Book 1 Module 8

BASIC AERODYNAMICS

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for

study/ training purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/ aircraft equipment you

MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer's handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the
regulations/ guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national governments.

NOTE

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syllabus requirements. This means that books are re-written and/or updated
on a regular basis.

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r"

CONTENTS

PAGE

The atmosphere 1
Definitions 1 3
Bernoulli 4
Lift 7
Definitions - 2 10
Lift augmentation 14
Air resistance - drag 17
The four forces 29
Manoeuvres 32
The axis 38
Stability 39
Dynamic stability 45
Flutter 48
Foreplanes 49
Swept wings 50
Delta wings 51
Appendix
ICAO standard atmosphere tables 52
 HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book covers the complete syllabus for the JAR66 Module 8 Basic
Aerodynamics and should be understood in it's entirety for B 1 and B2
technicians.

The same goes for the category A mechanic except that he/she need not go into the
subject to the same depth. This means that the mechanic need not try to
remember any of the formulas nor try to understand the more complex vector
diagrams.

There is no need to remember details of scientists these are included for interest
only.

The appendix is added for reference only and details should not have to be
remembered.

/'%
 THE ATMOSPHERE
le-
Before we consider how an aeroplane flies we must first look at the medium in
which it operates - air.

The parameters of air (pressure, density and temperature) vary considerably both
with height and geographical location around the world. The air is made up of
approximately 21% oxygen (02) and 78% nitrogen (N) by volume, with the
remaining 1% being made up from other gases. The ratios of the gases vary little
with height although the moisture content drops with increase in altitude.

Because of these variations and to allow standardisation and calibration of

instruments and engine performance figures etc, a Standard Atmosphere has
been devised.

This allows engines to be test run in, almost, any ambient conditions and the
performance figures adjusted to standard atmospheric conditions allowing the
performance of one engine to directly compared to another.

Pitot static operated instruments can be calibrated using the standard

atmosphere and they can be set for flight using the same parameters (eg QNE on the
altimeter).

THE ICAO REGULATIONS CONCERNING A STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

The equations representing the relationship between meteorological

and physical quantities satisfying the ICAO standard atmosphere are
deduced on the basis of established meteorological and physical
theory.

It has been shown that the primary variables (pressure, temperature

and density) of a standard atmosphere based upon certain simple
assumptions were in fairly good agreement with average values
observed at about latitude 40°N. Such a standard atmosphere may
therefore be regarded as a suitable reference basis for certain
parameters in free air (excluding those dependent on water vapour).

The standard ICAO atmosphere is an arbitrary statement of

conditions which is accepted as a basis of comparison of aircraft and
engine performance and for the calibration of instruments.

THE STANDARD ICAO ATMOSPHERE STATES THAT.

THE AIR OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE IS ASSUMED TO BE DRY. THE

PRESSURE AT SEA LEVEL WILL BE 1013.25 MILLIBARS AT A TEMPERATURE OF
15 ° C AND THE TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATE WILL BE 1.98 ° C PER
1000 FEET UP TO A HEIGHT OF 36,090 FEET ABOVE WHICH THE
TEMPERATURE WILL REMAIN CONSTANT AT 56.5 ° C TO 65,800 FEET. "G"
WILL BE GIVEN A
UNIFORM VALUE OF 9.81 m/sec 2 AT SEA LEVEL.

'^ - 1
 For heights above 65,800 feet an extension to the ICAO law assuming a
temperature lapse rate of approximately +0.303 ° C/ 1000 feet to
-44,656'C at 105,000 feet was introduced in 1963.

The graph below shows graphically what has been stated above and also shows how
the atmosphere has been divided into "layers". For those working on large aircraft
the atmosphere is of interest up to say 60,000ft or so. For those working on small
aircraft the atmosphere is not of much interest after say, 20,000ft.

CHEMOSPHERE
1 10 33.5
TRAT E
105 ............_. 32
100 30.5
EMPE ATUR -44.65 degC

90 27.5

F-w 80 24.4
wLL
LL 70 STRAT SPHE E

0 65.8 .............._.. _ -.............

z 60

0
50 VN I
z
w
0D 40
TROP PADS
'F-= 36090
PRES URE 28.32m
< 30
f�qT TEMP RATU 11 E - 56.degC
F p p TRO SPHE E
20 6.1
L� /T1 E LAPSE
TRA MTE 1.98de C
Per 1 0 ft 3
10

0 0
1 1( 0 2(0 3(0 4 0 5(0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9(0 1 00 \1.225kg/ms
AT OSPH RIC PR SSUR (mb)
1013.25mb
0 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 0 0 0 0
EMPE ATUR (deg C
0 1 02 03 04 0 5 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 1 0 1 1
0
DE SITY (kg/m3)
15degC

GRAPH OF PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE & DENSITY

AGAINST ALTITUDE
/1
Pressure (force per unit area Pa or psi or mb). Starts at 1013mb (14.7psi) at sea
e" level and falls at a non-linear rate with altitude (the line on the graph is a curve).
Losing most of its value at the lower altitudes so that at 18,000ft, for example, the
pressure is halved to 506mb). Refer to the tables appendix 1.

These pressure readings are absolute pressure readings. This means that if an
ordinary pressure gauge is open to atmosphere it will read zero. To illustrate the
point - checking a tyre pressure with it (say 30psi) the reading will be 30psi. This is
called gauge pressure of the tyre. Its absolute pressure would be gauge pressure
plus atmospheric pressure = 30 + 14.7 = 44.7psi absolute.

Densit (mass per unit volume - lei/m3). Starts at 1.2kg per metre cubed at sea
level and falls at a similar rate to pressure, ie at a non linear rate.

Temperature. Starts at 15°C at sea level and falls at a rate of about 2°C (1.987
actual) per 1000 feet to 36,000 feet (11km). This is called the lapse rate which is
linear to this altitude. It remains steady at about minus 56°C to 65,000 feet where
it starts to rise.

Humidity. The relative humidity falls with altitude. This is usually taken as a
percentage of the total maximum humidity that the air will hold at a particular
temperature. (For air conditioning purposes water is added to the air entering the
cabin at altitude to counter the effect of the ambient dry air low relative
humidity).

QUESTION: What does Pa, psi and mb mean? (10 mins)

ANSWER: Pa is the SI unit of pressure called the PASCAL (Blais Pascal French
mathematician 1623-1662). It is equal to 1N/m2 where the N (Newton) is
the SI unit of force and m (metre) the SI unit of length. It is very
small - there is nearly 7000Pa to lpsi (psi = pounds force per square
inch). Going out of date in the UK but still the standard unit of
pressure in the US. mb = millibar and is the standard unit of pressure
when dealing with the atmosphere and instruments such as the
altimeter etc.

DEFINITIONS

The following definitions should be remembered.

Fluid. A liquid or gas (and sometimes powders) that behave as a fluid.

-3
Incompressible Flow. Flow below sonic speed (the speed of sound 762mph at sea
level) is assumed to be incompressible. Not strictly true but close enough for
most practical purposes. At supersonic speeds the air is compressible.
Bernoulli's equation (below) assumes incompressible flow and therefore only
applies to subsonic speeds.

If the aircraft was to fly at speeds approaching the speed of sound (MCRIT and
above) then shock waves would cause a large increase in drag (as well as buffeting
etc). This process starts in the transonic speed range.

Laminar Flow. Fluid flow in which the streamlines maintain a uniform parallel
separation with no turbulence. Shown as parallel straight lines on a flow diagram.

Streamline. An imaginary line marking the path of a particle of fluid from one
point to another especially in laminar flow. Usually shown as a line with an arrow
indicating direction.

Turbulent Flow. Random motion of fluid with unpredictable fluctuations and

vortices. There are no streamlines present.

Airspeed. The speed of the aircraft through the air. Not usually the same as
ground speed, for example: If the aircraft is flying through the air at 140 knots
with a tail wind of 30 knots then its ground speed will be 140 + 30 = 170 knots. If
the aircraft turns round and flies into wind then its ground speed is 140 30 =
110 knots. Hence the reason why aircraft always land into wind the actual
landing speed is reduced by the amount of head wind.

NOTE. The knot is 1 nautical mile per hour and is a common term for speed in
the nautical and aeronautical industry (1 nautical mile = 1.15 statute miles).

1 knot = 1.15mph = 1.85km/h = 0.514m/s

BERNOULLI

In incompressible flow it is assumed that the mass flow rate (cubic metres per
second) through one part of a duct will be the same as any other part of the duct
assuming their are no losses. This means that if the duct area decreases the
velocity will increase, and vice versa.

This can be verified by Bernoulli's Theorem. (Daniel Bernoulli Swiss physicist

1700 - 1782).

He stated that the total sum of the energies in an incompressible fluid flow are
constant provided losses are ignored.

4
The energies are:

* Positional or potential energy = pgh

* Kinetic energy = 1/2pV2
* Pressure energy =P
where
p = density (kg m- 3) (pronounced "rho") g
= gravity (9.81 m s- 2)
h = height (m) - above a specified datum v
= velocity (ms-')
P = static pressure (Pa or N m- 2)

Potential Energy is that energy stored in a mass at some height from a datum.
With solids the mass is taken as m (kgs), with fluids it is usually taken as
p(density kg/m3).

Kinetic Energy is the energy stored in a moving object. 1/2mV2 for a solid and
1/2pV2 for fluids.

Pressure Energy is energy stored as pressure (P).

