaction. The cereal adjunct is often mashed-in at
0
a relatively low initial temperature of about 45 to 55 C with a
small addition of malt, usually between 10 and 15% of the
total charge (or exogenous a -amylase), to maintain the
cooked adjunct in a liquefied state. The cooker is then
heated up to 1000C for 15-20 minutes to complete the
liquefaction. The cooked adjunct is then added to the
contents of the mash conversion vessel once it has
completed its proteolytic stand, so as to raise the combined
0
temperature of the mash to between 62 and 65 C in a type of

single decoction mashing process. The spare enzyme
capacity of the malt from the standard mash can then be
used to hydrolyse the starch from the adjunct, converting it
to sugars ready for fermentation. A typical mash profile using
an unmalted cereal adjunct is shown in Figure 4.21.
Where the starch gelatinisation temperature of the
adjunct is lower than the saccharification temperature
0
required for mashing (i.e. <65 C) or the adjunct has been
pre-gelatinized as in the case of flaked or torrified maize,
then the adjunct can be mashed directly with the malt in
either a mash conversion vessel or in a mash-tun. Whole
grain wheat and barley can be mashed in this way, although
specialized milling such as wet-milling, is often done, since
raw barley and wheat have higher moisture contents and
therefore, harder to mill than malt. The percentage of raw
grain that can be converted by the malt depends on the
diastatic power of the malt, for example, in Britain up to 15%
barley can be converted by a standard ale malt, while in
Australia, up to 35% raw barley can be converted (O' Rourke,
1999).

Gelatinisation
100
Cereal Cooker
80
Transfer to lauter tun
78
72
Temperature ( C)
60 65: Saccharification
50: Proteolysis
40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (Mins)
Fig. 4.21: Temperature/time mash profile of a single

decoction mashing with a cereal cooker
Source: O'Rourke (1999)
It may be convenient to use exogenous enzymes

to improve the conversion performance when using poor
quality malts. Improvements in conversion can be obtained
by using bacterial a -amylases added directly to the mash in
either the mash conversion vessel or mash-tun. Some
adjuncts, for example, barley and wheat, have higher levels
of unfermentable polysaccharides such as b -glucans and
pentosans, which unless modified before mashing or treated
with external enzymes, may interfere with the wort
extraction and bright beer filtration. Other adjuncts are high
in lipids (e.g., maize), which have to be removed before
brewing.
Malt generally contains sufficient free a -amino

nitrogen (FAN) for healthy fermentation. About 60% of this
comes from hordein (barley prolamin protein) breakdown
during malting, while some 10-15% come from prolonged
protein rests using thick mashes. However, with thin mashes
and high adjunct ratios, very little additional a -amino
nitrogen is released. Additional exogenous proteolytic
activity may be required when brewing with certain adjuncts
or poor quality malts to modify the endosperm structure and
to facilitate saccharification, particularly to release bound b-
amylase, and to adjust the ratio of soluble nitrogen
necessary for yeast growth. In some cases, very high levels
of unmalted cereals (up to 100%) are used for the total grist
composition. Therefore, the adjunct level used should be
linked to the nitrogen levels of the malt in order to ensure
that the wort contains sufficient a -amino nitrogen and
peptides for yeast growth and function, perhaps above 160
mg/L of free amino nitrogen (FAN).
4.5.5 Brewing with unmalted barley

In barley brewing, it is current practice to replace up to 50%
of the malt with raw barley and this is usually milled together
with the malt often using a wet-mill. The grist is mashed-in
at 50oC with a short proteolytic stand of ten minutes before
o o
heating up for stands at 63 C and then 66 C with a final
o
temperature rise to 78 C to halt enzyme action (Fig. 4.22).
Bacterial protease and bacterial a -amylase are added to the
mash to help with proteolysis and saccharification,
respectively, as well as thermostable fungal b -glucanases
for b-glucan degradation.
Although not usually practiced by brewers, it is
perfectly possible to make a totally satisfactory wort from
100% raw barley using exogenous enzymes (O'Rourke,
1999).

100
80
Transfer to
78 lauter tun
70
66
Temperature ( C)
Saccharification
60
50
Proteolysis
40
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (Mins)
Fig. 4.22: Temperature/time mash profile using 50%

barley adjunct
Source: O'Rourke (1999)
4.5.6 Liquid adjuncts

Liquid adjuncts are those added to the wort either before or
during boiling in the copper; hence, they are usually referred
to as copper adjuncts. The major liquid adjuncts used in
brewing are: i) glucose syrups; ii) cane sugar or sucrose
syrups and iii) invert sugar syrups.
i) Glucose syrups
Glucose syrups are the most popular form of liquid adjunct
used in the brewing industry. They are solutions of a large

range of sugars produced mainly from the controlled
breakdown (hydrolysis) of maize starch by acid and/or
enzyme treatment. At present, barley and wheat syrups
have only limited use in the brewing industry. These syrups
add nitrogenous as well as carbohydrate materials to the
wort. In contrast, maize syrups add only carbohydrates
which dilute the nitrogen and other materials in the wort.
Corn syrups are produced by hydrolyzing maize
starches with acid alone or with amylolytic enzymes.
Controlled hydrolysis of maize starches yields different kinds
of syrups, containing different percentages of glucose,
maltose, maltotriose and higher dextrins, and are described
in terms of their fermentable potential, that is, their dextrose
equivalent (DE). Thus, highly fermentable syrups have high
DE and poorly fermentable syrups have low DE values (Table
4.9). In general, the DE of a syrup reflects the fact that
glucose-type sugars are 100% fermentable; maltose-type
sugars, 90% fermentable; while maltotriose-type sugars are
about 70- 80% fermentable.
Table 4.9 Approximate % composition of corn

syrups
Syrup Glucose Maltose Maltotriose Dextrins
DE*
95 92 2 1 5
71 55 30 4 11
42 20 12 10 58
Source: Palmer (1983); DE* = Dextrose Equivalent

Conversion of starches with acid alone produces
predominantly glucose as the hydrolysis product. When
brewer's yeast is exposed to a high concentration of glucose,
a phenomenon referred to as the “glucose effect” may be
experienced which can result in sluggish or “hung”
fermentation (Chantler, 1990). Thus, after the corn starch is
partially hydrolysed with acid (usually, hydrochloric acid), it
is neutralized with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), which
changes any excess acid to a harmless sodium chloride
(NaCl) or common salt before amylolytic enzymes are
added. a -Amylase produces glucose, a -maltose,
maltotriose and higher dextrins. Amyloglucosidases
produce glucose only if hydrolysis is allowed to go to
completion. Limit dextrinase debranches starch
(amylopectin), thereby encouraging the action of b -
amylase.
ii) Cane sugar or sucrose syrup

Sucrose is prepared from sugar cane and the swollen root of
the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris, L.). Partially purified raw cane
sugar may be purchased as a brewing syrup. A typical syrup
may have an extract of about 258 L°/Kg, a colour of 30 EBC
units and a nitrogen content of about 0.01% (Briggs et al.,
1981). Sucrose is used directly as a brewing adjunct;
however, when hydrolysed by acid or by the enzyme,
invertase, invert sugar is produced containing equal
quantities of fructose and glucose.
iii) Invert sugar syrup

As the name suggests, invert sugar syrups are solutions of
invert sugar: a mixture of glucose and fructose. Invert sugar
is produced in nature and commercially by the hydrolysis of

sucrose which together with glucose and fructose, occurs
abundantly in nature. Invert sugar can also be produced
from glucose syrup by treatment with isomerase enzyme
which converts about half of the glucose of the syrup into
fructose. The importance of fructose is that it is sweeter than
glucose and sucrose. Invert sugars can have a special role as
priming sugars; that is, they are added to the beer for
sweetening and/or as substrate for secondary fermentation.
Invert sugar syrup is prepared from raw cane or beet
sugar of various grades, by enzymatic action or by heating
the syrup with a very small quantity of organic acid, usually
citric or tartaric. The grade of raw sugar used, determines
certain desirable tastes and flavor of the invert-syrup. Such
syrups usually contain about 75% of extract and 25% of
water. The sugars present after inversion, consists of equal
amounts of fructose and glucose and make the invert syrup
sweeter to the taste than a corresponding cane sugar syrup.
4.5.7 Advantages of using liquid adjuncts

i) Ease of handling and usage
Liquid adjuncts are ready for immediate use without further
processing. They are stored in closed tanks and distributed
when needed by convenient push-button operations.
Problems of unloading, storage and spillages experienced by
some breweries using cereal adjuncts in bulk or bags are
never encountered.
ii) Good sanitation

Liquid adjuncts ensure good sanitation in the brewery as
they bring an end to the installation of grit bins, conveyors
and scales that must be continually inspected and cleaned.
This substantially reduces concern over infestation and
fumigation problems while housekeeping costs are
drastically reduced.

iii) Uniformity of raw material
Today's liquid adjuncts are clear, colourless and non-
crystallizing liquids consisting of carefully controlled
mixtures of glucose, maltose, maltotriose and higher
dextrins. Variations in products arising from adjustments in
cooker operations due to (structural and biochemical)
differences in the solid adjunct used are completely
eliminated by the use of liquid adjuncts.
iv) Good cellar operations

The use of liquid adjuncts affects cellar operations in the
following ways: short fermentation periods, cleaner pitching
yeasts, sharper filtration and increased stability and shelf-life
of products while retaining valuable foam head retention
properties.
v) Greater control of brewkettle operations

Liquid adjuncts ensure faster mash run-off, rapid filling of the
kettle and shorter boiling time due to absence of undesirable
proteins.
vi) Reduced brewing costs

As liquid adjuncts are usually added directly to the brew-
kettle, with only a malt-mash, run-off time is considerably
reduced while more brews are made at same periods. This
enhanced productivity is preceded by improved production
efficiency in the form of equipment, processing techniques,
labour requirements and facilities.

vii) Effective means of adjusting wort and beer
colour
A short boiling time plus a late addition of the liquid adjuncts
in the kettle operations, results in a better control of wort
and beer colour.
viii) Adjustment of wort gravity

By adding liquid adjuncts after the mashing process, it is
possible to use higher kettle Platos (i.e. high gravity
brewing) and to reduce the gravity of the wort before or after
fermentation to achieve more barrels per brew. These
advantages may offset the inherently higher cost per pound
of extract from liquid as against solid adjuncts.

CHAPTER 5
UNIT OPERATIONS IN BEER BREWING
Ø
Overview of the beer brewing process
Ø
Milling operations
Ø
Mashing and mashing processes
Ø
Wort boiling
Ø
Wort fermentation
Ø
Secondary fermentation/lagering
Ø
Beer filtration
Ø
Bottling/packaging
5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE BEER BREWING PROCESS

The principal operations carried out in lager beer brewing
with barley malt include: milling of the malt, mashing, wort
boiling, fermentation, storage or lagering, beer filtration
and packaging or bottling (Macleod, 1977). Details of the
production processes are outlined in Fig. 5.1
5.2 THE MILLING OPERATIONS

Before the kilned malt is milled, it is cleaned and weighed.
The milling operations (Fig. 5.2) are designed to reduce the
malt or unmalted grain to a particle size suitable for rapid
enzymatic digestion and extraction with hot water during
mashing. Particle size must not be too small, because wort
run-off will be impaired nor must it be too large, or extract
yield will be reduced (Palmer, 1980). In traditional
breweries, mills were mounted high in the building so that
they were positioned above the grist cases and mashing

Malt
Brewing Water Milling
Unmalted cereal Mashing
Hops/hop products Filtration or Lautering
Spent grains
Syrups Wort boiling
Hot trub
Wort cooling and aeration Spent hops
Yeast
Primary Fermentation
Yeast
Secondary Fermentation
-Lagering/Maturation
Beer Filtration Cold trub
Beer Stability Yeast
Beer Packaging/Bottling
Fig. 5.1: A schematic overview of the lager beer brewing

process (input flows on the left side and output flows on the
right side)
equipment. Nowadays, the mill may be mounted at ground

level while the grist emerging from it is conveyed
mechanically or pneumatically (Hough, 1985).