QUESTION: Define the term "energy" and state it's SI unit. (5 mins)

ANSWER: Energy is the ability to do work and it's SI unit is the Joule (James
Prescote Joule British physicist 1818-1889).
1J = 1N x 1m = 1 Nm. The joule is a very small unit. -
It would take about 10 joules of energy to lift a cup of tea (or coffee) in
the process of having a drink.

IARFLOW
1 2

Fig. 1 THE VENTURI

- 5
Velocity/Area Relationship

To understand how an aerofoil works it is useful to first look at what happens to a

slow speed (incompressible below the speed of sound) flow through a
contraction, or venturi, in a duct. One of the assumptions used when looking at
incompressible flow is that the flow rate (cubic metres per second) through one part
of the duct will be the same as any other part of the duct, ignoring any
losses. There are some losses of course, but these are ignored.

This means that if the duct area decreases, ie through a venturi, the velocity of
the flow must increase to keep the total mass flow rate the same.

Bernoulli states that the sum of the energies at position 1 in the duct shown in
figure 1 are the same as the sum of the energies at position 2. This means that:

pgh + 1/2pV2 + P constant

so

pgh1 + 1/2pV21 + P1 = pgh2 + 1/2pV22 + P2

By inspection the fluid has to go faster at position 2 than position 1 (to maintain
the same volume flow rate), so V at position 2 has to increase. This means that the
sum of the terms on the right (pgh2 + 1/2pV22 + P2) is bigger than the sum of
the terms on the left and that can't be. So at least one of the terms on the right
must reduce.

On inspection
pgh2 does not change - the centre line (h) is horizontal

so P2 must be lower than P1 and the pressure drops.

This principle is used in the carburettor of a petrol engine and how an aerofoil
obtains lift. It is also the principal of intake airspeed control of air entering a jet
engine in a convergent/ divergent duct.

The same analysis can be applied to an inclined duct of uniform cross section. As h
changes so P changes in the opposite direction (if h increases so P reduces and the
balance of the equation remains unchanged).

If the air was to enter the convergent duct a speeds at or above the speed of sound
then it would behave as if it was compressible, shock waves would form and at the
convergence the velocity would decrease with a rise in pressure and density.

..r

-6-
 LIFT

The Venturi Effect

When air passes through a tube which contracts to a throat, it can be shown by a
simple experiment that the air pressure (called the Static Pressure) changes as the
tube contracts. In fact the static pressure drops at the throat where the air
velocity is at its fastest. (Bernoulli's Theorem above).

If we represent the streamlines of a flow of air through such a venturi we see that
the streamlines are forced together where the speed is greatest and the pressure is
smallest.

VELOCITY INCREASES
STREAMLINES AND
PRESSURE DECREASES

Fig. 2 AIRFLOW THROUGH A VENTURI

If the two sides of the venturi are free to move they will move together as the
pressure drops. If we reverse the venturi sides then we put the low pressure areas
on the outside of the shape and we have the makings of an aerofoil.

HIGH VELOCITY
AND
LOW PRESSURE AREAS

AIRFLOW

Fig. 3 SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL

0., -7
 f

The Aerofoil

The previous drawing shows a symmetrical aerofoil (some aircraft are fitted with
these), but the more usual aerofoil is asymmetric. (If a symmetrical aerofoil is used
it is usually set at a positive angle of incidence to produce lift).

The top surface of an asymmetric aerofoil usually has a good convex camber with
the bottom surface being nearly flat, or in some cases having a slight concave
surface.

This type of aerofoil will produce a negative pressure on the top surface and a
positive pressure on the bottom surface. In general about 2 / 3rds of the lift is
produced from the top surface and about 1/3rd from the bottom. The pressure
distribution is as shown in figure 4 with each vector line in the drawing indicating
the amount of lift produced from that part of the aerofoil. These can be added
together (mathematically or by drawing) to give one Total Air Reaction vector
acting from the Centre of Pressure - this about 1/3rd from the leading edge.

The lines are drawn as vector

lines and are obtained by fitting
manometer tubes to each
point within the aerofoil model In a
wind tunnel.

AIRFLOW

POSITIVE
PRESSURE

Fig. 4 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

AROUND AN AEROFOIL

lift drag.
The total air reaction can be organised into its component vectors and
The lift vector always acts at right angles to the airflow (or free-stream flow) and the
drag vector always acts at right angles to the lift vector and in line with the airflow.

QUESTION: What is a Vector? (5 mins)

which has direction. A line is drawn
ANSWER: It is a line representing a quantity
to scale the length of which. represents the value of the quantity (eg,
velocity or force) and the direction of the line represents the direction

in which the quantity acts.

8- -.014
 LIFT

Fig. 5 LIFT AND DRAG VECTORS

Fig. 6 AN AEROFOIL

It can be shown that the lift produced by an aerofoil is related to:

* Its shape and angle of attack (CL)

* The air density (p)
* The air velocity (V)
* The plan wing area (A)

and lift is calculated by:

LIFT = CLI/2pV2A

where
CL is found by experimentation and is related mainly to aerofoil shape. A
higher CL means greater lift. It is just a number which is called a
coefficient.

P is the air density (1.2 kg/m2 at sea level). The lower the altitude of the
aircraft the greater is the density and the more the lift is created all
other parameters being fixed.

-9
 V is the air velocity. With an increase in speed more lift is created. In
fact the lift is related to the square of speed. For example, if the speed
is doubled the lift is increased four-fold.

A is related to wing area. In general the greater the wing area the
greater the lift.

Some More Definitions:

Angle of Attack. This is the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the
free-stream flow. If a symmetrical aerofoil is given a positive angle of attack the
speed of the airflow over the top surface increases - and the suction increases,
and the speed of the airflow under the aerofoil decreases - and the pressure
increases. Hence lift is produced.

For an asymmetric aerofoil lift can be generated at zero angle of attack and even at
small negative angles of attack.

This means that for a given airspeed lift increases with an increase in angle
of attack but only up to the stalling angle (usually 15° for a "clean" wing). This
increased angle will also increase upwash and downwash and drag of course.

ANGLE OF ATTACK (THETA)

Fig. 7 ANGLE OF ATTACK

Angle of Incidence. The angle the chord line makes with the longitudinal datum line
of the aircraft. Fixed for most aircraft wings but variable for many aircraft
tailplanes. The angle of incidence may change from root to tip. If it increases it is
said to wash in, if it decreases it is said to wash out.

Centre of Pressure. All the pressure differences between the top and bottom
surfaces of the aerofoil can be added together to produce the Total Air Reaction
which can be considered to act at a point called the Centre of Pressure (C of P).

As the angle of attack increases and the pressure distribution changes, the
position of the C of P moves forward, usually reaching a point about 1/4 chord
length from the leading edge at the stalling angle. After the stalling angle has
been passed it moves rapidly back to about mid-chord position.

- 10 -
 Chordline. A straight imaginary line joining the centre of curvature of the leading
t"' edge of an aerofoil section to the trailing edge.

Downwash. An area behind the trailing edge of an aerofoil where the airflow tends to
move downwards.

Fineness Ratio. The ratio between the maximum depth of the aerofoil and the
chord length.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord. Close to Mean Chord. Chord of imaginary wing of

constant aerofoil section producing the same forces (lift and drag) as those
produced by an actual wing.

Mean Camber Line. An imaginary line drawn from the centre of curvature or the
leading edge to the trailing edge of an aerofoil, but equidistant from the top and
bottom surfaces. This is the same as the chord line on a symmetrical aerofoil but
will be curved on an asymmetric aerofoil.

Mean Chord. Average chord length found by dividing the gross wing area (wing tip to
wing tip) in plan view, by the span (wing tip to wing tip).

Stagnation Point. A minute area in front of the leading edge of an aerofoil where the
airflow is brought to rest and has zero velocity in relation to the aerofoil. It is said
that a particle of air stays at this point for the duration of the flight. As the aerofoil
changes angle of attack it does not, so if the angle of attack increases the stagnation
point moves down relative to the aerofoil leading edge and vice versa.

Upwash. An area in front of the leading edge of an aerofoil where the airflow tends to
move upwards.

CENTRE OF UFT

Fig. 8 CENTRE OF PRESSURE

- 11 -
 10

Alterations of Lift and Drag with Angle of Attack

The lift and drag of an aerofoil depends on three factors: (a) The lift and drag
equations. (b) The angle of attack, and (c) The wing configuration - for fixed wing
aircraft the use of slats and flaps affect lift and drag considerably.

Increase in angle of attack will result in an increase in the amount of lift produced
but with an attendant increase in drag but this is only true up to a point. The
angle at which lift reaches its maximum is just before the stalling angle - after this
lift will decrease rapidly and drag will rise sharply.

Stalling Angle

As the angle of attack increases so the airflow has more difficulty in remaining
laminar on the top surface. There is often a Transition Point on the top of the
aerofoil where the airflow changes from laminar to turbulent, and this may be the
case for the whole speed range of the flight. But as the angle of attack increases so
this point will move forward.

Fig. 9 AEROFOIL STALLING

At approximately 15° angle of attack, the airflow can no longer remain laminar on
the top surface of the aerofoil and it will break away and become turbulent. This
will destroy the lift in this area and the drag will increase sharply. At this point the
aerofoil is said to stall. The aerofoil is no longer able to support the aircraft weight
and it will loose height rapidly.

Lift Curve

If we plot the lift produced against the angle of attack then the following graph will
result. Notice how the lift increases steadily as the angle of attack increases up to
15° when the wing stalls.

- 12-
 1 .2

LIFT COEFFICIENT

0
0 15
ANGLE OF ATTACK 0

GRAPH OF ANGLE OF ATTACK (0)

AGAINST LIFT COEFFICIENT (CL)

At the point where the wing stalls the aircraft will lose height rapidly. Buffeting
might occur due to turbulent air from the wings hitting other parts of the aircraft
such as the tailplane. One wing might stall before the other making the aircraft roll
whilst losing height. If the outer part of the wing stalls before the inner part then the
turbulent air from the stalled area of the wing would affect the ailerons. The pilot
would lose roll control during the stall and this could lead to the aircraft
approaching a spin condition not a pleasant state of affairs.

To help to prevent this a fixed "stall bar" or "stall spoiler" is fitted to the leading
edge of the inboard part of the wing (on some aircraft). This causes the inboard part
of the wing to stall before the outer part, during the stall process, so helping the
pilot to maintain roll control during the stall.

To recover from a stall the pilot must regain airspeed and control of the aircraft. To
do this he/she pushes the control column forward and opens up the throttles.

The aircraft will lose height, with the altimeter "winding off" quickly and the
airspeed will start to increase, with the airspeed indicator (ASI) increasing slowly.

It is to be hoped that there is enough altitude to allow sufficient airspeed increase

before the altimeter indicates too low an altitude and the GPWS (Ground
Proximity Warning System) alarm sounds.

When the airspeed has increased sufficiently the pilot can regain control of the
aircraft; pull the control column back, noting the slowing-up of the rate of
descent; and adjusting the throttles.
r^

- 13-
Prior to the stall, the stall warning system should have provided a visual and
aural warning and the "stick shaker" and/or "stick nudger" to operate - so the
pilot should have time to prevent the stall before it started. (For further
information on these systems see modules 11 and 13 as appropriate).

On swept wing aircraft, if the outer wing (towards the wing tip) stalls before the
inner wing then this lose of lift may cause a nose up pitching moment. This is
because this part of the wing may be behind the centre of gravity on the
longitudinal axis and this lift element would be causing a nose down couple. With it
removed (as in an outer wing stall) the nose may pitch up momentarily.

LIFT AUGMENTATION

Lift is increased for landing and take-off by the use of leading edge slats and
trailing edge flaps. Lift can be increased in flight by:

* Increasing the airspeed - throttles/ thrust levers.

* Increasing the angle of attack elevators.
* Increasing the effective camber of the mean camber line flaps -
leading edge devices.
* Increasing the stalling angle - some flaps and leading edge devices.
* Increasing the wing area Fowler type flaps.
* Using the ailerons as flaps. Using the ailerons in a combined roll
setting them both partly down for take-off and landing, whilst the
pilot still has differential movement for roll control.

Lift augmentation generally refers to leading and trailing edge devices, which
means flaps, slats etc.

A Clean Wing

Figure 10 shows an aerofoil section of a clean wing every thing either in or up

landing gear, flaps, slats, spoilers etc. Notice the Mean Camber Line (MCL). If we can
make this more cambered or make it longer (bigger wing area) then lift will.be
increased.

MEAN CAMBER LINE (MCL)

Fig. 10 A CLEAN WING

- 14-
 MCL (EMCL) becomes more cambered when flaps are
Figure 11 shows that the effective
lowered, which means lift is increased by about 60% in fact. The
stalling angle is not affected significantly. The drawing shows a split flap, but the
same is true
for all types of flap with the Fowler type producing the best EMCL.

Fig. 11 SPLIT FLAP

Figure 12 shows a Fowler type flap which not only goes down when selected but
also travels rearward (on tracks). This means that the wing area is increased as
e well as the camber of the MCL. The increase in lift for this type of flap is up to
90% - that means, nearly double the lift for that section of the wing.

The double slotted Fowler uses an additional small slat type aerofoil in front of the
main flap to direct air over the top of the main flap to help to prevent it from
stalling similar to a slat. This means that this type of flap produces up to 100%
more lift with an increase in the stalling angle to 20°.

Fig. 12 FOWLER TYPE FLAP

AIRFLOW SWEEPS TOP OF

FLAP CLEAR OF TURBULENCE

Fig. 13 DOUBLE SLOTTED FOWLER FLAP

Some Fowler flaps have an additional hinged surface on the trailing edge that
moves down when the flaps are lowered thus increasing the lift still further.

- 15-
Figure 14 shows a Krueger flap. It is hinged forward to increase the camber of the •..►
EMCL, and it also increases the wing area. Popular on the inboard sections of
mainplanes of many large airliners, it increases the lift by about 50% with an
increase in the stalling angle to 25°.

Fig. 14 KRUEGER FLAP

R
The slat increases the EMCL as well as the wing area but its main advantage is
that it controls the boundary layer on top of the wing. At high angles of attack the
air flows through the gap to be directed along the top of the wing. This airflow
"sweeps" any turbulent air away and holds the stall off until about 22°. The lift
increase is about 60%.

AIRFLOW SWEEPS TOP OF

AEROFOIL CLEAR OF TURBULENCE

Fig. 15 THE SLAT

On some small aircraft the slats may be fixed; on others they may be automatic
sucked out at high angles of attack against a spring. On large aircraft they are
powered and selected by the pilot, often when the flaps are selected.

Combination of Slat/Flap

If slats and flaps are deployed together which they usually are the increase in
performance is up to:

* Lift - 120%.
* Stalling angle nearly 30° (double the normal stalling angle).

- 16-
/-1
Symmetry

All trailing edge and leading edge lift devices must operate symmetrically (ie the f l
aps/ slats on the right wing move at the same speed and to the same distance as the
flaps/ slats on the left wing). If asymmetric operation was to occur then a
violent roll would ensue which would be uncontrollable (it has happened, and it
has killed people). The aircraft is fitted with systems to prevent asymmetric
operation such as a common drive system for port and starboard flaps/slats and an
asymmetric detection system that will stop the systems immediately any
asymmetry is detected (and warn the pilot).

Drag

Any device placed into the airflow will cause drag and this applies to flaps and
slats, so they are designed to produce as little drag as possible. But if flaps are
lowered to a large angle then they can be used to reduce the speed of the aircraft.

If flaps/ slats are lowered at excessive airspeed then they would be damaged by
the airflow so devices are fitted to the aircraft to prevent them being lowered if the
aircraft is travelling too fast.

AIR RESISTANCE (DRAG)

We do not need any scientific evidence that moving air produces a pressure on an
object. This pressure is called Dynamic Pressure and can be produced equally by:

* Air moving against a stationary object - wind blowing against a tree

for example.
* An object moving through the air a moving car (or aircraft) for
example.

MOVING OBJECT

Fig. 16 AIR RESISTANCE

`-' - 17-
Calculation of Dynamic Pressure

Part of the drag equation is made up from the formula for Dynamic Pressure.
Dynamic Pressure varies with:

* Density. (p) The greater the density of a moving fluid the greater the
pressure it will cause when it comes to rest.

* Velocity. (V) Dynamic pressure is found to be related to the square of

the velocity ie, double the velocity and the dynamic pressure will
increase by four times.

Mathematically written as:

q = 1/2pV2

where q = dynamic pressure

Drag can be divided into Profile Drag and Induced Drag.

Profile Drag

The drag that an object experiences. in moving air depends on:

* The density (p)

* The velocity (V2)
* It's frontal area (A)
* It's shape, surface finish and external surface area (CD)

The first three parameters (p, V2 & A) can be obtained by measurement, the last
one is obtained by experiment, and is called the Drag Coefficient. Drag
coefficients start at 1 for a flat plate at 90° to the airflow, and get as low as 0.01
for a streamlined shape.

Mathematically written as:

Drag = CD/2 pV2A

Note that the equation includes the dynamic equation (q).

QUESTION: Thinking of density only, how much drag would be produced if an

object was moved through water as opposed to air? (in qualitative
terms) (5 mins)

- 18-
ANSWER: Water has a density (p) of 1000kg/m3 and air (at sea level)
is 1.2 kg/m3. So the drag would be approximately 1000
times greater. (Try walking through water in a swimming
pool and compare the effort to that required to walk through
air).

Profile drag can be divided into Form Drag, Skin Friction and Parasite drag.

DRAG

PROFILE INDUCED

PARASITE FORM SKIN FRICTION

Profile drag is associated with the whole aircraft moving through the air and
increases as the square of speed.

Induced drag is associated with the production of lift and is opposite to profile
drag in that it decreases with the square of speed more of this later.

Parasite Drag

Part of profile drag. An older term associated with all the non lifting parts of the
aircraft (fuselage, fin etc).

Form Drag

Also part of profile drag and is related to the shape of the body. A flat plate
produces a lot more form drag (CD = 1) than a streamline shape with the same
frontal area (CD = 0-01)-

AIRFLOW

Fig. 17 FLAT PLATE

- 19-
 0

The flat plate and the streamline shape shown below have the same frontal area.
The flat plate produces more disturbance to the airflow (the greatest change in
velocity), while the streamline shape tends to keep the airflow around it in a
laminar condition.

AIRFLOW SLIGHTLY LESS TURBULENCE

-1110.' � \ AND SMALLER WAKE

Fig. 18 FLAT PLATE WITH `NOSE' ADDED

LITTLE OR NO TURBULENCE
AND A VERY SMALL WAKE
AIRFLOW

DRAG COEFFICIENT
APPROXIMATELY 0.02 NOTICE HOW IMPORTANT THE
TAIL SECTION IS WHEN REDUCING
DRAG COMPARED TO THE NOSE
SECTION

Fig. 19 FLAT PLATE WITH `NOSE' AND `TAIL' ADDED

Note. The shape of the "tail" is just as important as the "nose" of an object in
reducing turbulence.