Magnet
Malt
Silos For Different Polishing
Types of Malt Machine
Malt
Receiver
Husks, Dust &

Other Impurities
Scales
Crushing
Mill
Scales
Grist
Bin
Grist to Brewhouse
Fig. 5.2: A schematic layout of the milling department

Source: Heneiken (1990)
Milling can be dry or wet. In dry milling, the dry malt

may be milled and held in a grist case. Unmalted (solid)
adjuncts may be added to the grist case or to the milled malt
on stream to the mash tun. The weight of the grist of a
particular brew may be determined from a scale or
calculated from the potential extract of malt and adjunct it
contains. In wet milling, designed to increase the extract
potential and the wort drainage properties of kilned malts,

the brewer may condition them with steam to reduce
shattering of the husk and endosperm during milling, or malt
may be soaked in water for 5-10 min to raise its moisture to
about 25-30 per cent. The malt is then milled with special
patterned rollers at high speed. Wetting also reduces the
possibility of dust explosion during milling (Van Eerde, 1980;
Hough et al., 1971).
5.3 MASHING AND MASHING PROCESSES

Mashing consists of mixing the ground malt and adjunct with
water (liquor) at temperature optimal for amylolytic and
proteolytic enzymes derived from the malt (Hoschke, et al.,
1980). The purpose of mashing is to extract as much as
possible the soluble portions of the malt and adjuncts and to
enzymatically hydrolyse the insoluble parts (Willvonseder,
1980). The mashing process allows the natural biochemical
changes (degradation processes) initiated during the
malting stage to continue in the mash tun. The three main
degradation processes of importance to the brewer are:
§ Starch degradation
§ b -glucan degradation
§ Protein degradation
5.3.1 Starch degradation

The most quantitatively important biochemical reaction
taking place during mashing is the enzymatic conversion of
starch to produce both the fermentable and unfermentable
sugars (McWilliam, 1968; Otter, et al., 1969). This change
from granular starch to a mixture of soluble carbohydrates is
very complex and is dependent on the temperature, pH,
enzyme, mash concentration and the mashing procedure

adopted (Piendl, 1973; Shur, et al., 1973; Manners, 1974;
Murtagh, 1974). If the mashing liquor is untreated, the pH of
an all-malt mash is fairly constant at around pH 5.4, so the
major factors affecting the rate of starch conversion will be
temperature and the physical state of the starch (Coulter &
Potter, 1972; Huite & Westermann, 1974).
Starch degradation occurs in three stages the
sequence of which is unchangeable but merges into one
another (Kunze, 1999). These include (i) gelatinisation; (ii)
liquefaction and (iii) saccharification.
(i) Gelatinisation
In hot aqueous solution, a large amount of water is
incorporated into the starch molecules. This results in an
increase in volume which causes the closely packed starch
granules to swell and finally burst. A viscuous (sticky)
solution is formed, however, the degree of viscosity depends
on the extent of water uptake and is different for different
types of cereals. This process during which no biochemical
degradation occurs, is referred to as gelatinisation. As the
gelatinized starch is no longer held together, it can be
directly attacked within a short time, by the enzymes
contained in the mash. In contrast, degradation of
ungelatinised (or native) starch takes several days. Malt and
barley starch gelatinize in the presence of the amylases at
o
about 61 to 62 C while sorghum and rice starches gelatinise
o
at 70 to 80 C (Palmer, 1989).
(ii) Liquefaction
Liquefaction is the reduction of the viscosity of gelatinised
starch by the a -amylases. The long chains composed of
glucose units in starch (amylose and amylopectin: Fig. 5.3)

are rapidly broken open to form smaller chains. This causes
a rapid reduction in the viscosity of the gelatinised mash. b
-
amylase can only slowly degrade the long chains from the
non-reducing end, and so degradation by this enzyme alone
would take several days.
(a) (b)
NRE
NRE NRE NRE NRE
b b
b b b
b
b b
b
a
NRE
b
b
a
b
b
Branch point ( a
- 1, 6-link)
Reducing end Reducing end
Fig. 5.3: A representation of the two forms of starch molecules

found in barley: (a) straight-chained amylose and (b) branched
amylopectin. Each circle represents a glucose unit and possible
points of attacks for a -and b -amylases are shown; NRE= non-
reducing end.
(iii) Saccharification
Saccharification is the complete degradation of starch to
fermentable and non-fermentable sugars by the amylases.
During saccharification, the major products are maltose,

glucose and maltotriose together with large and small
fragments (dextrins) of amylose and amylopectin. The latter
are either linear, maltodextrins (i.e., unbranched a -1,4-
linked glucosidic oligosacchrides) or branched ones (i.e.,
branched a -1, 6-maltodextrins). The larger dextrins which
are liberated by the action of a -amylase then become
susceptible to hydrolysis by b -amylase which is, by itself,
incapable of attacking native (i.e., ungelatinised) starch
granules (Manners, 1974; Dunn, 1974). The role of b -
amylase in mashing can therefore be regarded as a
secondary but nevertheless, important one in producing
sufficient additional maltose to give the required level of
fermentable sugars in the wort.
Since b -amylase is much more susceptible to heat
inactivation than the calcium-stabilized a-amylase, the level
of wort fermentability can be regulated by either slightly
increasing or decreasing the mash temperature (Piendl,
o
1973; Taylor, 1974). At temperatures of around 65 C, there
is very little secondary degradation of products of a -
amylases by the b -amylases while the actions of limit
dextrinase (Manners, 1974) and a -glucosidase (Jorgensen,
1964, 1965), are not substantial. However, the a -dextrins
o
produced from damaged starch at around 50 C may be
degraded further by a combined action of limit dextrinase
and a -glucosidase. The latter enzyme is probably
responsible for the occurrence of such oligosaccharides as
panose, isopanose and isomaltose in wort (Bathgate, 1969).
At the end of the mashing process, all the starch
would have been broken down into linear fragments of one,
two or three glucose units, namely: glucose, maltose and
maltotriose. These are the fermentable sugars about 80% of

which is maltose. Also present in the mash are those parts of
the amylopectin molecules which are still held together by
the a -1, 6-linkages that could not be broken by the
amylases. All these fragments together are called dextrins.
Dextrins are unfermetnable sugars, their role in brewing is
still somewhat obscure. Some reports (Shur et al., 1974),
indicate that they enhance the flavour of beer by imparting
“body” and “palate-fullness” although they do not
themselves have any intrinsic flavour (Taylor, 1974).
Generally, the degradation products of malt starch in
relation to progressive rise in temperature is schematically
illustrated in Fig. 5.4. When low mashing-in temperatures
are used and the mash is allowed to stand for proteolysis
o
(i.e. at about 50 C), there is surprisingly a considerable
dissolution of starch despite the fact that the temperature is
o
below the gelatinization range (ca., 63 C). This initial
degradation of malt starch is due to the rapid hydrolysis of
starch granules which had already suffered partial
degradation during the germination process (Manners &
Bathgate, 1969; Palmer, 1972a; Pomeranz, 1972a; Bathgate
& Palmer, 1973).
(iv) The iodine test

Starch degradation is monitored using 0.02N tincture of
iodine (a solution of iodine and potassium iodide in alcohol)
because residues of undegraded starch and larger dextrins
cause starch hazes in beer. The examination is called iodine
test and is always performed on a cooled mash sample. The
test is based on the fact that at room temperature, the iodine
solution gives a blue to red colour with starch and large

dextrins, whereas all sugars and smaller dextrins give a
colouration of yellow-brown tincture with iodine solution
Granular starch
(Amylose & Amylopectin)
Hydration
Limited a - amylolysis
Branched dextrins
Limit
Maltodextrins
dextrinase
- amylase
b
Maltose
- glucosidase
a
Glucose
Fig.5.4: A schematic representation of enzymatic

degradation of granular starch during malting and mashing
Source: Palmer & Bathgate (1976).
5.3.2 b -Glucan degradation

As stated in chapter 2, the hydrolysis of b-glucan is initiated
by an acid enzyme, b -glucan solubilase, which breaks the
linkage between b -glucan and protein and renders the
former soluble. The high wort viscosities caused by the
solubilized b-glucans give rise to technical problems such as
slow wort filtration during brewing. Although much of the
necessary b -glucanase activity occurs during maltings, there

is inevitably some survival of cell wall materials even in the
most fully modified malt. This will be exacerbated if adjuncts
such as sorghum and wheat are used and it may be
necessary to ensure the continued activity of b -glucanase
during mashing.
The endo-b -glucanase which can degrade the b -
glucan molecules has a temperature optimum of about 45 to
o
50 C. By means of a long rest at this temperature range and
the use of well modified malt with a high endo-b -glucanase
content, most of the b -glucan is broken down and the risk of
gel formation reduced. However, as soon as the temperature
is increased, the temperature-sensitive endo-b -glucanase is
inactivated and therefore ineffective while the temperature-
insensitive (up to 70oC) b -glucan solubilase is active and
releases the high molecular weight b -glucan compounds.
Most brewers are very careful in selecting malts with low b -
glucan levels. However, for many beers, the initial mash
temperatures (e.g. in infusion mashing) are at or above the
maximum stability temperature of malt b -glucanase enzyme,
and it is common practice in many breweries to add
exogenous b -glucanase to decrease wort and beer viscosity
and improve filterability.
5.3.3 Protein degradation

Brewer's wort must contain the correct balance of protein
and a-amino acid in order to maintain both yeast nutrition
and beer stability. The major part of a
-amino nitrogen in wort
comes directly from the malt (Barrett & Kirsop, 1971), but
some additional a -amino acids are formed by hydrolysis in
the mash tun (Mikola, et al., 1971, 1972). This is particularly

true for proteinases and peptidases in lightly kilned malts
where mashing-in at low temperatures (45-50oC) favour
their optimum utilization.
The principal reactions which take place in the mash
are the breakdown and dissolution of protein by the
proteinases to form polypeptides of molecular weight 1,500-
5,000 (Clapperton, 1971b). The second stage of hydrolysis
involves the production of a -amino acids by the action of
peptidases especially carboxypeptidases which produce
about 80% of a -amino nitrogen during mashing (Mandl et
al., 1972b; Enari, 1972). Generally, the total nitrogenous
composition of wort has been estimated as 56% peptides
and a -amino acids, 22% polypeptides and 22% higher
molecular-weight proteins (Clapperton, 1971a). Nutritional
studies (Yoshida, 1968) indicate that as little as 120-
140mg/L of amino acids is sufficient for yeast growth during
fermentation.
A balance must be struck between breakdown of
proteins to a-amino acids for yeast nutrition; preservation of
high molecular-weight proteins, which enhance the foaming
properties of beer (Enari & Loisa, 1974); and the removal of
proteins, which combine with polyphenols to form haze in
beer (Savage & Thompson, 1973). Excessive proteolysis in
the mash gives rise to beers with poor foam quality (Narziss
& Rottger, 1994).
5.3.4 Mashing methods

There are many methods of mashing practiced all over the
world but depending on how the temperature is raised
(Kunze, 1996), the most popular procedures in current use

can be classified as either (i) infusion systems; (ii) decoction
systems or (iii) a combination or modification of the two
(Dougherty, 1977; McFarlane, 1993; Narziss, 1994).
i) Infusion mashing
The infusion mashing system is the simplest because both
mash conversion and separation of sweet wort from spent
grains take place in one vessel, the mash tun (Briggs, et al.,
2004). The entire mash is heated with rests at temperatures
determined by the enzyme properties (Kunze, 1996). It is
mostly used for the production of ales and stout.
o
Infusion mashing at about 63-67 C was developed
using thick mashes made with well-modified malts. After a
stand between 30 minutes and two-and-a-half hours, the
wort is withdrawn from the mash. However, when less-well-
modified malts or when high levels of adjuncts are used, it is
often desirable to begin mashing at lower temperature to
allow b -glucanases, proteases and other heat-labile
enzymes to act before increasing the temperature of the
mash for starch conversion and finally, enzyme inactivation.
A typical infusion mashing procedure using less-well-
modified malts (and adjuncts) is illustrated in Fig. 5.5
(Nwanekezi, et al., 2004).