Skin Friction

Also part of profile drag. This is associated with the Boundary Layer. When air passes
over a body the molecules closest to the surface stick to the surface. The next layer of
molecules pass over the first layer but slowly. The next layer
passes over the second layer a little faster and so it goes on, layer by layer, until we
reach the free-stream flow. This sluggish low energy layer of slow moving air is called
the Boundary Layer.

This boundary layer is viscous with low energy levels and will adversely affect
flying control surfaces, engine performance - if it gets into intakes, and the
performance of aerofoils. This layer of air is bled away from engine intakes, and on
some aerofoils Vortex Generators are fitted to move the free-stream flow down into
the boundary layer in an attempt to liven it up and give it more energy.

-20-
 Fig. 20 VORTEX GENERATORS - PLAN VIEW OF WING

Some Airbus A340s are fitted with a riblet film to aerofoils and fuselage, which are
microgrooves to help reduce skin friction caused by the boundary layer.

The boundary layer may be 1mm thick or several millimetres thick. The thicker it is
the worse it is. The thickness is affected by several parameters:

* The further the air has to pass down the surface of a body the
thicker the boundary layer becomes.
* The rougher the surface the thicker the boundary layer.
* If the boundary layer gets too thick then it can become turbulent
increasing it's depth still further.
* The slower the airflow the thicker the boundary layer in general.

Fig. 21 BOUNDARY LAYER

The boundary layer problems can be reduced by:

* Having smooth highly polished wings, fuselage, tail and flying control
/` surfaces - reducing boundary layer thickness.

-21-
 * Bleeding away the boundary layer through many small surface air
inlets on the wings using vacuum pressure - experimental aircraft
usually.

* Giving it more energy by mixing free-stream airflow into the boundary

layer air using vortex generators.

* Bleeding boundary layer air away from engine intakes that are close
to the fuselage, or designing the intake so that it is away from the
surface of the fuselage.

The ideal arrangement is to have no boundary layer at all, but this is not possible, so
the thinner, and more laminar it is, the better.

As the air passes over the wing so it starts to get turbulent at a point towards the
trailing edge. This Transition Point is usually close to the trailing edge but will
move forward as the angle of attack is increased and if the boundary layer gets too
thick.

During the stall it moves well forward to produce a very turbulent region of air on
the top of the wing.

Induced Drag

So far the drag that we have been dealing with increases with the square of speed.
The faster the aircraft flies the greater it becomes - significantly, ie double the
speed and the profile drag increases four fold. With Induced Drag it is the
opposite - the faster the aircraft flies the less it becomes. It is caused by the lift
generated by the wings.

NEGATIVE PRESSURE

C C
7
POSITIVE PRESSURE

Fig. 22 INDUCED DRAG - AIR MOVEMENT

OVER THE WINGTIPS

- 22-
As you know the pressure on top of the wing is negative whilst the pressure
underneath is positive. This is true of both a wing and a helicopter rotor blade.
As the wing separates the two areas of positive and negative pressure, they cannot
equalise - except at the wing tips. Here the air under the wing "spills over" the wing
tip to move into the area of low pressure on top of the wing.

This creates wing tip vortices which use energy which ultimately comes from the
aircraft engines - and costs fuel (like all drag). As these vortices spill over the wing tip
the air pressure drops and so does the temperature, and under some
atmospheric conditions this causes the moisture to condense and vapour trails are
produced.

Induced drag is a penalty we pay for the production of lift, but there are ways of
keeping it to a minimum.

QUESTION: Can you think of any? (15 mins)

ANSWER: Refer to the following paragraphs.

Speed. With an increase in speed induced drag is reduced but some aircraft
can't fly fast, such as gliders, so they are stuck with this one. The effect of speed
means that the air does not have time to move spanwise to spill over the wing tip
- it is "pushed" too quickly chordwise over the trailing edge.

I
ffi
AIRFLOW OVER THE WING AIRFLOW UNDER THE WING
INCLINATION ANGLE INCREASES TOWARDS THE TIP
ANGLES SHOWN EXAGGERATED

Fig. 23 AIRFLOW OVER/UNDER THE WING

Reducing Angle of Attack. Induced drag is at its greatest at high angles of attack.
Again we can't always change the angle of attack just to reduce the induced drag.
The effect of a large angle of attack is to increase the pressure difference between the
top and bottom of the wing and therefore increase the induced drag.

-23-
Wing l ets. A winglet helps prevent the air from spilling over the wing tip. Some
aircraft have a winglet fitted beneath the wing tip, others on top, and some top and
bottom. Some aircraft - the Boeing 777 for example - don't have them at all. So the
case for them is not as clear-cut as it appears.

Fig. 24 WINGLETS

It is interesting to note that even winglets will produce both profile and induced
drag.

Some aircraft use wing tip fuel tanks and other attachments at the tips to help
reduce induced drag.

Note. Figure 24 shows an aircraft with winglets and also leading edge Fixed
Spoilers or Stall Strips. With swept wing aircraft there is a tendency for the wing tips
to stall first which is not a good idea as this means loss of lateral control
(ailerons), so some aircraft are fitted with inboard leading edge spoilers. These are
triangular shaped devices fitted to the leading edge so as stall is approached they
cause that section of the wing to stall first. During the stall the pilot will still have
lateral control as the outer part of the wing where the ailerons are are un-stalled
and the air is still laminar.

Increasing Aspect Ratio. Aspect ratio is defined as the number of times the
average chord length divides into the wing span. When a wing is designed it is
made to withstand a certain "load per unit area" (total mass of the aircraft divided by
the gross wing area in plan view). This is called Wing Loading.
 HIGH ASPECT RATIO WING AIRCRAFT I
TOTAL WING SPAN = 170 ft
WING CHORD = 10 ft
FUSELAGE WING AREA = 170 x 10 = 1700 sq ft
ASPECT RATIO = 170=10 = 17

AIRCRAFT 2
LOW ASPECT
TOTAL WING SPAN = 86 ft
RATIO WING WING CHORD = 19.8 ft
WING AREA = 19.7 x 86 = 1700 sq ft
ASPECT RATIO = 86=19.8 = 4.3

WING PLAN FORM OF TWO AIRCRAFT WITH THE SAME WING AREA
Fig. 25 ASPECT RATIO

Wing loading will effect stalling speed, maximum aircraft speed, gliding distance,
aircraft performance etc, so other parameters are also used when calculating the
wing loading of an aircraft and hence wing area.

We are only concerned with induced drag here, and for a given wing area the
aspect ratio can be changed by changing the wing span.

Figure 25 shows two aircraft with the same wing area and hence wing loading (if
we assume both aircraft are the same basic weight), but the aircraft with the
higher aspect ratio wing has smaller wing tips and hence will have less induced
drag because there is less wing tip for the air to flow over.

In general, aircraft that fly slowly, such as gliders, will have high induced drag
and there-fore will have high aspect ratio wings to help keep this drag as low as
possible. High speed aircraft will have low aspect ratio wings because their
induced drag is not high (at high speed).

Wing Fences

As the air under the wing tends to spill out over the tip it produces a span-wise
movement from root to tip. Similarly as the air comes over the top of the wing tip a
span-wise component is produced on the top from tip to root.

-25-
On swept wings there is a tendency for the air to move spanwise towards the tips.

To try to counter these problems some aircraft have wing fences fitted. These are
strips of metal up to a foot high (30cm) running parallel to the airflow usually
rds chord
fitted on the top of the wing running from the leading edge to about 2/3
length.

Fitted to the top surface of some swept winged aircraft, to promote correct airflow
direction in
front of ailerons to ensure correct airflow direction over the control surface.

Drag Curve

If a graph is plotted of profile drag against angle of attack then the following graph
results.

As you can see, as the angle of attack increases so the drag increases.

0
ANGLE OF ATTACK

GRAPH OF ANGLE OF ATTACK AGAINST DRAG COEFFICIENT

Lift/Drag Ratio Graph

With any aerofoil we want as much lift as possible with as little drag as possible in
other words we want a good Lift/Drag (L/D) ratio. This is obtained by dividing the
lift obtained at a particular angle of attack by the drag produced (dividing the lift
that
vector by the drag vector) - thus giving the L/D ratio for angle of attack.

If we did this for each angle of attack we could then plot each ratio with its
corresponding angle of attack on a graph.

-26-
 The graph below shows the curve produced, and indicates a point of interesting at
about 4° angle of attack. This is known as the Optimum Angle of Attack.

This is the angle that produces the best L/D ratio and so the optimum cruise
angle. It is the angle the wing is fixed to the fuselage, or there-abouts the Angle of
Incidence.

24

LIFT/DRAG RATIO

0
0 4 15 20

ANGLE OF ATTACK °

GRAPH OF L/D RATIO AGAINST ANGLE OF ATTACK

Although many large aircraft fly with the fuselage at a slight angle of attack when in
straight and level flight as this will also produce some lift.

If induced drag and profile drag are plotted against speed on the one graph then the
total drag is found. Where the total is at a minimum this is the speed where the
total drag is least and the speed that will give the aircraft it's greatest range for a
specific volume of fuel used.

TOTAL MINIMUM DRAG

DRAG MAXIMUM RANGE SPEED

PROFI

50 100 150 200 250 300

AIRSPEED kts

GRAPH OF INDUCED & PROFILE DRAG AGAINST AIRSPEED

/`

-27-
Induced Drag - Conclusion

Is inversely proportional to the square of speed and is caused by the production of

lift.

It can be reduced by:

* Increasing the airspeed.