Temp ( oC) 100
90
80
70
Emzyme in activation
zone
60
Amylolytic rest zone
50
Protein
rest
40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (Min)
Fig. 5.5: Infusion mashing process

Full lines show when the mash is kept at constant
temperature which serves as rest period, while dotted lines
show when the temperature is raised.
Source: Nwanekezi et al. (2004)
This process involves mixing of grists with appropriate

quantity of warm water that gives the mixture a temperature
of about 52oC. The mash is allowed to stand for 20 minutes
during which proteolysis occurs. The temperature of the
mash after 'protein rest' is gradually raised to 65oC in 20
minutes. The mash is held at this temperature for a period
which may be as short as 30 minutes or as long as several
hours. Enzymes of the malt attack principally starch and its
degradation products (i.e. amylolysis). The temperature
o o
after 'amylolytic rest' is raised from 65 C to 72 C in 5
minutes. Saccharification test is carried out usually with

iodine solution to determine whether starch conversion is
complete. With the completion of saccharification, the mash
temperature is raised gradually to 78oC in 10 minutes for
enzyme inactivation.
As no mash is transferred by pumping, there is little or
no air uptake. This is desirable because the presence of
oxygen during mashing causes oxidation of polyphenols and
consequently leads to a coarser taste and darker colour in
the resultant beer (Kunze, 1996).
ii) Decoction mashing

Decoction mashing is carried out with more finely ground
grists, originally made with malts that were undermodified.
These mashes are relatively 'thin', so they may be moved by
pumping and can be stirred. Decoction mashing uses three
vessels: a stirred mash-mixing vessel, a stirred decoction
vessel or mash cooker and a wort separation device, either a
lauter tun or a mash filter. A distinction is made between
triple, double and single (decoction) mash processes
depending on the number of boiled mashes.
In a typical triple-decoction process (Fig. 5.6):

o
a) Mashing-in is carried out at about 35 C.
b) After a stand, one-third of the mash is then pumped to

o
the mash copper, heated to about 65 C and held at
this temperature for about 20 min to allow starch
conversion.
c) It is then brought to boiling point over 40 min and held

for 15 min (for pale beers) or 45 min (for dark beers)

before it is pumped back to the mash-mixing vessel.
During the boil, enzymes are inactivated, but residual
starch is fully gelatinized while cellular structures are
broken apart.
d) Mixed with the rest of the mash, a temperature of

o
about 52 C is achieved, permitting proteolytic
enzymes to operate.
e) After another stand, one-third of the mash is again

pumped to the mash copper, brought to boiling in 30
min (with or without a hold at 65oC), held at this
temperature for 30 min, and returned to the main
mash, with mixing. This time, the mash temperature
o
rises to about 65 C, which permits the enzymic
breakdown of starch.
f) After the goods have settled, a third portion is treated

similarly to the second and when mixed with the main
o
mash, the temperature reaches about 76 C and the
mash enzymes are inactivated.
g) The mash is then transferred to a lauter tun or a mash

filter. The sweet wort and spargings are collected,
ready to be boiled with hops. The overall processing
time is about 6 hours from mashing-in to lautering.

100
1 2 3
75
Enzyme
inactivation
Temperature ( 0C)
50
25 Proteolysis, active in mash mixing vessel
Saccharification active
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (h)
Fig. 5.6: A typical triple-decoction mashing process. Solid

lines show temperatures in the mash vessel; broken lines
show temperatures in the mash copper during the 1st, 2nd and
3rd decoctions.
Source: Briggs et al., (1981).
iii) The double mash upward infusion system

The most widely used system in the North America is the
double mash upward infusion method (Russell & Stewart,
1995). Here, the malts are usually well modified and high in
both enzymes and other nitrogenous compounds.
Consequently, the brewers employ high levels of adjunct
(maize or rice grist) to exploit the high enzyme compliment

as well as dilute the unwanted excess nitrogen (Hough,
1985). This system utilizes three vessels: the cereal cooker,
in which the adjuncts are mixed with a small proportion of
ground malt and/or a preparation of microbial enzymes and
o
the temperature brought to 65 C for saccharification before
the mixture is boiled; a mash-mixer (mash tun), in which the
o
main malt is mashed at about 45 C to encourage proteolysis
and some starch breakdown.
When the contents of the cereal cooker are added to
o
the main mash, the temperature rises to about 67 C with a
consequent rapid breakdown of both malt and adjunct
o
starch. The combined mash is then heated to 72 C and
pumped into the lauter tun or mash filter for wort
separation.
iv) Temperature-programmed infusion mashing

The temperature-programmed infusion mashing is
increasingly displacing older mashing systems (Briggs, et al.,
2004). Here, the finely ground grist is mashed 'thin' into a
stirred and externally heated mash-mixing vessel to give an
o
initial temperature of about 35 C for a poorly modified malt
o
or 50 C or more for a better modified malt. Typically, the
o o o
mash is heated with 'stands' at 50 C, 65 C and 75 C while the
sweet wort is finally collected using a lauter tun or a mash
filter.
5.3.5 A comparison of the mashing systems

A comparison of infusion, decoction, double mashing and
temperature-programmed mashing is given in Table 5.1.
The essential differences are on the mash materials used

and on the time-temperature relationships employed to
achieve the type of wort required by the brewer. In all cases,
the fundamental biochemistry is the same.
Table 5.1 Comparison of infusion, decoction,

double mash and temperature-
programmed systems
Infusion Decoction Double Temperature-
mashing mashing mash programmed
method mashing
Materials All malt All malt All malt All malt
mashed (well (less well (very well (poorly
modified) modified) modified) modified)
Use of 10% Usually 30 - 50% 30 - 50%

adjuncts none or
10%
maximum
Boiling of
malt mash No Yes No Yes
Proteolytic No Yes No Yes
hold (40-
o
50ÿ C)
Number of
vessels 1 3-4 3 2-3
needed
Maximum 5 8 12 - 14 12 - 14
number of
brews per
day
Source: Hough (1985)

5.3.6 Mash separation
On completion of mash conversion, it is necessary to
separate the liquid part of the mash (the wort) from the
undissolved part (the spent grains). There are three types of
equipment used to separate the wort from the mash solids.
They are:
i) the mash tun
ii) the lauter tun, and
iii) the mash filter
Regardless of the type of equipment used, the basic

principles of mash separation remain constant.
i) The mash tun

The mash tun has the function of being a combined
conversion and wort separation vessel. Of the three systems,
mash tuns require the coarsest grist, the smallest filter
surface area with the deepest filter bed. The combination of
these factors gives the mash tun the slowest filtration rate
and poorest extract recovery but the brightest final wort. The
poorer extract efficiency resulting from a coarse grist is
partially offset by the use of a low rate of mashing liquor (two
litres of water to 1kg of grist) and larger sparge volumes to
optimize the leaching effects. The flow rate of wort from a
mash tun is usually manually controlled by the setting of run-
off taps to prevent pulling the filter bed down to the plates.
Unlike the other wort separation systems, the mash in
a mash tun floats on the wort, at least during the strong wort
recovery. During the initial run-off, flow rate is low to allow
for the high viscosity of the wort and to prevent the floating

bed of the mash from being drawn down to the 'false bottom'
of the vessel. However, the flow rate can be increased as
sparging starts and wort viscosity drops. Mash tuns are well
suited to their traditional use in mash conversion from well
modified malts. They are the cheapest system in terms of
capital outlay and the simplest to operate with little or no
automation.
ii) The lauter tun

The lauter tun (or tub) is the most widely employed wort
separation vessel (system) in both North America and
Europe presently (Stewart & Russell, 1985). Lautering is the
process of separating the liquid part of the mash (the wort)
from the undissolved part (the spent grains). Lautering in
German means to clarify, purify or filter (Russell, & Stewart,
1995).
A lauter tun is a vertical cylinder of large diameter-to-
depth ratio. It is usually constructed of stainless steel
although copper lauter tuns are still in operation. The top of
the tun is usually spherical or conical. Fitted at the bottom of
the tun is a wort collecting system made of pipes through
which the wort is delivered to a collecting vessel called grant.
Suspended above the true bottom of the tun is a 'false
bottom' made of slotted stainless steel or brass plates. The
void (space) between the false and true bottoms is typically
8-12 cm or 10-15 cm. The lauter tun is equipped with a
lautering machine (the rakes) and a sparging (hot water
delivery) system.
In preparation for receiving a mash, the lauter tun is
thoroughly rinsed and heated to mash temperature by

sparging or underletting hot water through the wort
collection system which sterilizes it by boiling. The mash is
delivered into the lauter tun as gently as possible, distributed
uniformly over the floor of the tun and usually leveled with
the lautering machine. In some breweries, the mash is
allowed to settle after being leveled, and wort circulation
(run-off) is not initiated until 15 to 30 minutes after all the
mash has been transferred into the lauter tun. During wort
circulation, the rakes may be employed to assist in the
classification by particle size and stratification of the filter
bed. After the filter bed is established and the wort has
achieved satisfactory clarity, circulation is stopped and the
'first wort' is delivered to the kettle.
The flow of the wort must be controlled at a rate that
will maintain hydraulic equilibrium with the system. In
general, the rate of filtration is determined by the formular:
K x Pd x Ps
d x Wv
where: K = constant
Pd = pressure differential across the mash
bed
Ps = particle size
d = depth of bed
Wv = wort viscosity
In the above equation (Palmer, 1980), it can be seen that, as

the depth of the mash bed is reduced, filtration rate is
increased. In contrast, as the particle size (or permeability)

of the bed declines, the rate of filtration is reduced.
Although wort viscosity may also affect wort run-off, the
viscosity of the wort is generally low at run-off because of its
high temperature and its dilution with the sparge liquor.
Other factors may also affect wort run-off. For example, it is
believed that poorly modified malts, or adjuncts such as
barley, wheat flour and torrefied cereals, may impede run-
off by releasing under-modified proteins and cell wall
materials which reduce the filtration speed of the mash bed.
As the first wort is driven off, sparging is initiated
shortly before the wort level reaches the top of the grain
bed. Sparging of the grain bed fulfills several functions
during wort separation; it dilutes the first wort and reduces
viscosity, thus, encouraging the rapid flow down through
the filter bed.
iii) The mash filter

As stated earlier, although lauter tuns are widely employed
for wort separation in both North America and Europe,
many large volume brewers prefer the use of mash filters.
The use of mash filter for wort separation was first
developed in Europe in the late 19th century and introduced
into the North America about the turn of the century. A
mash filter consists of a series of alternating plates and
roller frames in which a filter of polyethylene or
polypropylene fibre is suspended.
To initiate the wort separation cycle, the mash filter is
flushed and pre-heated with hot water. The mash is then
pumped into the filter through the top channel, completely
filling the filter frames. It is important that the volume of the

mash be controlled so that the filter is exactly full. Overfilling
causes a mash cake of excessive density which results in loss
of filtration efficiency. Underfilling results in voids (spaces) at
the top of the frame which permit excess sparge water. When
the filter is full of mash, the wort collecting system is opened
and the first wort is drawn from the mash horizontally
through the filter cloths. It flows downward along the plates,
out through cocks and valves into the wort collecting trough
or pipe. The wort is recirculated through the filter until
satisfactory clarity is achieved. After the first wort is partially
drawn, but before the filter core becomes dry, sparging is
initiated. After sparging, the filter core is drained to relative
dryness and wort separation is concluded. The filter is then
opened and plates separated to permit the spent grains to
drop from the frames into the grain collecting system. The
filter is then tightened and prepared to receive another mash
as the next cycle begins.
A novel technology in mash filtration was introduced in
1988 with the advent of the mash filter 2001. This fully
automated filtration process was divided into six phases:
filling of the filter, filtration of the mash, pre-compression,
sparging, compression and cake discharge (Eyben et al.,
1989).
5.4 WORT BOILING

After mashing, the filtered sweet wort is transferred to the
kettle or copper and boiled with hops for about 2 hours with
an evaporation rate of 4-8% per hour (Russell & Stewart,
1995). During boiling, hops go into solution and contribute to
the flavour of beer in two distinct ways: (a) the hop resin

gives rise to the bitter taste through the isomerization of the
a-acids to iso-a -acids (Fig. 5.7), while (b) the volatile oils
give hop aroma and character to the beer (Moir, 1989).
Majority of the essential oil constituents of hops are lost
during wort boiling.
O O
R heat R
HO
O OH OH
HO O
-acids
a
Iso-a
-acids
Fig. 5.7: Isomerization of hops a