* Reducing the angle of attack.
* Increasing the aspect ratio.
* Preventing spanwise motion of the airflow - wing fences.
* Reducing tip spillage - tip tanks - winglets - wash-out.
* Reducing wing tip size by the use of well rounded wing tips.

Profile Drag - Conclusion

Caused by the relative movement between air (or any fluid for that matter) and a
body. Is proportional to the square of speed (unlike induced drag), and is
calculated from the equation:

Profile Drag = Col/2pV2S

Lift - Conclusion

Is created by the relative movement of air and an aerofoil, with about 2 / 3rds being
obtained from the top surface and 1/3rd from the bottom surface.

The equation for lift is similar to the drag equation, being made up from the
dynamic equation with some extra parameters included, eg: -16
Lift = CL1/2pV2S

Where

C, = Coefficient of lift - obtained by experiment.

CD = Coefficient of drag - also obtained by experiment.
p = Density - 1.2kg/ m3 at. sea level.
V = Velocity - in m/ s.
S = Gross wing area this is the whole of the wing, including
that part that might be considered to be the fuselage.

-28-
 THE FOUR FORCES
/1
The important forces acting on an aerofoil in flight are lift and drag. However,
when considering the aircraft as a whole there are other forces to be taken into
consideration. The other two important forces are:

* Weight
* Thrust

Lift

This force is provided mainly by the wing of a fixed wing aircraft and some lift by the
fuselage, and on some aircraft a small amount is provided by the tailplane. It acts
at right angles to the free-stream flow through the centre of pressure.

Drag

This acts backwards at right angles to the lift and resists the forward motion of
the aircraft. It opposes thrust and acts through the aircraft's centre of drag.

Thrust

For most aircraft this is provided by accelerating a mass of air backwards either by
a propeller or a jet engine. And according to Newton's 2nd and 3rd laws of motion
this produces thrust to propel the aircraft forward. It acts through the centre line
of the jet engine or the propeller spinner.

When more than one engine is fitted to an aircraft the sum of all the engine
thrusts can be calculated to produce one thrust line to act through the centre of
thrust.

Weight (Mass)

This always acts downwards, unlike the other forces that act relative to the
aircraft. All the mass of the aircraft is said to act through the Centre of Gravity (C of
G) of the aircraft.
Arrangement of the Four Forces

These are so arranged on the aircraft as to make it reasonably stable. In straight

and level flight at constant speed with no turning moments (an equilibrium
condition) :

THRUST = DRAG and

WEIGHT = LIFT

They are equal and opposite. Although they are opposite in direction they may
not be exactly opposite in position.

The is adjusted to make the lift equal to the weight, if it is greater the aircraft will
climb. If it is less the aircraft will descend. The engine thrust is adjusted to make it
equal to the drag, if it is greater then the aircraft will increase speed - if it is less the
aircraft's speed will decrease.

"Ideal" Arrangement

The drawing below shows the "ideal" arrangement of the forces. Not all aircraft
are like this. For various reasons some aircraft have to have their forces in a less
than an ideal arrangement seaplanes for example have a.high thrust line to
keep the engines out of the water.

NOSE DOWN COUPLE

Fig. 26 THE "IDEAL" ARRANGEMENT OF THE FOUR FORCES

 The "ideal" arrangement is where the Centre of Gravity is forward of the Centre of
Pressure (Centre of Lift), which produces a nose down couple and the thrust line is
lower than the Centre of Drag, which produces a nose up couple. Each couple
opposing the other and cancelling each other out.

The arrangement is "ideal" for the following reasons:

* The lift-weight nose down couple opposes the thrust-drag nose up

couple.

* Should engine power be reduced or engine failure occur then the

aircraft will automatically take up a natural nose down gliding position
(there being no opposing nose up couple).

* The forward C of G makes the aircraft more stable longitudinally.

NOTES

1. The function of the tailplane is two fold: It is to counteract any

tendency for the aircraft to pitch in flight (longitudinal stability); and it
may be fixed at an angle to produce an additional downward (nose-
up) correcting couple in flight. Many aircraft have tail planes with
asymmetric aerofoils producing a down-lift and a tail down moment.

2. A couple is defined as two opposing forces not on the same centre

line. The turning effect of a couple is called a moment.
(Every couple has it's moment!!)

3. With highly swept wings, if the outer section of the wing was to stall
before the rest of the wing then the centre of lift for the whole aircraft
would move forward.
r

blank
 MANOEUVRES

An aircraft can take up any position in the air and the four forces will all act in
relationship to each other, but remember.

WEIGHT always acts vertically downwards through the Centre of

Gravity.
LIFT always acts at right angles to the relative airflow (free-stream
lfow) through the Centre of Lift (or Centre of Pressure).
THRUST always acts in line with the aircraft engine.
DRAG always acts in line with the airflow, at right angles to lift and
opposes thrust.

All the above is correct irrespective of the position of the aircraft relative to the
ground.

The Banked Turn

For the aircraft to carry out a turn it must produce a force towards the centre of
the turn (centripetal force). This is true for any object to go round a corner.

In a car, if the driver wishes to go round a bend in the road then a centripetal
force must be produced to create an acceleration towards the centre of the turn.
("Acceleration" is the correct word here).

With a car this happens by the front steering wheels being placed at an angle and
creating a frictional force towards the centre of the turn the car will go round the
bend in the road. (Just imagine the effect of turning the wheels when the car is
on ice and the frictional force is low).

The principle of the turn is true irrespective of what is being turned there must
be a force (centripetal force) created to "push" the object towards the centre of the
turn.

How does an aircraft get it's centripetal force?

The only thing a pilot can do is to use the most powerful force he/she has at
his/her disposal - the lift force.
 CENTRIPETAL FORCE = W TAN B
(ie dependant on weight & angle of bank)

WEIGHT = W

Fig. 27 A BANKED TURN

When the aircraft banks the lift force is placed at an angle (when viewed from the
front). The force can then be divided into its component parts as follows:

Lift Component: To be equal and opposite to weight.

Centripetal To be equal and opposite to the centrifugal force

Component: created by the aircraft, and to provide the force
required to "pull" the aircraft around the corner.

Can you see from what we have discussed so far, that when the aircraft goes into a
banked turn the pilot must increase the angle of attack to increase the lift so as

r to give a longer lift vector?

/` For a correct turn therefore, the pilot must apply rudder (to help the aircraft
turn), aileron (to move the lift vector to produce a centripetal component), and
elevator (to increase the lift vector), and apply more throttle.

QUESTION: Why should he/she apply more throttle? (5 mins)

ANSWER: The pilot must increase the angle of attack to increase the amount of
lift so that the lift vector opposite the weight vector is still equal to the
length of the weight vector. This means an increase in drag, so to
keep the aircraft at a constant speed the throttle must be pushed
forward - a little.

/'- - 33-
The Climb

When the aircraft climbs all the force vectors move with the aircraft - except the
weight vector.

With reference to figure 28 it can be seen that the weight vector W can be split
into its component parts W 1 equal and opposite to L and W2 - a force to be added to
the effect of drag D. This means that the engine thrust must be increased (as
you would expect) from To to Tn to give a total thrust vector equal to D + W2. This
will keep the aircraft speed constant whilst in the climb.

It is interesting to note that the new thrust force Tn can be split into its
component parts with T2 representing the element of engine power that is
assisting the lift so that L1 + T2 = W. This means that a component of the thrust
vector is helping the lift vector and the actual generated lift can be reduced.

A similar analysis can be used when the aircraft is in a dive.

Fig. 28 AIRCRAFT IN A CLIMB

A Glide

With the engines shut down (or failed) the aircraft will go into a glide and
generally the object of a glide is to get as much distance as possible. The gliding
distance can always be shortened by pushing the control column forward, but
increasing the gliding distance is another matter.

For the aircraft to glide it must move forward, so the nose is moved down to create a
component of the weight vector to produce a force in the required direction. This
component takes the place of the thrust vector.

-34-
 L D RESULTANT

Fig. 29 AIRCRAFT IN A GLIDE

The 3 forces now available weight drag lift, must all "balance" to give a glide in
an equilibrium condition. The resultant of the lift (L) and drag (D) vectors
(figure 29) must equal the weight (W) vector.

By a process of simple geometry it can be seen that the angle of glide (a) is the
same as the angle between the lift vector and the lift (L) and drag (D) resultant
vector. It is called the Glide Angle.

By inspection it can be seen that if the Lift/Drag (L/D) ratio is higher (lower drag or
higher lift) then a is smaller, the glide slope is shallower and the gliding
distance longer. So, the maximum gliding distance is governed by the L/D ratio.
The higher the ratio the longer the gliding distance.
fo�l
/`l To some extent the L/D ratio can be considered as a measure of the aerodynamic
efficiency of the aerofoil. The higher the L/ D ratio the higher the efficiency.

As seen from the graph on L/D ratios earlier, the best L/D ratio is about 4° angle of
the L/D ratio gets worse. This means
attack. If this angle is varied either up or down
that there is only
one glide angle that gives the best range.

A higher angle of attack will reduce the L/D ratio and reduce the range, and a
lower angle of attack will, of course, steepen the descent.

r
-35-
 STARBOARD AILERON

FLIGHT SPOILER
GROUND SPOILER
PORT
AILERON

LEADING EDGE F
LAPS

Fig. 30 CONTROL SURFACES

So if the pilot is gliding for distance to get to an airfield to make a forced landing for
example, then only one angle will do. If he/she has an angle of attack indicator then
that is a distinct advantage. If one is not fitted to the aircraft then the pilot will have
to rely on instruments to check on rate of descent; airspeed; ground
speed etc.