-acids to iso-a
-acids
during wort boiling
To increase the hop aroma of beer, brewers traditionally,

add some quantity of hops late in the boil or to the beer
during conditioning in the tank in a process known as dry
hopping.
The objectives of wort boiling are summarized as
follows (Miedaner, 1986):
§ To inactivate the enzymes and make wort
composition constant.
§ To sterilize the wort, particularly if liquid adjuncts are
added directly to the wort kettle.
§ To denature and precipitate proteins and tannins
('hot break')
§ To extract bitter and aroma substances from hops

and promote necessary chemical changes (e.g.
isomerize hop a -acids to form soluble, bitter iso-a-
acids).
§
To concentrate the wort by evaporating excess water.
§
To dissolve any sugar adjuncts added to the wort and
encourage formation of flavour compounds (Maillard
reactions).
§
To evaporate the undesirable volatile compounds.
§
To precipitate unwanted nitrogenous materials.
§
To complete ionic interactions necessary to cause a
drop in pH.
After boiling, the spent hops, precipitated proteins and other

insoluble materials referred to as the 'trub', are separated
from the wort, which is then cooled (usually with a plate heat
exchanger) and oxygenated. Cooling proteins and tannins
(polyphenols) are precipitated as a fine coagulum, referred
to as the “cold break”, reducing the materials that could later
impede beer filtration and precipitate in the finished beer as
a haze.
5.5 WORT FERMENTATION

Lager and ale, the two main types of beer, are fermented
with strains of Saccharomyces uvarum (carlsbergensis) and
Sacchariomyces cerevisiae, respectively. Currently, yeast
taxonomists have assigned all strains of brewing yeasts to
only one species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Consequently,
scientific literature presently refers to them as S. cerevisiae,
ale type and S. cerevisiae, lager type (Steward & Russell,
1998). Traditionally, lager beer is produced by the 'bottom-

fermenting-yeast' at 18 - 22°C.
Whatever the method, wort leaves the cooler at
around 8-11°C and is aerated to saturation or to
approximately 8 ppm of dissolved oxygen. Pitching
(inoculation) of yeasts takes place immediately after cooling
since the cold wort may easily be contaminated
microbiologically. The yeast for pitching must equally be
microbiologically clean. The pitching rate is usually about
7
1.0x10 cells/mL of wort at the start of fermentation.
However, the pitching rate depends on the specific gravity of
wort, temperature profile and the desired rate of
fermentation. Low pitching rate results in excessive yeast
growth and tends to produce more aromatic beers, whereas,
high pitching rates cause less growth but may lead to
subsequent yeast autolysis. The yeast is pumped directly into
the wort transfer line or directly into the fermentation tank.
In the first few hours after pitching, there is little sign
of yeast growth. This is the lag phase which occurs in every
microbial culture during which the cells from the previous
fermentation are trying to adapt to the different conditions of
the fresh wort. Between 6-12 hours after pitching, bubbles of
CO2 begin to rise and by 24 hours, the fermentation is
vigorously bubbling with a proportion of the yeast cells rising
with the foam to the surface of the wort as 'yeast head'. This
phase of rapid growth and reproduction of yeast cells, is
limited by the depletion of nutrients mainly rapidly
assimilable amino acids and by the accumulation of ethanol
and other metabolic by-products. Note, that there are two
main stages of the fermentation: (1) the period of active
yeast growth and ethanol formation, with rapid uptake of

nitrogenous nutrients from the wort; and (2) a period of
slower alcohol production with little yeast growth and
nitrogen uptake.
During the active fermentation stage, wort sugars are
rapidly taken up by yeasts in the sequence: (a) glucose,
fructose, sucrose; (b) maltose and (c) maltotriose
(Campbell, 1983). Sucrose which is also usually added as an
adjunct, is first hydrolysed into glucose and fructose by an
invertase (sucrase), before being taken up by the yeast.
These fermentable sugars are metabolized via pyruvate to
ethanol and carbon dioxide (CO2) through the Embden-
Meyerhof-Parnas (anaerobic), glycolytic pathway (Fig. 5.8).
The hexose sugars are phosphorylated, cleaved to triose
phosphates and subsequently form the 3-carbon
compound, pyruvate. Although energy is absorbed on
phosphorylation in the form of the third energy-rich
phosphate bond of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
subsequent hydrolysis of the phosphorylated triose sugar
yields 2ATP molecules per triose sugar molecule. In other
words, there is a net gain of energy in the form of 2ATP
molecules for every glucose molecule metabolized to
pyruvate.

Maltose Maltotriose
Sucrose
GLUCOSE
ATP
Hexokinase
ADP
Glucose -6-phosphate
Phosphogluco
isomerase
Fructose Fructose-6-phosphate
ATP ADP ATP

Phosphofructo
Kinase ADP
Aldolase Fructose1,6-bisphosphate
Phosphotriose isomerase
Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

+
phosphate NAD + Pi
Phosphoglycera - +
ldehyde dehydrogenase NADH+ H
1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate ADP
kinase ATP
3-Phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycero -
mutase
2-Phosphoglycerate
Enolase HO
2
Phosphoenolpyruvate
Pyruvate kinase ADP
ATP
Pyruvate
Pyruvate decarboxylase Co2
Acetaldehyde +
Alcohol dehydrogenase NADH+ H
+
NAD
Ethanol
Fig. 5.8: Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway for the

fermentation of wort sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Source: Modified from Campbell (1983)

Simultaneously, the reduced NADH, formed on
phosphorylation of glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate to 1,3-
+
bisphosphoglycerate is re-oxidized to NAD by the reduction
of acetaldehyde to ethanol and CO2. It is the presence of
numerous enzymes and co-enzymes that catalyse the
complex reactions taking place in this metabolic pathway. As
the conversion of the fermentable extracts continues, heat is
generated (approx. 160 kcal/kg), and removed by cooling to
control the fermentation temperature. The CO2 generated is
normally collected and liquefied.
In summary, glycolysis/fermentation may be
subdivided into two major steps: (i) & (ii):
i) The conversion of glucose to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate. Three reactions occur in this phase.
(a) Glucose is phosphorylated in the presence of
ATP, catalysed by hexokinase to form glucose-
6-phosphate.
(b) Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-
6-phosphate through a reaction catalyzed by
the enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase.
(c) Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated in the
p r e s e n c e o f AT P a n d e n z y m e ,
phosphofructokinase to fructose-1-6-
bisphosphate and ADP.
ii) The splitting of F-1,6-bisphosphate into two, three-

carbon sugars (trioses), which are eventually
converted to pyruvic acid.
(a) Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into two,
three-carbon compounds, namely:
3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and
dihydroxyacetonephosphate through a
reaction catalyzed by aldolase.

(b) The three-carbon compounds are
interconvertible and catalyzed by
phosphotriose isomerase.
(c) 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde is converted to 1,3-

bisphosphoglyceraldehyde. The reaction
involves the addition of inorganic phosphate
(pi) and the reduction of NAD+, catalysed by
phosphoglyceraldehyde de-hydrogenase.
(d) In the presence of ADP and enzyme,

phosphoglyceric kinase,
1,3-bisphopsphoglyceraldehyde is converted
to 3-phopsphoglyceraldehyde and ATP is
formed.
(e) The 3-phosphoglycerate is transformed to 2-

phosphoglycerate by the activity of the
enzyme, phosphoglyceromutase.
(f) By the elimination of water (dehydration),

catalyzed by enolase, 2-phosphoglycerate is
changed to phospho-enol-pyruvate.
(g) In the presence of ADP and pyruvic kinase

phospho-enol-pyruvate is converted to pyruvic
acid and ATP.
(h) In the presence of pyruvic acid decarboxylase,

CO2 is removed from pyruvate to form
acetaldehyde.

(i) In the presence of alcohol dehydrogenase,
+
acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol and NAD .
Despite its complexity, fermentation is largely
dependent upon three basic parameters, namely: the wort
composition (nutrients for the yeast); the yeast strain itself,
and the processing conditions such as temperature, time,
volume, pressure, vessel shape and size; as well as the
agitation/currents in the fermenting wort. It is the skill and
experience of the brewer in harnessing the interactions of
these parameters that determine the quality of the resulting
beer. In addition, although ethanol and CO2 are the principal
products of yeast fermentation of sugars, numerous organic
compounds including acids, higher alcohols, esters,
aldehydes and ketones are produced in smaller amounts
and are largely responsible for the flavour, aroma and
bouquet of beer. The importance of these compounds
depends on their “flavor threshold”, i.e., the concentrations
at which it is possible to detect their presence. Fermentation
eventually comes to an end due to one or more of the
following: (a) exhaustion of fermentable sugars and (b)
inhibition of yeasts by ethanol. At this point, 'top-
fermenting-yeasts' form into clumps of cells that are
adsorbed onto CO2 bubbles and carried to the surface of the
beer from where they are skimmed off. The 'bottom-
fermenting-yeasts', on the other hand, flocculate and settle
at the base of the vessel from where they are also removed.
This sedimentation is further enhanced by the cooling of the
so-called “green beer” (Hough et al., 1971).
5.6 SECONDARY FERMENTATION/LAGERING

At the end of the primary fermentation, the 'green' beer is
harsh and bitter. It has a yeasty taste arising probably from

higher alcohols and aldehydes. It is treated in 'top-
fermented-beers' by the addition of sugars such as sucrose,
colouring matter in the form of caramel, aromatic hop pellets
which add extra bouquet to the beer, sodium metabisulphite
(Na2S2O5) which restricts the growth of bacterial
contaminants and lagered or stored in 'bottom-fermented-
beers' (Hough, 1983). The beer is transferred to the storage
o o
cellar and kept at low temperature (-1 C to 4 C) for period as
long as six months in some cases, to mature. Yeasts are
sometimes added to induce a secondary fermentation,
utilizing some sugars in the beer. The temperature is held
o
around 0 C. Secondary fermentation also saturates the beer
with CO2 (Neumann, 1980).
5.7 BEER FILTRATION

After the secondary fermentation and conditioning, the
brewing process is completed, but the beer is not yet ready
for consumption. Large quantities of yeast cells and
coagulated protein particles still float in it, hence, the beer is
not bright and must be filtered (Heineken, 1990). Filtration
is a separation process in which the yeast cells and other
turbidity - causing materials in the beer are removed (Kunze,
1999). It does not necessarily improve the taste and flavour
of the beer but primarily done to give the beer a bright and
sparkling appearance.
Before filtration, the beer is chilled because the lower
the temperature, the more the formation of cold trubs and
chill hazes (Hough, et al., 1982). Filtration/clarification of
beer can be achieved through the following methods: (i) use
of a centrifuge; (ii) use of Kieselguhr/DE filters and

sometimes; (iii) use of a sheet filter as a secondary or
polishing filter (Steward & Russell, 1985).
i) By centrifugation
Centrifugation is sometimes used in the clarification of
beer in order to avoid the time-consuming gravity
sedimentation process employed in storage tanks.
Centrifuges used for beer clarification are normally the disk,
self-opening types. Turbid beer enters the top of the
centrifuge by means of a centripetal pump. Sludge and yeast
cells collect in the bowl, which periodically separates to
discharge them. Since the concentration of solids in an
unfiltered beer is variable, most centrifuges are controlled by
a turbidimeter attached to the clarified beer side.
Advantages of beer clarification by centrifugation include:
(a) A quick recovery of yeast and other suspended solids.
If conditions are appropriate, the yeast can be
repitched for another fermentation
(b) Beer losses are minimized
(c) Capital cost is reduced compared to the cost of using
tanks for gravity sedimentation/clarification
(d) Clarified beer can be controlled to a consistent
turbidity level.
The disadvantages of using a centrifuge for beer clarification

also include:
(a) Increase in beer temperature during centrifugation
which may cause yeast autolysis resulting in the
development of undesirable flavours;
(b) There can be an increase in the concentration of fine

haze particles which may render final filtration difficult.
(c) There is a possibility of exposing the beer to oxygen.
(d) The method does not clarify the beer to a final bright
beer stage, hence, a final polishing filter is absolutely
necessary
ii) By kieselguhr or diatomaceous earth (DE)

filtration
Kieselguhr or diatomaceous earth (DE) is the skeletal
remains of some microscopic plants, the “diatoms”,
containing silicon dioxide (SiO2), and deposited on ocean and
lake floors some millions of years ago (Stewart & Russel,
1985; Heineken, 1990). After it has been mined, the
Kieselguhr or DE is cleaned, ground to a powder, sterilized
and processed before it can be used as a filter aid. Kieselguhr
is available in several gradations, from very fine to coarse
powder. The brewer can buy different size gradations to
prepare a filter bed that suits his requirements.
As a filter medium, the DE is deposited upon a filter
septum usually made of fine stainless steel wire. The small
diatoms of infinite configurations form a rigid, but porous
filter cake which sieves out the particulate matter in beer as it
passes through the filter. In order to prevent 'binding' of the
filter and to achieve extended filtration run, the DE is
continuously metered into the unfiltered beer as 'body feed'
thereby constantly building up the depth of the filter cake. A
filtration run begins by rapidly recirculating a slurry of the DE
precoat through the filter and back to the precoat tank. The
precoat filter cake becomes a thin (about 1.5 mm) protective
coating on the filter septum. When the recirculating liquid

(usually beer, but sometimes water), becomes clear, the
precoat has been established and beer filtration is begun.
Beer is pumped through the filter while the DE is constantly
metered into it. A normal length of run would be 8 to 12
hours. Thereafter, either the filter cake begins to exceed its
physical space limitations within the filter or the pressure
drop across the filter becomes excessive. Filtration is then
stopped and the filter cake removed, the filter cleaned and
sterilized while another precoat is established for the next
run.
iii) By sheet filtration

In some breweries, a sheet filter is installed as a
secondary filter to stop the impurities that may have slipped
through the Kieselguhr filter. Sheet filtration technique
started in Germany in the 1930s and has since gained global
popularity.
Filter sheets are made of cellulose, diatomaceous
earth (DE), and other materials in varying proportions to
achieve various degrees of adsorptivity and retentivity
(Stewart & Russell, 1985). They are positioned between
stainless steel or plastic plates. When all the sheets are put
in place, the filter is cleaned and sterilized before filtration.
Pre-filtered beer is usually pumped to the sheet filter via a
mixing/blending manifold or vessel which mixes beers from
different storage tanks. Mixing ensures a uniformity in the
degree of carbonation as well as beer taste. At the end of
filtration, the filter is flushed back with water to remove all
the deposited impurities, sterilized and closed. When the
filter sheets have become too dirty, they are discarded and

replaced with new ones before the commencement of
another filtration operation.
The newly filtered beer is rather very turbulent
because of its movement through the pump and the filter.
Consequently, the beer is stored for not more than one day,
in a bright beer tank (BBT) for two major reasons: i)
turbulent beer causes excessive fobbing which in turn,
causes much loss of beer and its CO2 content during filling,
and ii) the speed of filtration and speed of filling the bottles
or kegs are not equal, hence, a buffer quantity of bright beer
is required to ensure an uninterrupted supply of bright beer
to the filling machines in the packaging department.
5.8 BEER BOTTLING/PACKAGING

The bottling/packaging of beer is the most labour-
intensive stage in the entire production process. Complex
machines are used for bottling (Fig. 5.9), in order to
maintain high quality of beer. Most breweries in Nigeria
package their beers in glass bottles. Other packaging
materials used world-wide include: cans, barrels and kegs.
Beer packaged in barrels are unpasteurized and are referred
to as draught beer.
The bottling/packaging process can be divided into
the following steps: i) cleaning of empty bottles; ii)
inspection of cleaned bottles; iii) bottle filling; iv) bottle
closing; v) pasteurization and vi) bottle labeling (Nwanekezi
et al., 2004).

Fig 5.9: Arrangement of machines/equipment in a beer
BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

5. Empty Bottle Inspection Unit 1. Depalletizer
Has scanning equipment which 4. Bottle Washing Machine 2. Unpacking Machine
Cleans the bottles before they Takes crates/cartons with empty
detect dirts, liquid in the bottles, Takes dirty empty bottles
are conveyed to the filling dirty bottles from the pallets and
rejects bottles which are cracked from crates to conveyor
machine. places them on the conveyor that
to bottle washing machine.
brings them to the unpacking machine
beer into the clean bottles
Puts correct quantity of
6. Filling Machine
4
5
1
Empty pallets
store
6
3
Closes filled bottles with
Source: Heineken (1990)

7
7
7. Bottle Crowner
10
crown corks
12
10
11
8
9
9
bottling hall.
organisms bottles packing machine
inactivate / kill micro- removes leaking before they go to on each bottle bottles in cartons
heated to 60 C to Checks filling level, Cleans crates Puts one or two labels fully labelled
0
Here, bottled beer is Inspection Unit Machine Machine on the pallets
Puts correct no. of
8. The Pasteurizer 9. Filled Bottle 3. Crate Cleaning 10. Labelling Puts crates/cartons
Machine
12. Palletizer
206
11. Packing
i) Cleaning of empty bottles
The shelf-life of any beer depends to a large extent on
the condition of the washed bottle that contains it. Both old
(returned) and new bottles are used for beer packaging.
Though the new bottles are not dirty, they are however,
mechanically cleaned and rinsed with clean, warm water.
The returned or old bottles are usually soiled with all sorts of
contaminants by consumers. They must therefore be
mechanically and chemically cleaned to ensure that all dirts
and microbes are eliminated. Chemical cleaning involves the
use of hot caustic soda and detergents while spraying and
rinsing constitute some aspects of mechanical cleaning
practices. The washed bottles are inspected thereafter.
ii) Inspection of cleaned bottles

Inspection of cleaned bottles is still done manually in
some breweries. Nowadays, more efficient bottle inspecting
machines have been developed. These inspect bottles at
much faster rates than the human eye. The machines now
inspect from the top, neck, the side walls down to the
bottom of the bottles. The bottles are inspected for the
following defects: i) bottles containing foreign bodies, dried
insect larvae, pigment or adhesive residues and other
contaminants; ii) bottles with cracks, notches and such
defects; iii) bottles containing residual caustic soda from the
washer.
iii) Bottle filling

Most breweries ensure that beer is transferred from
the bright beer tanks (BBT: where carbonated beer is stored

after filtration) as efficiently as possible into packaging
containers. During this process, loss of beer must be avoided
while the required filling height is attained. It is also
important that entry of air is prevented to avoid oxidation
while loss of CO2 is completely avoided.
The bottle-filing machines are always built as rotating
machines with as many as 200 filling heads. The bottles are
delivered on a conveyor belt and positioned on a lifting
platform under the filling heads. The bottles are then
pressed against the filling heads. Leak-proof connection is
made between the bottle to be filled and a filling head by a
sealing rubber. The air in the bottle is evacuated out first and
then CO2 is allowed to replace it and pressurize the bottle.
The pressure generated in the bottle is slightly lower than
that of the incoming beer from the filler head and acts as a
counter pressure. The small pressure difference makes for
gradual displacement of the CO2 thus ensuring a laminar flow
of beer into the bottles. In the absence of this counter
pressure, the flow of beer into the bottles will be turbulent,
resulting in excessive foaming, low filling heights and
decarbonation. The flow of beer into the bottles stops
automatically as soon as the correct filling height is attained.
Pressure is released, the bottle is lowered and moved to the
bottle closing equipment.
iv) Bottle closing

After filling, the bottles are closed as soon as possible.
For this reason, the closing machines are built into the same
block as the filling machine. To effect crowning, the filled
bottles are placed under the crowning heads immediately

after they have left the filling machine. However, before they
are sealed with crown corks, air must be removed from the
bottlenecks or headspaces. Slight agitations or tappings are
carried out on the bottles to allow the contents foam a little
and drive away most of the air. The crown corks with their
indentations are pressed downwards after the crown has
been placed on the mouth of the bottle. This is done in such
a way that the curved parts clamp on the upper swelling or
rim of the bottle-opening. After closing, the bottles are
eased out of the machine and showered with water to
remove residues of beer. This is necessary because sticky
beer residues collect mostly at the base of the bottles and
cause the bottles to be dirty when they are displayed to
customers.
v) Pasteurization
Pasteurization is the destruction or inactivation of
harmful microorganisms, including yeast cells by holding
the beer at a certain temperature for sometime, usually
minutes. The most resistant microbial contaminants in beer
are lactic acid bacteria and certain species of
Saccharomyces, especially, Saccharomyces pastorianus. If
these microorganisms are not eliminated, they can spoil the
good taste and aroma of the beer. Hence, pasteurization
increases the shelf-life of beer. However, beer should not be
over-pasteurized, else its flavour would be adversely
affected; nor should it be under-pasteurized because the
inactivated harmful microorganisms will form haze in the
beer. The degree of pasteurization is measured and
expressed in pasteurization unit (P.U.). One pasteurization

unit is equivalent to the lethal effect one minute of
pasteurization has on microorganisms at 60°C.
Bottled beer coming out of the filling and crowning
machines gains some heat in the range of 5 to 11°C. The
beer is then loaded at one end of the pasteurizer on a slow-
moving conveyor that takes it through the pasteurizer
tunnel. Temperature changes in the pasteurizer tunnel must
be gradual to prevent thermal shock to the glass bottle. After
pasteurization, the bottled beer is equally cooled gradually
down to room temperature for the same reasons (Fig. 5.10).
This is achieved by gradually heating the bottled beer with
numerous water sprays fixed at the tunnel ceiling. These
sprays contain water with increasing temperature from the
entrance, constant temperature at the middle and
decreasing temperature towards the exit. As the bottle
moves through the pasteurizer tunnel, the beer is slowly
heated until pasteurization temperature is attained. It takes
at least 17 minutes for a bottled beer to move out of the
pasteurization temperature zone. The pasteurization water
is maintained at pH 8.0 to protect the pasteurizer from
bacteria and mould infection and softened to prevent
deposits capable of blocking the spray nozzles.

60
50
Temperature (0C)
40
30
20
10
0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
Time (Min)
Fig. 5.10: Beer pasteurization temperature curve

Source: Nwanekezi et al., (2004)
vi) Bottle labeling

In a competitive struggle for market share, the
appearance of the bottle is very important. The number and
size of labels, their colour and design, their arrangement
and overall effect should show a customer that a product is
attractive. Each bottle is provided with at least one or more
labels placed on the body, back, chest or neck. Labels are
placed by specially designed labeling machines which apply
different types of glue as thinly as possible on the
appropriate part of the bottle. Labels must have unique
qualities such as i) good caustic and wetting resistance; ii)

appropriate roll or curl direction after wetting; iii) the
orientation of the fibres in the paper after printing must run
at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the bottle.
Although the regulations governing what information
to be shown on the label differs from country to country; the
brewer uses the labels to make customers more aware of
his brewery and its products.

CHAPTER 6
BEER AND HEALTH
Ø
Reasons for beer/alcohol consumption
Ø
Nutritional and non-nutritional values of beer
Ø
Alcohol absorption and distribution
Ø
Metabolism of ethanol in the body
Ø
Effects of alcohol metabolism in the body
Ø
Beneficial effects of moderate alcohol consumption
Ø
The psychological effects of chronic alcohol
consumption
Ø
The pathological effects of chronic alcohol
consumption
Ø
Alcohol consumption and the society: alcoholism
All alcoholic beverages, including beer, contain ethyl alcohol

or ethanol (EtOH: CH3CH2OH), which is a product of
fermentation of sugars by certain species of yeast. Alcohol is
regarded as food because it can be broken down in the body
to provide a source of quickly available energy that may be
used in emergencies. In fact, it is a more concentrated
source of energy than either carbohydrate or protein, and
has an estimated value of 7.1kcal/g (Fox & Cameron, 2006).
Unlike most foods, alcohol can be absorbed by the body
without prior digestion (Bewley, 1986). It is also a
psychoactive drug, and a depressant because it affects the
central nervous system (CNS). Consequently, many
societies regulate or restrict its sale and consumption.
Nevertheless, moderate or responsible consumption of

alcoholic beverages is credited with many health benefits
(Richman & Warren, 1985). When abused, it can have a
direct toxic effect on certain body organs leading to
diseased conditions.
6.1 REASONS FOR BEER/ALCOHOL