Should the pilot wish to pull out of the glide (or pull out of a dive) then, provided
there is sufficient airspeed, all he/she need do is to pull back on the control
column to raise the elevators to cause the nose to come up. Provided airspeed is
maintained above the stalling speed then the pull-up is only limited to the
strength limits of the airframe.

If the pull-out is too severe then damage may be sustained with possible
structural failure.

Glide Ratio

This is the ratio of the horizontal distance travelled to the height lost. The higher
the ratio the better.

-36-
 Take-Off

The actual take-off (and landing) procedure will vary from aircraft to aircraft. The
pilot will consult the Pilots Notes for that particular aircraft, but in general the
following sequence will apply:

1. Permission obtained from Air Traffic Control (ATC).

2. The aircraft is configured for take-off flaps down leading edge devices
deployed - spoilers in doors closed - altimeter set etc.
3. Engine/s set to take-off power (with correct propeller setting if fitted with a
VP propeller) EPR, JPT, RPM etc checked.
4. Brakes off. Take-off into wind it helps to keep ground-speed down while
keeping air-speed as high as possible.
5. Aircraft accelerates, airspeed increases over the wing and lift is generated
(as the square of speed). Thrust vector greater than drag vector so aircraft
accelerates - but drag is increasing as the square of speed.
6. When speed is high enough the pilot pulls the control column back to raise
the elevators this rotates the aircraft about the main landing gear (rotation
speed - VR) and increases the angle of attack to say about 30° (with slats
and flaps out).
7. This creates enough lift to overcome the weight vector and the aircraft rises
into the air.
8. At the correct speed the flaps and slats are selected up and the landing gear
also - if retractable.
9. The aircraft will continue to accelerate until the pilot closes the throttles or
the speed builds to a value where the drag equals engine thrust. At this
point the aircraft will maintain a constant speed.

Landing

1. Permission obtained from ATC.

el-
2. Aircraft configured for landing landing gear down, flaps/ slats down,
altimeter set etc.
3. Engine/ propeller power setting reduced to allow approach.
4. Aircraft slowing (drag vector greater than thrust vector) and lift vector
slightly smaller than weight vector aircraft descending.
5. As aircraft slows, drag vector gets smaller, but still greater than thrust.
6. Aircraft lands into wind to reduce ground-speed as much as possible.
7. Just before touch-down the aircraft "flares-out" and lands at a landing
angle of about 3 to 5 degrees.
8. On some aircraft, spoilers, reverse thrust, and automatic brakes operate
automatically.
9. Engine power reduced to idle. Brakes applied if necessary. Aircraft slows to
taxi speed and pilot manoeuvres to park the aircraft as requested by ATC.

-37-
 THE AXES

To enable the various attitudes of the aircraft to be discussed in a technical

manner axes are defined - these are imaginary straight lines all perpendicular to
each other and all running through the Centre of Gravity.

Lateral Axis runs from wing tip to wing tip - or parallel to a line from wing
tip to wing tip. When the aircraft moves about this line it is said to be pitching
- climbing or diving using the elevators (control column back, elevators up, tail
down - nose up - aircraft climbs).

Longitudinal Axis runs from nose to tail. When the aircraft moves about
this axis it is said to be rolling left or right wing down. To roll the control
column/control wheel is moved from left to right to move the ailerons. One aileron
moves up the other moves down. To roll to the left the control column/control
wheel is moved to the left the left aileron moves up (pushing the left wing down)
and the right aileron moves down (pushing the right wing up).

Normal Axis is at right angles to the other two, and in straight and level flight is
vertical. Movement about this axis is called yawing nose moving to port (left) or
starboard (right). Pushing the left foot forward on the rudder bar causes the
rudder to move left pushing the tail to the right and the nose to the left.

NOTES

1. These axes are relative to the aircraft - when it moves they move.
2. For most manoeuvres that the aircraft carries out, all the axes will be
involved.

NORMAL OR "VERTICAL" AXIS

Fig. 31 THE THREE AXES

-38-
 STABILITY

Stability can be defined as the ability of an object to return to it's original position
after it has been disturbed. In general it is opposite to manoeuvrability. If an
aircraft is very stable then it is not very manoeuvrable and vice versa.

In general terms, an object may:

* Be stable - move back to it's original position after disturbance. The

upright pyramid in figure 32 for example.
* Be unstable - once moved from it's present position an object will
continue to move in the direction of the original disturbance. The
inverted pyramid for example.
* Have neutral stability - once disturbed an object will take up it's new
position but it will not move further or try to return to it's original
position. The ball for example.

e�l When in flight the aircraft will be subject to local air disturbances which will try to
deflect it from it's flight path. If the aircraft returns to it's original flight path
without the aid of the pilot - then it is said to be stable, if it does not then it is
said to be unstable. Stability can be achieved in 2 ways actively and passively.

STABLE UNSTABLE OBJECT WITH

OBJECT OBJECT NEUTRAL STABILITY
UPRIGHT INVERTED BALL
PYRAMID PYRAMID
/�l

Fig. 32 STABILITY

STABILITY

ACTIVE PASSIVE

TYPES OF STABILITY
Active Stability

The aircraft is flown back to its trimmed flight path automatically by the controls.
The flying controls are powered and controlled by computers that note the
aircraft's movement from gyros. The computers compare the aircraft movement with
the pilot's input from the flight deck, and intervene if an uncommanded
movement occurs. Used mostly on military aircraft, but also on some civil aircraft
- for example the gust alleviation spoilers of the A320.

When a gust disturbs the aircraft about the longitudinal axis causing a roll the
gyros pick the movement up and send the appropriate signal to the flying control
computers. These note that the pilot did not command the movement so send a
signal to operate the selector valve of the (gust alleviation) spoilers.

These are hydraulically powered and deploy asymmetrically on the up-going wing.
This action will dump lift on the high wing and cause it to drop putting the
aircraft back to it's trimmed position.

A fully actively stable aircraft allows the designer to build the airframe strictly in
accordance with engineering principles without any consideration for
aerodynamic parameters. (Note the shape of some modern actively stable -
military aircraft).

Passive Stability

The aircraft flies itself back to its original path after being disturbed because of
the aerodynamic design of the airframe. This is the stability that we shall
consider here. It is achieved by the design of the tailplane (stabilator), fin, and the
wings.

Almost all aircraft are designed to be passively stable so the pilot need take little
or no action to return the aircraft to it's original path after it has been disturbed
although he/she may assist it by using the controls if he/she wishes.

Although the stability of an aircraft involves all three axis as they all interact, it is
usual to consider stability in three separate forms:

* Lateral Stability - about the longitudinal axis.

* Directional Stability - about the normal axis.
* Longitudinal stability - about the lateral axis. P rcn
 Lateral Stability ROLL_

For a high winged aircraft lateral stability is helped by the Pendulum Effect. This is
caused by the high position of the Centre of Lift and the low position of the
Centre of Gravity. If the aircraft is disturbed about the longitudinal axis the
movement of the Centre of Lift to one side of the Centre of Gravity will cause a
correcting movement to help put the aircraft laterally level.

WEIGHT

T Fig. 33 PENDULUM EFFECT

Also, the down-going wing will experience an increase in Angle of Attack as the
relative airflow is moving upwards from a position forward of, and below the wing.
This will produce an increase in lift.

The up-going wing experiences a decrease in Angle of Attack (as the relative
airflow is moving down from a position forward of, and above the wing), so
experiences a decrease in lift. All this helps to correct the uncommanded role.

This differential lift effect applies to all conventional fixed wing aircraft.

For low winged aircraft lateral stability is assisted by the Dihedral Angle of the
T mainplanes - the upward and outward inclination of the mainplanes away from
the fuselage.

If a gust of wind raises one wing the down-going wing effectively has an increase in
angle of attack thereby increasing the lift of that wing, and the up-going wing will
have a reduced angle of attack and a reduced lift force, the total effect being to help
to restore the aircraft to its original flight path. Similar to the case
discussed before. The dihedral angle enhances this effect.

If the differential lift forces do not correct the aircraft (which sometimes happens)
the aircraft will stay in the banked attitude and a side-slip will occur.
(Unless the pilot intervenes by applying opposite aileron or automatic roll
control spoilers are deployed on the up-going wing.)

-41-
 INCREASED LIFT
REDUCED LIFT
I
DIHEDRAL ANGLE

Fig. 34 DIHEDRAL ANGLE

If the wings are swept then the low wing (in the side-slip) will meet the airflow at a
more effective angle (in plan view) than the high wing thus creating even more lift
on the low wing and less lift on the high wing helping to correct the aircraft still
further.

Also in a side-slip, whether the wings are swept or not the high wing (on a low
winged aircraft) will be in the Aerodynamic Shadow of the fuselage and experience a
reduction of lift because of the turbulent flow over that part of the wing.

SIDE-SLIP

DECREASED
EFFECTIVE
WING PLAN

INCREASED
EFFECTIVE
WING PLAN

Fig. 35 SWEPT WING

-42-
r^ SIDE-SLIP

Fig. 36 AERODYNAMIC SHADOW

(LOW WINGED AIRCRAFT)

Directional Stability H A "'

This is assisted by the fin and rudder and the side area of the fuselage aft of the
Centre of Gravity - taken together called the Effective Keel Surface. If the aircraft is
caused to yaw then, like a weather cock or weather vane on a church spire, the
airflow will "blow" it back to it's original position.