CONSUMPTION
Alcohol consumption takes place at different occasions
which may determine the level, as well as pattern of intake.
Social drinkers consume relatively small quantities within
their homes, at parties or during outings, usually in the
company of close friends or family members (Ogbonna,
2009). Alcoholics tend to visit bars or other drinking
establishments where they meet and drink with similar
consumers. Parties afford easy and often free access to
alcohol and it is not uncommon for even the 'uninitiated' to
get acutely intoxicated in such settings. Alcohol has been
widely consumed since prehistoric times by people around
the world as a component of their standard diets; for
hygienic or medical reasons, for relaxation and euphoric
effects, for recreational purposes, for artistic inspiration;
and as an aphrodisiac. Other reasons include mood
elevation, to cope with stress, to provide transient courage
or boost courage, and for nutritional and non-nutritional
properties.
i) Mood elevation: Most social drinkers consume

alcohol for mood elevation using alcohol to “brighten
up” and therefore socialize better.
ii) Coping with stress: The term “stress” is often used

to describe the subjective feeling of pressure and
tension (Diehl et al., 1975). Scientifically, stress refers
to many physiological processes that are initiated in
response to a stressor. While the stress response is a
complex process, the association between drinking
and stress is even more complicated. Since both
drinking behavior and an individual's response to
stress are determined by multiple genetic and
environmental factors (Volpicelli, 1987; Kalant, 1990;
Sadava & Pak, 1993), studying the link between
alcohol consumption and stress may increase our
understanding of drinking behavior. Many studies
have revealed that people drink as a means of coping
with various forms of stress, including: economic, job,
marital and disruption in lifestyle. High levels of stress
may influence drinking when alternative resources
are lacking: when alcohol is accessible and when the
individual believes that alcohol can help to reduce the
stress (Jennison, 1992; Sadava & Pak, 1993).
In both humans and animals, drinking appears
to follow stress (Volpicelli, 1987; Nash & Maikel, 1988;
Kalant, 1990; Pohorecky, 1991). However, some
human researches (Brown et al., 1995) show that
drinking may take place in anticipation or during times
of stress. Thus, in a review investigating the
relationship between alcohol consumption and stress,
researchers surveyed individuals from areas affected
by natural disasters and found, for example, that
alcohol consumption increased by as much as 30% in
two years following a flood in Buffalo Creek, West

Virginia, USA. Similarly, there was evidence of
increased alcohol consumption in towns surrounding
Mount St. Helens in Washington following the
eruption of the volcano in 1980 (Pohorecky, 1991). In
a similar situation, following the nuclear plant
accident at the Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania,
alcohol consumption was frequently used by those
sampled as a means of coping with the resulting
stress (Kasi, et al., 1981).
iii) Transient courage and confidence boost:

Alcohol is sometimes consumed before very
challenging ventures such as armed robbery,
assassination, kidnapping or hijacking. This is
because, the more alcohol is drunk, the more
judgment is lost and the more courage the person has
(Ossi, 1998).
6.2 NUTRITIONAL AND NON-NUTRITIONAL

VALUES OF BEER
Although beer is an alcoholic beverage that may intoxicate
the drinker and lead to associated health and social
problems if the intake is not controlled, its nutritional and
non-nutritional properties are of great importance (Bewley,
1986). They include:
i) Nutritional values of beer

(a) Source of refreshment: Beer is a source of water
for the body and can be quite satisfying because of its
pleasant and refreshing taste (Hoyrup, 1980).

(B) Source of energy: The caloric content of beer is
significant but not especially high. A 355 ml (12 oz)
bottle of an average beer yields only approximately
600 KJ (143 Kcal). The normal body requirement is
approximately 10,000 KJ (2,400 Kcal) per day. The
calories in beer are provided by the unfermented
residues (starch, sugars) as well as alcohol.
(c) Appetite inducer: Beer is virtually fat free and acts

as a diuretic by causing an increase in the flow of
urine from the body. It also promotes the formation
of gastric acid in the stomach, thus acting as an
appetite inducer (Hoyrup, 1980; Van Heerden,
1989).
(d) Source of vitamins and minerals: In addition to

its caloric content, beer also contributes vitamins,
minerals and proteins to the body. B-complex
vitamins (biotins, riboflavins, pantothenic and folic
acids, etc.), are supplied by yeast, while minerals
such as K+, Na+, Mg2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Ca2+, SO4= and PO4
which occur in varying amounts in beer are
contributed by plant materials such as malt, hops etc
(Van Heerden, 1989).
ii) Non-nutritional values of beer

+
(a) Control of Na intake: A special reason for the use
+
of beer is for the control of Na intake in the treatment
of diseases such as congestive heart failure, high

blood pressure and certain kidney and liver ailments
(Hoyrup, 1980). There is also an increasing evidence
that moderate alcohol intake may be beneficial to
health (Nader, 1983).
(b) Control of coronary heart disease: When

moderately consumed, beer may also decrease the
incidence of coronary heart diseases, particularly
myocardiac infarction (Nader, 1983).
(c) As antidiabetic drug: Beer and other alcoholic

beverages can be used as antidiabetic drugs.
(d) For lactation: Beer may be used for lactation in

nursing mothers.
(e) As a sedative: It can be used as a sedative for the
treatment of sleeplessness and over-excitement.
(f) As a vasodilator: Beer can be used as a

vasodilator in arteriosclerosis.
(g) To relieve aches and pains: Beer can be used to

relieve vague aches and pains in the elderly.
6.3 ALCOHOL ABSORPTION AND DISTRIBUTION

When an alcoholic beverage is consumed, it may first
undergo some dilution by the mouth and stomach juices.
Within five minutes of intake, a small proportion is diffused
into the bloodstream directly through the stomach wall.
Most of it passes through the pyloric junction into the small

intestine, where it is rapidly absorbed and distributed
(Wallgren, 1970). Its volume of distribution ranges between
0.58 and 0.70 L/Kg of body weight (Fox & Cameron, 2006).
The rate of alcohol absorption is influenced by a number of
factors, including:
i) Concentration of alcohol in the beverage: The

higher the concentration of alcohol (approx.40%v/v),
the more rapid its absorption. Thus, absorption is
slower for beers than for spirits. Faster absorption
produces a higher blood alcohol peak (Bewley, 1986),
while equal amount of alcohol absorbed slowly does
not reach as high a peak but remains in the
bloodstream for a longer period (Insel & Roth, 1976).
In addition, since alcohol is absorbed by a process of
simple diffusion, the higher the concentration
gradient, the more rapid the absorption (Braly &
Torbert, 1985).
ii) Food consumed: The presence and type of food in

the gastrointestinal tract when alcohol is consumed
influences its absorption process (Wallgren, 1970;
Fraser et al., 1995). The rate at which alcohol is
absorbed depends on how quickly the stomach
empties its contents into the intestine. The higher the
dietary fat content, the more time this emptying will
require and the longer the absorption process will
take. One study found that people who drank alcohol
after a meal that included fat, protein and
carbohydrate absorbed alcohol approximately three

times slower than when they consumed alcohol on an
empty stomach (Jones & Jonsson, 1994). Similarly,
the presence of some fatty foods such as groundnuts
(Arachis hypogea) appears to delay alcohol
absorption; in contrast, alcohol taken with some
carbonated beverages will generally be absorbed
more rapidly.
iii) Gender: Women absorb and metabolize alcohol

differently from men. They have a higher blood
alcohol concentration (BAC) after consuming the
same amount of alcohol as men and are more
susceptible to alcohol-induced liver diseases, heart
muscle damages (Urbano-Marquez et al., 1995), and
brain damage (Nixon, 1994). The difference in BAC
between women and men has been attributed to the
fact that women have a smaller quantity of body
water (NIAAA, 1990). Another factor contributing to
differences in BAC may be that women have lower
alcohol enzyme (alcohol dehydrogenase or ADH)
activity in the liver, causing a larger proportion of the
ingested alcohol to reach the blood. A combination of
these factors may render women more vulnerable to
alcohol-induced liver and heart damages than men
(Ashby et al., 1977; Krasner et al., 1977; Morgan &
Sherlock, 1977; Saunders et al., 1981; Norton et al.,
1987; Frezza et al., 1990).

6.4 THE METABOLISM OF ALCOHOL IN THE BODY
The body begins to dispose of alcohol immediately after it is
absorbed. An insignificantly small proportion (2-10%) is
eliminated through sweat, urine and the breath (Ossi,
1998). Excretion through the breath is the basis of the
“breath analyser” test for suspected drunken drivers. About
90% or more of the alcohol absorbed is disposed of by some
metabolic processes in the liver. There, an enzyme, alcohol
dehydrogenase (ADH) catalyzes the conversion of alcohol
to acetaldehyde, a highly toxic substance (Eqn. 1):
CH3CH2OH + NAD+ NADH + H+ + CH3CHO - - - - - Eqn. 1

Ethanol Acetaldehyde
which is immediately converted by aldehyde dehydrogenase, to

acetate or acetyl co-enzyme A (Eqn. 2).
+ +
CH3CHO + NAD CH3COOH + NADH + H - - - - - Eqn. 2
Acetaldehyde Acetate
Most of the acetyl CoA enters the bloodstream where it is

eventually metabolized to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
(H2O) through the Kreb's cycle. Alcohol is also metabolized
in the liver by the enzyme, cytochrome P45011E1 (CYP2EI),
which may be increased after a chronic alcohol intake
(Lieber, 1994).
The liver can only metabolise a limited amount of
alcohol per hour regardless of the amount of the
metabolizing enzymes in it which appears to be genetically
controlled (Bosron, et al., 1993; Bennet et al., 1996). In
general, after the consumption of one standard drink (12 oz

of beer, 5 oz of wine, or 1.5 oz of distilled spirit), the amount
of alcohol in the drinker's blood (i.e. blood alcohol
concentration or BAC) peaks within 30 to 45 minutes. The
BAC curve (Fig. 6.1) provides an estimate of the time
needed to absorb and metabolize different amounts of
alcohol, as well as the effects of different concentrations of
alcohol in the body (Wilkinson et al., 1977; Fox and
Cameron, 2006).
% Alcohol
Effect in the blood
Distribution
Absorption
Death 0.5
Coma 0.4 Oxidation stages in the liver

CH3 CH2 OH CH 3 CHO CH 3COOH
Confusion 0.3
CO2 + H 2O
Loss of 0.2
coordination
Stimulation 0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hr)
Fig. 6.1: Metabolism of alcohol and the relationship

between levels of alcohol in the body and its effects
Sources: Wilkinson et al. (1977); Fox and Cameron (2006).
Generally, small amounts of alcohol (BAC of 0.03 0.12%),

produce lower inhibitions, feelings of relaxation, more self

confidence, diminished judgement, reduced attention span
and a slight loss of coordination. A BAC of 0.09 0.25%,
induces more loss of co-ordination, slower reaction times,
loss of balance, blurred vision, exaggerated motions, and
slight amnesia. BACs of up to 0.3% result in confusion,
dizziness, slurred speech, alterations in mood (including
withdrawal, aggression or increased affection) and a
diminished ability to feel pain. BACs of up to 0.4%, can result
in stupor, incapacitation, loss of feeling, and lapses in and out
of consciousness. Finally, as BAC approaches 0.5%, the
person may die due to a variety of physiological
complications, such as diminished reflexes, slower heart
beat, lower respiration, and decreased body temperature
(Wilkinson, et al., 1977). Since alcohol is metabolized more
slowly than it is absorbed, its continued accumulation in an
individual faster than it can be metabolized, leads to
increasing degrees of intoxication (Lieber et al., 1965).
6.5 EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL METABOLISM IN THE BODY

i) Body weight: Although alcohol has a relatively high
caloric value, 7.1 kcal/g (note, carbohydrate contains
4.5cal/g while fat contains 9cal/g), alcohol
consumption does not necessarily result in increased
body weight. An analysis of data collected from the
first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES 1) found that although drinkers had
significantly higher intakes of total calories than non-
drinkers, drinkers were not more obese than non-
drinkers. In fact, female drinkers had significantly
lower body weight than female non-drinkers.

As alcohol intake among men increases, their
body weight decreases. Analysis of data from the
second National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (NHANES II) and other such studies showed
similar results for women (Colditz et al., 1991),
although the relationship between drinking and body
weight in men was inconsistent. While moderate
doses of alcohol added to the diets of lean men and
women did not lead to weight gain, some studies
(Crouse and Grundy, 1984; Clevidence et al., 1995),
have reported weight gain when alcohol is added to
the diets of overweight persons. When heavy
drinkers substitute alcohol for carbohydrates in their
diets, they lose weight relative to their non-drinking
counterparts (Lieber, 1991). Furthermore, when
heavy drinkers add alcohol to an otherwise normal
diet, they do not gain weight (Lieber, et al., 1991).
ii) Sex hormones: Alcohol metabolism alters the

balance of reproductive hormones in both men and
women (Cicero & Bell, 1980; Johnston et al., 1981;
Chiao & Van-Thiel, 1993; Wright et al., 1991; Mello et
al., 1993). In men, alcohol metabolism contributes to
testicular injury and impairs testosterone synthesis
and sperm production (Van-Thiel et al., 1974; Wright
et al., 1991). In a study of normal healthy men who
receive about 220 g of alcohol daily for 4 weeks,
testosterone levels declined after only 5 days and
continued to fall throughout the study period
(Gordon, et al., 1976; NIAAA, 1994). Prolonged

testosterone deficiency may contribute to
ferminization in males, for examples, breast
enlargement (Bannister & Lowsky, 1989). In
addition, alcohol may interfere with normal sperm
structure and movement by inhibiting the
metabolism of vitamin A, which is essential for sperm
development (Leo & Lieber, 1982; NIAAA, 1994). In
women, alcohol metabolism may contribute to
increased production of a form of estrogen called
estradiol, which contributes to increased bone
density and reduced risk of coronary artery disease
(Mello et al., 1993).
iii) Medications: Chronic or heavy alcohol

consumption appears to activate the enzyme,
CYPZEI, which may be responsible for transforming
the pain reliever, acetaminophen, and many others,
into chemicals that can cause liver damage, even
when the drug is taken in standard therapeutic doses
(Black, 1984; Lieber, 1994; NIAAA, 1995). A review of
studies of liver damage resulting from
acetaminophen-alcohol interaction reported that in
alcoholics, these effects may occur with as little as 2.6
g of acetaminophen taken in a day by individuals
consuming varying amounts of alcohol (Seeff et al.,
1986; NIAAA, 1995). The damage caused by alcohol-
acetaminophen-interaction is more likely to occur
when acetaminophen is taken after rather than
before the alcohol has been metabolized.
Alcohol consumption affects the metabolism of

a variety of other medications, increasing the activity
of some while diminishing the efficacy of others
(NIAAA, 1995). Metabolism is emerging as a new area
with implications for the study of alcoholism and its
medical consequences. For instance, some inherited
abnormalities in metabolism (e.g., flushing reactions
among some persons of Asian descent), promote
resistance to alcoholism. Similarly, recent data from
two large-scale National Institute on Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism (NIAAA)supported genetic studies
suggest that alcohol-dehydrogenase genes may be
associated with differential resistance and
vulnerability to alcohol (NIAAA, 1994; 1995). These
findings are important to the understanding of why
some people develop alcoholism while others do not.
Studies of metabolism also can identify alternate
pathways of alcohol metabolism, which may help to
explain how alcohol speeds up the elimination of
some substances (e.g., barbiturates), while it
i n c r e a s e s t h e t o x i c i t y o f o t h e r s ( e . g .,
acetaminophen). This information could help
healthcare providers in advising patients on alcohol-
drug-interactions that may decrease the effectiveness
of some therapeutic medications or render others
harmful.
6.6 THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MODERATE

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
Research shows that moderate alcohol consumption can
provide significant health benefits, primarily through the

reduction or prevention of the risks of cardiovascular
diseases and other ailments such as stroke, diabetes,
gallstone, arthritis, stomach ulcers, osteoporosis, etc (Doll,
1998).
i) Cardiovascular function: Epidemiological data

from at least 20 countries in the North America,
Europe, Asia and Australia show a 20-40% lower
incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) among
moderate beer drinkers. Studies at the Kaiser
Permanente Medical Centre in California, USA, found
that moderate drinkers generally exhibited lower
rates of CHD-related mortality than both heavy
drinkers and abstainers (Klatsky, 1994 a,b). The
amount of alcohol needed to cause a reduction in
coronary risks is not large; studies (Gaziano et al.,
1993; Thun et al., 1997) have found that
consumption of one or two drinks a day is associated
with a reduced disease risk of at last 30%. An editorial
published in the Journal of the American Medical
Association in 1994 estimated that approximately
81,000 deaths from CHD would occur if the entire
population of the United States abstained from
alcohol consumption (Pear & Terry, 1994).
ii) Stroke: Studies (Palomaki & Kaste, 1993; Rodgers et

al., 1993), indicate that an alcohol consumption level
of one or two drinks per day can decrease the
incidence of ischemic stroke by as much as 50%.
Ischemic stroke is similar to a heart attack, except

that it involves blockage of arteries in the brain, rather
than blockage of arteries supplying blood to the heart.
iii) The brain: A study at the Catholic University of the

Sacred Heart in Rome, found that moderate alcohol
consumption may protect the brain from mental
decline associated with aging. The mental abilities
and alcohol consumption history of nearly 16,000
Italian men and women over the ages of 65 (made up
of approximately 8,700 regular drinkers and 7,000
non-drinkers) were evaluated and found that
moderate consumption of alcohol was associated with
a 40% lower risk of mental impairment (Zucala et al.,
2001).
iii) Diabetes: Research has found that the risk of

developing adult onset diabetes mellitus (Type-2
diabetes) is lower by as much as one-third, in
moderate alcohol drinkers than in abstainers.
However, the mechanisms for this apparent effect
have not been fully established (Gurintz et al., 1994;
Perry et al., 1995; Rimm et al., 1995).
iv) Gallstone: People who drink alcoholic beverage in

moderation have a lower risk of gallstone (hardening
of the gall bladder) than do abstainers (Colditz, 1990;
Kono et al., 1992; La Vecchia, et al., 1994).
v) Arthritis: Moderate alcohol intake has been

associated with a reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis

in women. The effect in men is however, still
unknown (Hazes et al., 1990; Voight et al., 1994).
vi) Stomach ulcers: New research shows that alcohol

may prevent stomach ulcers. According a study
(Brenner, et al., 1998) published in the British Medical
Journal, alcohol has a protective effect against the
bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, which is thought to be
responsible for stomach ulcers.
vii) Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is a disease of the

skeleton, characterized by low bone mass, increased
bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture. At about
age 35, people reach their peak bone mass, i.e. the
point at which their bones are as strong as they will
ever be (Edelson & Kleerekoper, 1995). Some
epidemiological studies have associated light or
moderate beer consumption with increased bone
mineral density and decreased risk of fracture in post-
menopausal women (Hansen et al., 1991; Felson, et
al., 1995). In the same studies, silicon intake was
found to correlate positively with adjusted bone
mineral density in men and pre-menopausal women.
Consequently, it was suggested that higher dietary
silicon intake in men and younger women may have
some salutary effects on skeletal health. Unlike other
high silicon foods, the silicon in beer, contributed by
the husk in barley grain, is readily bioavailable (Van
Heerden, 1989) because it exists as soluble silicate
(SiO3). Thus, beer is the latest plant-based food

investigated for its ability to protect bones from
osteoporosis.
6.7 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CHRONIC

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
As stated earlier, alcohol in the blood acts as a depressant on
the central nervous system (Diehl et al., 1975; Insel & Roth,
1976; Ossi, 1998). This fact is the overall reason for the
changes that result from drinking.
i) Effects of alcohol on mood and behaviour

In moderation, alcohol is one of the safest and most
efficacious drugs in the pharmacoepia, a point lyrically
attested to by Krout, an 18th century American from the
New England who stated that … “alcohol not only relieves
the sorrowful and distressed, but also gives courage to the
soldier, endurance to the traveller, foresight to the
statesman and inspiration to the preacher …” (Bewley,
1986); its effects on the brain is biphasic. At low
concentrations, it can act as an excitant or stimulant of some
functions making people feel relaxed, jovial, angry or sleepy.
This also leads to a state of exhilaration, loss of socially
expected restraints, loquaciousness and uncontrolled
emotional displays.
However, as the concentration increases, the effect
becomes constantly more of a depressant, leading to the
exhibition of disturbed sensory perception, impairment of
muscle co-ordination and visual acuity, slurred speech and
unsteady gait (Bewley, 1986). This situation may finally lead
to sedation, stupor and coma (Braly & Torbert, 1983; Ossi,

1998). This phase may result more from an indirect effect of
alcohol in suppressing the functions of the inhibitory brain
centres than a direct stimulation of the manifest behaviour.
ii) Effects of alcohol on complex intellectual

functions
Alcohol also affects the processes of learning. It has been
shown that at low doses, well trained and highly intelligent
young men perform better at solving problems in symbolic
logic than they had without alcohol. But at higher
concentrations, their ability to solve such problems definitely
deteriorates (Bewley, 1986). More recent experiments
indicate that what is learned under the influence of alcohol is
better recalled under the influence of alcohol than when
sober, but what is learned in the sober state is equally better
recalled when sober.
iii) Effect of alcohol on sexual performance

Alcohol has been thought to be an aphrodisiac (Insel & Roth,
1976). Its effect was described by Shakespeare in his book
(Macbeth), when he said that … “it provokes and
unprovokes, it stirs up the desire but takes away the
performance”. It is well known that intoxication impairs
sexual performance. Men of chronic alcohol abuse lose
sexual drive and potency; their sex organs may shrivel easily
and they produce very little semen, containing few sperm
cells (Bewley, 1986). Female problem drinkers, on the other
hand, often have sexual difficulties and experience either
loss of menstruation, irregularities in menstrual cycle or
heavy menstrual losses (Bewley, 1986).

6.8 THE PATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CHRONIC
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
Alcohol can have some direct toxic effects on certain body
tissues/organs leading to some disease conditions. Indeed,
excessive alcohol intake can, in one way or the other,
damage nearly every organ and system of the body leading
to premature death. However, individual susceptibility to
alcohol-related physical diseases is probably determined by
genetic, constitutional and environmental factors as well as
sex. The following are notable pathological states that are
alcohol-related:
i) Liver damage
Excessive alcohol consumption can sometimes result in the
development of cirrhosis, a condition in which the liver
becomes shrunken, hard, knobby and may not function
(Ossi, 1998). The disease starts with a wide spectrum of
liver injuries, which are generally believed to progress from
fatty liver to alcoholic hepatitis (i.e. inflammation of the
liver) and then to cirrhosis.
Also, by its interference with carbohydrate
metabolism, excessive alcohol intake lowers the blood
sugar level (hypoglycaemia) which often results in acute
intoxication (Diehl, et al., 1975; Bewley, 1986). It however,
elevates blood fatty acid level resulting to a pathological
condition usually referred to as “fatty liver” in which the liver
tissues get infiltrated by fatty cells (Ossi, 1998).
As a powerful pharmacological agent, alcohol may
interact with other drugs to produce some dangerous
effects. For instance, when taken together with some minor
tranquilizers or sleeping tablets such as Librium or valium,

alcohol increases their potency resulting in deeper and
more dangerous coma (Bewley, 1986). This is because, the
speed of breakdown of these drugs is dependent on the
liver enzymes which are also involved in the metabolism of
alcohol. When the two (alcohol & drug) are taken together,
they compete for these enzymes thereby increasing the
efficiency of the drugs due to their slower breakdown
processes. On the other hand, the consumption of large
quantities of alcohol over prolonged periods can also lead to
these same liver enzymes becoming super efficient (Lieber,
et al., 1965).
ii) On the kidney and endocrine organs

Diuresis or the passage of large quantities of dilute urine is
due to an indirect effect of alcohol on the kidney by its
suppression of the production of the hormone (ADH-
Antidiuretic hormone), which usually concentrates urine
before it leaves the kidney. Chemical and electrolytic
changes in the blood caused by alcohol, lead to the
accumulation of certain metabolic products such as uric acid
(Ossi, 1998). High levels of blood uric acid is associated with
a disease known as “Gout”.
Reduction in the blood levels of the male hormone
(testosterone), creates erectile problems for male
alcoholics (Ossi, 1998).
iii) On the bone marrow

Alcohol has a direct toxic effect on the precursor cells of the
bone marrow which usually develops into different blood
cells. A resultant depletion of the red blood cells causes

anaemia while a depletion of the platelet counts leads to a
medical condition often referred to as 'Thrombocy
Topaenia', which may manifest in a type of bleeding
disorder (Bewley, 1986).
iv) On the brain and the nervous system

Individuals who are alcohol-dependent are prone to
developing abnormalities in the nerves supplying the limbs
which results in impairment of co-ordination and difficulties
in movement (Bewley, 1986). Epilepsy, cerebral atrophy
and foetal alcohol syndrome which consists of microcephaly
(small headedness), mental retardation and facial
abnormalities may result in newborns of female alcoholics.
Prolonged alcohol abuse is also associated with some
specific forms of brain damage (psychosis or
encephalopathy). Mental processes may be dull, judgement
seriously impaired leading to dementia.
v) Malnutrition
Alcohol as a source of energy is nutritionally inadequate
while severe alcoholism is usually associated with poor
eating habits such as eating less foods (Insel & Roth, 1979).
Over a period of time, nutritional deficiencies that build up
begin to affect the nervous system (Diehl, et al. 1975).
Alcohol also directly interferes with the absorption and
2+
utilization of essential nutrients such as minerals (e.g. Zn )
and vitamins. This seriously affects their ability to cope with
infections and illnesses (body resistance) and may limit
their ability to repair the physical damages caused by
alcohol.