Remember that when it yaws the aircraft will tend to fly in it's original direction for
a short time due to it's momentum (Newton's first law) - thus for a short time the
airflow will be acting on the side of the fuselage. This correcting moment is also
assisted by the small sideways lift produced by the fin.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

EFFECTIVE KEEL SURFACE

Fig. 37 EFFECTIVE KEEL SURFACE

-43-
Note. For most aircraft the fin is vertical and its chord line is parallel to the
aircraft's longitudinal datum line. For some single engined propeller driven
aircraft the chord line may be set at a small angle to the longitudinal datum line to
try to counter the effect of the swirling propeller slipstream.

Longitudinal Stability V `-TCH

This is associated with the tailplane. The tailplane chordline is usually set at a
small negative angle to the longitudinal datum line. The angle between the two
chordlines of the mainplane and the tail-plane is called the Longitudinal Dihedral
Angle.

The negative tailplane angle of incidence may help the stability of the aircraft and
also create a downwards lift on the tailplane to help balance the four forces.

If a gust of wind causes the nose of the aircraft to be deflected up or down then
the tailplane will experience a change in angle of attack (the aircraft's momentum
will keep the aircraft going in the original direction for a short time). This change in
angle of attack will create a force on the tailplane to correct the nose up or
down condition eg:

1. Aircraft nose deflected down.

2. Tailplane experiences a negative angle of attack.
3. Negative angle of attack produces a downward lift force.
4. Downward force on the tail creates correcting turning
moment about the C of G to restore aircraft to it's original attitude.

NOTE: The mainplane will also experience a negative angle of attack at

the same time, but the tailplane creates a turning moment which is
strong enough to correct the aircraft.

C of G

Fig. 38 LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

-44-
 NOTE

We have considered stability of an aircraft as three separate items. In reality they

are connected, and one will have an effect on the other. For example:

Consider an aircraft that is directionally very stable, but not very stable laterally
the following could happen.

* The aircraft is caused to move right wing low (uncommanded role).

* Not being very stable laterally the. wing stays down.
* The aircraft starts to side-slip to the right.
* Still the wing stays down and the airflow is now being felt on the side
of the fuselage and fin.
* The Effective Keel Surface comes into play and starts to turn the
aircraft towards the direction of the low wing (to the right).
* This causes the high (left) wing to go faster - creating more lift.
* The high wing becomes even higher; the side-slip gets worse and the
P` process repeats itself.
* We now have a very unstable aircraft which is starting to go into a
spin.

DYNAMIC STABILITY

An aircraft may be statically stable in that it will return to its trimmed position
without any help from the pilot as discussed above. However, it may be
Dynamically unstable in that when returning to it's original position it overshoots. It
may oscillate about it's original flight path and these oscillations may get worse.

Dynamic Stability - Heavy Damping

An aircraft is said to be dynamically stable when it returns to it's original trimmed

position with no overshoot. It's movement is said to be heavily damped. There
are no oscillations and the aircraft returns steadily to it's original path.

Dynamic Stability - Some Damping

This is where the aircraft returns to it's original trimmed position but overshoots. It
is stable enough to correct this overshoot but moves back passed it's original
position.

These oscillations gradually decrease until the aircraft regains it's original flight
attitude.

-45-
 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT PATH

HEAVY DAMPING DYNAMICALLY STABLE

ORIGINAL FLIGHT PATH

SOME DAMPING DYNAMICALLY STABLE OSCILLATIONS REDUCE

NEGATIVELY DAMPED - DYNAMICALLY UNSTABLE OSCILLATIONS GROW

Fig. 39 DYNAMIC STABILITY

Neutral Dynamic Stability - Undamped

In this case the aircraft returns to it's original flight path and overshoots. It
corrects this overshoot to return back to the overshoot position the other side.
These overshoots either side of the original.flight path do not decrease or increase in
amplitude but remain the same.

Dynamically Unstable - Negatively Damped

This is similar to the case above but the amplitude of the oscillations get worse.

Static Stability/ Dynamic Stability

statically stable
All the above "dynamic stability's" are related to an aircraft that is
because in each case the aircraft is trying to return to its original trimmed
attitude. Dynamic stability comes in to play when the aircraft is moving back to it's trimmed
position. So in general terms static stability comes first and dynamic stability
comes
second.

-46-
 The figure above shows the aircraft longitudinal stability, but the same can
happen for directional and lateral stability. Although with lateral stability
some of the corrective forces are non-oscillatory.

As we have already seen that the tailplane or stabilator provides the main input
for longitudinal stability and the fin and effective keel surface for directional
stability.

For lateral stability it is the effect of increasing lift on the down-going wing and
reducing lift on the up-going wing that provides the initial correcting forces. This
effect can be helped by having a high wing (pendulum effect) or, on a low wing, by
using dihedral. These forces tend to be corrective and not oscillatory.

When a side-slip occurs, of course, sweep back will increase the efficiency of
the low wing and aerodynamic shadow will also affect the high wing. Again
this is primarily `damping' but may set up an oscillating motion in some
circumstances.

r^ Dutch Roll

This involves movement about the longitudinal axis (roll) and movement about
the normal axis (yaw) .

If the aircraft is disturbed about the normal axis (yaw) and the fin is moving to
one side of it's normal position the wing on that side of the aircraft is going
faster than the wing on the other side. So the initial yaw to one side causes the
wing on that side to lift and cause a rolling moment. So as the fin moves to the
right the right wing goes faster, lifts and the aircraft rolls to the left.

During this time the airflow is acting on the fin and effective keel surface to
move the fin to the left, as it does so it moves the left wing faster so increasing
it's lift. This increase in lift of the left wing occurs at the same time as the
r`1 dihedral effect is trying to correct the low left wing. It, therefore lifts while the
fin is moving to the left and this combination sets up an oscillation motion, a
combination of roll and yaw, called Dutch Roll.

Dutch Roll usually has a low frequency (say 1/2 to 1 Hz). Dihedral and
sweepback tends to make Dutch Roll worse while anhedral (negative dihedral)
tends to improve the situation.

Because aircraft use dihedral and sweepback to help with static stability other
means, such as Yaw Dampers (powered units fitted to the rudder system), are
used to counteract Dutch Roll.

- 47-
Yaw Dampers

The pilot can control Dutch Roll by the use of the rudder but this would be
tiring and difficult if the frequency is high. Yaw dampers are fitted to most
large commercial aircraft.

The damper is fitted in series in the rudder flying control system. It is

automatic and controlled by computers with gyro inputs - one sensing degree of
yaw and one sensing rate of yaw.

The damper is usually hydraulically powered and it's piston is fed fluid
pressure at the correct times to input into the rudder control system to move
the rudder to correct the yawing movement so correcting Dutch Roll.

FLUTTER

Flutter is a vibration that is set up in the airframe. It is caused by aerodynamic

loads acting directly on the airframe, or on the flying control surfaces which
affect the airframe. The condition can also be caused by engine vibration (the
Lockheed Electra suffered seriously from this form of flutter).

It is a vibration or cyclic movement of the airframe, part of the airframe, or flying

control surfaces due to elasticity within the system/ structure which is started by
aerodynamic loadings. This cyclic movement of the structure is
called Aero Elasticity when induced by aerodynamic forces. The elastic
behaviour of the structure may be complicated with both flexing and torsional
movements involved.

The flutter may be slight with no obvious signs of deterioration to the airframe or
equipment, and may be present for many years. It may be sever enough to cause
major structural failure in flight (similar to an explosion John Derry in his DH
110 at Farnborough for example, which disintegrated in flight killing it's
occupants and many spectators on the ground).
1
There are several types of flutter and all must be kept to a minimum. In it's
mildest form it causes fatigue which will cause failure in the later life of the
airframe. In it's worst form it can cause immediate structural failure.

Better understanding of the problem, and better design of the airframe, flying
control surfaces and engines will all go towards reducing flutter to zero or
within limits which are acceptable. As far as the maintenance man/woman is
concerned, strict observance of the procedures laid down in the manuals is the
answer - particularly when dealing with flying controls, airframe structures, and
engine and propeller balancing.

Flutter is dealt with in more detail in module 11 Flying Control Systems.

-48-
 VARIATIONS IN AIRCRAFT DESIGN

Foreplanes

Some aircraft are fitted with a foreplane in place of a tailplane. It is fitted to the
fuselage forward of the mainplanes and generally provides less
longitudinalstability than a tailplane. In some cases it can actually make the
aircraft
unstable longitudinally (aircraft pitches up foreplane has an increased angle
of attack with increased lift which increases the pitching moment). An aircraft
with a foreplane is called a Canard aircraft.

One advantage of canard configured aircraft is that they can be made stall-
proof. If the foreplane is set at a positive angle on the fuselage slightly greater
than the angle the mainplane is set at (angle of incidence), then just before the
mainplane reaches the stalling angle the foreplane will stall and the nose of the
aircraft will not go any higher and the mainplanes will not stall.

Fig. 40 CANARD AIRCRAFT

The elevators on the foreplane are connected to the control column in the usual
way except that they move opposite to those fitted to the tailplane, eg for the pilot
to climb he/she pulls the control column back (as before) this lowers the
foreplane elevators causing an upward force on the foreplane, causing the nose
to rise.

On many high performance canard fighter aircraft the foreplane has no

elevators but moves as a complete surface (all flying foreplane) to change the
pitch of the aircraft.

(Some conventional tailplanes are all flying tailplanes with no elevators.)

Swept Back Wings

These have the following advantages:

* Helps lateral stability once a side slip has started (as already
discussed).
* Increases the critical Mach number (MCRIT) and allows higher
speeds to be obtained in the transonic speed range without the
onset of compressibility effects. Mach (Ernst Mach Austrian
physicist 1838 - 1916) is a measure of the aircraft's speed in
relation to the speed of sound and the higher the MCRIT the better.
Mach is not part of the module 8 syllabus.