For instance, a severe deficiency of Thiamine (Vit. B1),
leads to memory loss, confusion and loss of sensation and
muscle strength in the limbs. Treatment with high doses of
thiamine usually restores much of the patient's mental
functions (Martin et al., 2003).
vi) Gastritis and ulcer

Alcohol may cause acute inflammation of the linings of the
stomach, and this so-called acute gastritis is thought to
account for the morning nausea and vomiting so commonly
observed in drinkers and may itself be associated with gastric
bleeding. Alcohol also causes chronic inflammation of the
lining of the stomach in individuals abusing it over a long
period. This may develop into ulcers of the stomach and
duodenum or may aggravate already existing ulceratic
conditions in these organs.
vii) Pancreatitis
Chronic alcohol intake may damage the pancreatic gland, an
organ which produces secretions to aid digestion and the
hormone, insulin, which is required for control of blood sugar
level. The main symptom of pancreatic damage is pain which
occurs in episodes accompanied by vomiting. When the
function of this organ is impaired, digestion is disturbed and
diabetes may develop.
viii) Heart disease and hypertension

While studies have shown that moderate alcohol intake has a
protective effect against the risk of developing coronary
heart disease, excessive alcohol intake has been implicated
in the development of elevated blood pressure and strokes
especially in young people.

6.9 ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AND THE SOCIETY:
ALCOHOLISM
Alcoholism consists of a repetitive intake of alcoholic
beverages to an extent that causes repeated or continued
harm to the drinker. The harm may be economic,
pathological, physiological, psychological (mental) or
social. Such a person has lost self control over drinking. If
the process lasts long enough and is not checked, the
outcome will be addiction to alcohol or a confirmed alcohol-
dependence.
Factors responsible for alcoholism may be as follows:

§ Defects in heredity,
§ Nutritional inadequacy,
§ Disorders of endocrine functions,
§ Economic misery or affluence,
§ Bad social influence,
§ Sinful gluttony and
§ Early childhood factors (such as lack of parental care
and love, over-indulgence or inconsistency in rearing
practices).
These may lead to dependence or dependence-

independence personality conflicts, the victim resorting to
heavy drinking and intoxication as mechanism for coping
with problems.
6.9.1 The social-cultural problems of excessive

alcohol intake
Apart from causing harm to the drinker, alcoholism has

social and economic problems that make it a matter of
public concern in the following respects (Ossi, 1998):
i) Unproductiveness of the individual

An alcoholic spends useful time or man-hours drinking,
thereby being a truant. This is a great economic loss to his
employer or his productive ventures. Besides, a heavy
drinker of alcohol loses perception and therefore efficiency
at work.
ii) Tendency to violence

A drunken fellow or alcoholic is potentially violent while
under the influence of alcohol. This pre-disposes such a
person to crimes such as murder, homicide, suicide, theft,
burglary and rape. A large number of accidental deaths also
occur following heavy drinking.
iii) Delinquency
Many of the delinquent youths found in our cities are victims
of alcoholism or suffer from lack of parental care from
depraved, estranged or over-indulgent parents. It is either
their parents are victims of alcoholism or the young ones
indulge in excessive alcohol drinking due to depression, etc.
This leads to some of them being dropouts in schools or
runaways from homes or just vagabonds.
iv) Gluttony
Social misfits are usually found among alcoholics exhibiting
socially unacceptable conducts such as gluttony and
vulgarity. This portrays them as completely irresponsible.

v) Accident proneness
Many innocent persons have lost their lives or properties
directly or indirectly due to alcoholism. Excessive drinking
also leads to a proportion of accidents in transportation, in
the home and in the industry at great economic cost and
pain to the family or nation.
A vast majority of alcohol drinkers in the society are
light, occasional or moderate drinkers who experience no
harm from the use of alcohol, nor do they invoke problems
for the society. The relatively small minority of problem
drinkers fall into the category of heavy alcoholics. They
cause sufficient problems for themselves, their employers,
families, social associates and the nation generally so as to
attract the concern and attention of the government and the
society. This has led to special focuses on the problems and
solutions by way of research.
6.9.2 Complications of alcoholism and possible

treatment
When alcoholics stop drinking or cut down on the volume of
their intake, they develop withdrawal symptoms
(unpleasant physical and mental sensations experienced
when one is deprived of something to which one is
addicted). These can vary from merely unpleasant feelings
to serious, even life-threatening disorders (Chaftez, 1967).
Alcoholism can be treated through consistent
counseling in a variety of settings involving family members,
employers, the church and sometimes supported by special
medications until the victims re-attain long term sobriety
(Ossi, 1998). Other specific measures of treatment of
alcoholism include:

i) Establishing rapport with alcoholic patients and
making them recognize that they are alcoholics and
lack control over drinking.
ii) Detoxification: This requires hospitalization for

proper medical and nursing supervision, especially in
patients with severe withdrawal symptoms.
iii) Use of medication: Drugs like disulfiram are used to

generate total dislike for alcohol. Disulfiram
(antabuse) inhibits aldehyde dehydrogenase (an
enzyme which catalyses the oxidation of
acetaldehyde into acetic acid which is converted to
acetyl CoA and further metabolized in the citric acid
cycle); hence, when a patient is given the drug
regularly, acetaldehyde accumulates even after a
small drink. This causes flushing, headache, giddiness
and nausea. These unpleasant effects make him stop
drinking.

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263
INDEX
A Beer consumption, Nutrition
Acidity/pH levels 65 value of 216
Adjuncts 152 Beer consumption, Positive effects
(see also Cereal grains) 81 of 226
Adjuncts, Solid 154 Beer consumption, Prohibition 10
Adjuncts, Liquid 164 Beer consumption, Psychological
Aeration 98, 132
effects of 230
Alcoholism 236
Beer consumption, Sexual
(see also Beer consumption) 236
response and 224, 231
Alcoholism, Socio-cultural effects 236
Alcoholism, Socio-economic effects 237
Beer consumption, Women
Alcoholism, Psychological effects 230 and 220
Alcoholism, Treatment 238 Beer industry 36
Ale 11 Beers (see types of beer, i.e., Ale,
a-acid 145 Stout, etc.) 11, 12
a-amylase 175 b-acid 145
Amino acids 81 b-amylase 56
Aroma 141, 193 Bitterness 146, 149
Bottling/packaging 205
B Bouquet 200
Barreling 23 Breweries 6, 10
Barley 83, 99 Breweries, Yield of 55
Beer consumption 214 Brewing history 1, 36
(see also Alcoholism) 236 Brewing in Africa 18
Beer consumption, Absorption/ Brewing in Britain 5
distribution in 218
Brewing in Germany 7
Beer consumption, Calories in 223
Brewing in Nigeria 36
Beer consumption, Drugs and 218
Brewing in USA 8
Beer consumption, Moderation of 227
Brewing, Industrial 36
Beer consumption, Medical
effects of 226 Brewing, Local/Home 23, 31, 32
Beer consumption, Metabolism Brewing processes 20, 25, 29, 170
and 220 Brewing, Raw materials for 40, 48
Beer consumption, Non-nutrition Brewing run-off 75, 168
value of 217 Brewing technology 3
Brewing, Traditional 19
264
Burukutu beer 26 Flour 25
Free a -amino nitrogen (FAN) 33
C Foam 142
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 196 G
Cassava/Garri 28 Gelatinization 29
Centrifuging 11 Green beer 200
Cereal grains 47, 81, 155 Grist 157, 170
(See also individual cereals, i.e., Grits 155
Barley, Sorghum, Rice, etc.) 81, 83 Guinea corn (see
Cereal grits 155 also Sorghum) 5, 26
Cereal reception 92
Clarity/Haze 108 H
Colour, Dark 12
Haze 2, 50, 180
Colour, Light 11
Head 142
Contamination 63, 124
Hops, a-acid 145, 147, 150
D Hops, b-acid 145, 147
Draft/Draught 35, 47, 113 Hops, Botany of 143
Dry hopping 193 Hops, Chemical composition of 146
Hops, Dry hopping 149
E Hops products 149
Enzymes 33
Enzymes disastatic 23 I
Equipment (see also Technology) 96 Industry, Beer 12, 13
Ethanol 3, 31 Intoxication
Extracts 55 Iodine test 178
Ions 73
F
FAN 163 K
Fermenting 25, 35, 137 Kaffir beer 29
Filling 205 Kieselguhr/DE 203
Filtering 201 Kilning 5, 12, 56, 99
(see also Lautering) 189
Filtering, Sheet 204
Filtering, Kieselguhr/DE 203
Filtering, Centrifuging 202
Flavour 177, 192, 194
265
L R
Labeling 211 Raw materials 50, 58
Lager (beer) 11 Rice 5, 20, 154
Lauter tun 189 Run-off 170, 188
Lautering 153, 184
S
Saccharification 176
Sake (beer) 19
M Sanitation 167
Maize 32 Sorghum 46
Malt 80 Souring 30
Malting 51 Spargings 184
Spoilage 31, 35, 63
Malting loss 50
Starch 174
Mash 20, 185
Starch, Degradation of 174
Mashing 33, 53, 173
Stout (beer) 12
Mashing decoction 183
Sugars 166
Mashing infusion 181
Syrups 164
Merissa (beer) 23
Millet 23, 29, 44
T
Milling, Dry 155
Tannins 193
Milling, Wet 156 Technology (see
also Equipment) 171, 192
N Temperature 173, 186
Nitrogen 138 Traditional beer 28
(see also types of, i.e., Sake,
O Kaffir, etc.) 19, 29
Oxygen 134
V
P Viscosity of beer 56
Packaging 205 Viscosity of wort 56
Pasteurization 209
Ph levels in water 65 W
Pitching 134, 168 Water and beer quality 63
Porter 12 Water contamination 63
Proteins 138, 149, 156 Water hardness 67, 68
266
Water ion composition 73
Water ph values 65
Water processing 70
Water sources 60
Water treatment 68
Wheat 179
Wort 81
Wort boiling 192
Wort cloudiness 81
Wort fermentation 194
Wort infusion 181
Wort run-off 170, 191
Wort viscosities 56
Y
Yeast 114
Yeast cell 118
Yeast contamination 124
Yeast pitching 129, 131
Yeast propagation (culture) 121
Yeast saccharomyces 28
Yeast taxonomy 116
267
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Brewing Science and Technology: A Comprehensive Approach

Book · January 2011

Augustine Chima Ogbonna

Food processing View project

Guide to beer consumption View project

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Chapter 2 - Traditional Brewing Processes and

Chapter 3 - Beer industry and its growth in Nigeria

Chapter 4 - Raw materials in beer brewing

Chapter 5 - Unit operations in beer brewing

Chapter 6 - Beer and health

In 1988, the Federal Government banned the importation

1.1 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BREWING

1.1.2 Scientific and technological developments

2 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 3

4 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

1.1.3 Development of brewing in Britain, Germany

(i) Brewing in Britain

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 5

6 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

(ii) Brewing in Germany

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 7

(iii) Brewing in the United States of America

8 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 9

10 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

1.2 TYPES OF BEER

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 11

1.3 BEER PRODUCTION AND WORLD ECONOMY

12 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 13

Table 1.1 Beer Production Worldwide: 1993/94/95

14 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

Source: Kunze (1999)

Between 1981 and 1983 alone, the brewing industry

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 15

Dividends & Expansion

Wages & Benefits to workers

Fig. 1.1: A schematic representation of the disposal of a

16 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 17

Table 1.2: World Beer Production 2000-2003

Source: Beerweek (2003)

18 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

TRADITIONAL BREWING PROCESSES

Although beer usually implies a beverage of Western

2.1 THE SAKÉ BEER

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 19

2.1.1 The brewing process

(i) Preparation of the starter culture (Koji rice)

(ii) Preparation of the moto (mash)

20 BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH

Rice + Freshspring Water

Fig. 2.1: A diagrammatic representation of the saké beer

BREWING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH 21

a) The Soye: The first phase of fermentation, the soye,

b) The Naka: In the naka stage, the moto (mash) is