Disadvantages include:

* Structurally more difficult to design than straight wings.

* Tend to suffer from tip stall if this happens the lose of lift at the
tip will normally cause a nose-up moment and possible loss of
lateral control. The tendency to tip stall may be reduced by wash-
out (reduction of the angle of incidence of the wing towards the
tip).
* Less efficient at creating lift than a straight wing.

Swept Forward Wings

Aerodynamically these behave in a similar way the swept back wings, but
structurally there is a problem. Any structure that is placed out in the airflow is
stable if it is allowed to trail in the airflow (swept back wings, control
surfaces etc). If the structure is fitted so that it lies forward of its mounting
then it is unstable. Example - a rudder could be designed to be fitted in front of
the fin with its hinges on the rear of the rudder so it is facing forward of the fin. It
would work the same as a conventional rudder but as soon as it is
displaced more than a degree or two out of alignment with the airflow the force of
the airflow would cause it to swing completely round tearing it off its hinges and
causing possible loss of control of the aircraft.

Forward swept wings have this problem, though less dramatic. Because of their
sweep any movement caused by aerodynamic loading will cause the wing to twist.
This twisting will cause the wing tip Angle of Incidence and hence Angle
of Attack to increase (wash-in). Increasing the tendency for wing-tip stall
which is always a bad thing.

With swept-back wings the opposite is true. Any movement caused by

aerodynamic loading is a stable condition and any bending normally causes
wash-out. Remember wash-out is better as it is preferred that the roots of the
wing stall first so lateral control is maintained during the stall.

- 50-
 Delta Wing

Has the same advantages as the swept wing but generally has a greater wing
t^ area so reducing the load factor (aircraft's mass per unit area).

Also has the same disadvantages, except for the structures problem. But as
most delta winged aircraft have a high degree of sweepback so it has further
disadvantages:

* Poor lift characteristics at low speed.

* High angles of attack required for take-off and landing. Note the
high nose landing gear on Concorde to allow for these high angles.

Fig. 41 TYPICAL TAILLESS DELTA WING AIRCRAFT CONCORDE

May be fitted with or without a tailplane. If there is a tailplane then the aircraft
will have the normal flying controls elevator, rudder and ailerons. If there.is
not a tailplane, Concorde for example, then the ailerons and elevators are
combined and called elevons.

Elevons are fitted to the trailing edge of the delta wing. For climb and descent
they both move up and down together. For roll control they operate as ailerons
- ie, in opposite directions. For a combination of roll and climb/descent the
inputs are mixed. For example, if the control column is pulled back and to the
left (climb and roll to the left) then both elevons move up but the left elevon
moves further up than the right elevon.

- 51-
APPENDIX
ICAO PRESSURE/ TEMPERATURE TABLES

1 2

Altitude Static pressures Altitude Static pressures

(geopotential) Temperature (geopotential) Temperature
H C H •C
ft nib iaH9 ft mb lnHg

-3000 1128-029 33-3107 +20-94 3600 888-191 26.2283 + 7.87

-2500 1108-201 32.7252 +19-95 3700 884-905 26-1313 + 7-67
-2000 1088-657 32-1481 +18.96 3800 881-629 26-0345 + 7-47
-1500 1069-393 31-5792 +17-97 3900 878.362 25.9381 + 7-27
-1000 1050-406 31-0185 +16-98 4000 875.105 25-8419 + 7-08

- 900 1046-641 30-9073 +16-78 4100 871-859 25-7460 + 6-88

- 800 1042-888 30.7965 +16-58 4200 868-621 25-6504 + 6-68
- 700 1039-145 30-6860 +16-39 • 4300 865-394 25-5551 + 6-48
- 600 1035.413 30.5758 +16-19 4400 862.176 25.4601 + 6.28
4500 858.968 25-3654 + 6-08
- 500 1031-692 30-4659 +15-99
- 400 1027-982 30-3563 +15-79 4600 855.770 25.2709 + 5-89
- 300 1024.283 30.2471 +15-59 4700 852.581 25.1767 + 5-69
- 200 1020-595 30.1382 +1540 4800 849-402 25-0829 + 5-49
- 100 1016-917 30-0296 +15-20 4900 846.233 24-9893 + 5.29
5000 843.073 24-8960 + 5-09
0 1013-250 29-9213 +15.00
5500 827.416 24.4336 + 4-10
100 1009-594 29.8133 +14-80 6000 811-996 23-9783 + 3-11
200 1005-948 29-7057 +14-60 6500 796-810 23-5298 + 2-12
300 1002-313 29-5983 +14-41 7000 781-854 23.0882 + 1.13
400 998.689 29-4913 +14.21 7500 767.126 22-6533 + 0-14
500 995-075 29-3846 +14-01
8000 752.624 22-2250 - 0.85
600 991-472 29-2782 +13-81 8500 738.344 21.8033 - 1.84
700 987880 29-1721 +13-61 9000 724-285 21.3882 - 2.83
800 984-298 29-0663 +13-42 9500 710-443 20.9794 - 3-82
900 980-727 28.9609 +13.22 10 000 696.817. 20-5770 - 4.81
1000 977-166 28-8557 +13.02
11000 670.198 19-7910 - 6-79
1100 973-615 28.7509 +12.82 12000 644.409 19-0294 - 8.77
1200 970-075 28-6464 +12-62 13 000 619-429 18-2917 -10-76
1300 966-546 28-5421 +12-42 14 000 595-239 17-5774 -12-74
1400 963-027 28-4382 +12-23 15 000 571-820 16-8858 -14.72
1500 959-518 28-3346 +12-03
16 000 549-152 16-2165 -16-70
1600 956-020 28-2313 +11.83 17 000 527-218 15-5688 -18-68
1700 952.531 28-1283 +11-63 18 000 505-998 14-9421 -20-66
1800 949-054 28.0256 +11.43 19 000 485.476 14.3361 -22-64
1900 945-586 27-9232 +U-24 20000 465-633 13.7501 -24-62
2000 942.129 27.8211 +11-04
21 000 446-451 13-1837 -26-61
2100 938-682 27-7193 +10-84 22000 427.915 12-6363 -28-59
2200 935-245 27-6178 +10-64 23 000 410-007 12.1075 -30-57
2300 931-819 27.5166 +10.44 24 000 392-710 11.5967 -32-55
2400 928.403 27-4158 +10-25 25000 376-009 11-1036 -34.53
2500 924-996 27-3152 +10-05
26000 359-888 10-6275 -36-51
2600 921-600 27-2149 + 9-85 27 000 344.331 10-1681 -3849
2700 918-214 27-1149 +.9.65 28000 329-324 9-7249 -40.47
2800 914-838 27-0152 + 9-45 29000 314-850 9-2975 -42-45
2900 911.473 26-9158 + 9-25 30000 300.896 8-8855 -44-44
3000 908-117 26.8167 + 9-06
31 000 287447 8.4883 -46-42
3100 404.771 26-7179 + 8.86 32 000 274.489 8-1057 -48-40
3200 901-435 26-6194 + 8.66 33000 262-008 7.7371 -50-38
3300 898-109 26.5212 + 8-46 34000 249-990 7.3822 -52-36
3400 894.793 26.4233 + 8.26 35 000 238.423 7-0406 -54-34
3500 891487 26.3256 + 8-07
36 000 227.293 6-7120 -56-32

- 52-
 J i

3
Altitude Static pressures
(sepc)t ) Temperature
H •C
r ft mb I inHg

36 089 226.323 6-6833 -56-50

37 000 216627 6-3970 -56-50

38000 206.462 6-0968 -56-50
39 000 196-773 5-8107 -56-50
40000 187.539 5.5380 -56-50

41 000 178-739 5.2782 -56-50

42 000 170-351 5-0305 -56-50
43000 162.357 4-7944 -56-50
44000 154.738 4-5694 -56-50
45 000 147-477 4-3550 -56-50

46000 140.556 4.1506 -56-50

47 000 133.960 3.9559 -56-50
48000 127.674 3-7702 -56-50
49 000 121.683 3.5933 -56-50
50000 115-973 3-4247 -56-50

51 000 110.530 3-2640 -56-50

52 000 105-344 3.1108 -56-50
53 000 100-400 2-9648 -56-50
54 000 95-689 2-8257 -56-50
55 000 91-198 2-6931 -56.50

56 000 86-919 2-5667 -56.50

57 000 82-840 2-4463 -56-50
58 000 78-953 2-3315 -56-50
59 000 75-248 2-2221 -56-50
60000 71-716 2.1178 -56-50

61 000 68351 2-0184 -56-50

62000 65.144 1.923? -56-50
63000 62-087 1.8334 -56-50
64000 59.173 1-7474 -56-50
65000 56-396 1.6654 -56-50

65 616 54-751 1-6168 -56-50

66000 53-750 1-5873 -56-38

6? 000 51-231 1-5129 -56-08
68000 48.833 1-4420 -55.77
69 000 46-551 1-3746 -55.47
70 000 44.378 1-3105 -55-16

71 000 42-309 1-2494 -54-86

72 000 40.340 1-1912 -54.55
73 000 38-464 1-1359 -54-25
74 000 36-679 1.0831 -53-94
75 000 34-978 1.0329 -53-64

80000 27-615 0.8155 -52-12

85 000 21.837 0.6449 -50-59
90000 17-296 0:5108 -49-07
95000 13-721 0-4052 -47-54
100 000 10-902 0-3219 -46-02

105 000 8-675 0-2562 -44-50

)fff77f)f77f

- 53-