AGRONOMY

Agronomy (from Ancient Greek ἀγρός agrós "field" and νόμος nómos "law") is the
science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land
reclamation. Agronomy has come to encompass work in the areas plant physiology
plant genetics, meteorology and soil science.

It is the application of a combination of sciences

like biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics.
Agronomists of today are involved with many issues, including producing food,
creating healthier food, managing the environmental impact of agriculture, and
extracting energy from plants.

The best definition for agronomy is that it is the branch of agriculture that deals with
the principles and practices of soil management and crop production.

SIGNIFICANCE

In agronomy, it's important to understand the properties of the soil and how the soil
interacts with the growing crop; what nutrients (fertilizers) the crop needs and when
and how to apply these nutrients; the ways that crops grow and develop; how climate
and other environmental factors affect the crop at all stages. As we know that cereal
crops are the consumed at the largest scale worldwide. Hence agronomy is the one
that deals with how the crop is grown what conditions are required for its cultivation
etc. For instance Wheat is the most consumed cereal crop in the world. Agronomy
provides the knowledge about the time of sowing, the seed rate, and the variety
suited for an area, fertiliser rate, pest disease management, etc.

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CEREALS CROP WISE AND STATE WISE
(2015-2016)

RICE:

STATE AREA(Million Production Average

hectare) (million tonnes) yield(kg/hectare)
Andhra Pradesh 2.39 7.23 3022
Assam 2.50 5.22 2093
Bihar 3.26 6.36 1948
Chhattisgarh 3.81 6.32 1660
Gujarat 1.50 1.83 1223
Himachal Pradesh 0.13 0.13 971
J&K 0.51 0.52 1019
Jharkhand 1.11 3.36 3028

WHEAT:
State Area (000ha) Productivity Yield (Kg/ha)
(000tonns)
Andhra Pradesh 10.0`` 1250

Assam 44.2 33.9 1304

Bihar 5357.2 2207.7 2427

Chhattisgarh 141.3 101.2 1396

Gujarat 2944.0 1024.0 2875

Haryana 11117.0 2497.0 4452

Himachal 608.6 364.2 1671

Pradesh

Jammu & 462.4 290.0 1595

Kashmir

Jharkhand 319.5 164.3 1944

Karnataka 179.0 225.0 796

Madhya Pradesh 13133.4 5300.0 2478

Maharashtra 1181.0 773.0 1528

Orissa 2.0 1.0 1894

Punjab 16591.0 3512.0 4724

Rajasthan 9275.5 3063.2 3028

Uttar Pradesh 30301.9 9734.0 3113

Uttarakhand 858.2 358.1 2396

State Area (000ha) Productivity Yield (Kg/ha)
(000tonns)
West Bengal 895.9 321.6 2786

Others 84.4 25.1 3361

All-India 93506.5 30003.3 3117

CASH CROPS

A cash crop or profit crop is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It
is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. The term is used to
differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the
producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family. In earlier times
cash crops were usually only a small (but vital) part of a farm's total yield, while
today, especially in developed countries, almost all crops are mainly grown for
revenue. In the least developed countries, cash crops are usually crops which attract
demand in more developed nations, and hence have some export value.
Prices for major cash crops are set in commodity markets with global scope, with
some local variation (termed as "basis") based on freight costs and local supply and
demand balance. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual
producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper
crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets. This system has been
criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been
susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations.

 Sugarcane: Sugarcane is an important cash crop of India. Molasses, sugar

and khandasari etc. are produced from the juice of sugarcane. Sugarcane
cultivation needs temperature of 15° to 40° and rainfall of 100 to 150
centimeters and fertile loamy soil or hard soil. Sugarcane is cultivated from
Kanyakumuri (southern part) to Punjab (north-west) but it is more cultivated in
Uttar Pradesh.
 Coffee: There is a great demand of coffee in the world market. For reason,
India exports coffee. Coffee cultivation needs hot and wet climate and fertile
sloppy land. It is mainly produced in south Indian states of Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. Coffee is produced on a large scale on the mountain ranges
of Nilgiri.
 Tea: India is first in the cultivation of tea in the world. Tea cultivation needs hot
climate, excess rainfall and sloppy soil. Tea is found more in Assam,
Karnataka, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh, Dehradun, Ranchi of Bihar and
Tripura.
 Rubber: Rubber is needed by different industries and transport industry in this
modern age. It is cultivated in hot and wet climate garden in natural way. It is
cultivated in the State of Kerala in India. Except Kerala, Andaman Nicobar
Islands, Kurgan of Karnataka State and Chicmagalur district etc.
 Oilseeds: Groundnut, mustard, rapeseed, linseed and caster help us to get our
edible oil. Oil is also extracted from coconut. India occupies the first position in
the world in the production of groundnut. Groundnut cultivation needs
temperature varying from 20° to 30° degree Celsius and needs 60 to 80
centimeters of rainfall. Groundnut cultivation needs sandy and light soil.
Groundnuts are produced more in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and Uttar

IMPORTANCE OF CASH CROPS IN AGRICULTURE:

Cash crops are an essential part of sustainable intensification as income generated

with cash crops provides farm households with means to save and invest in a more
productive farm, and cash crops may have a catalytic effect on agricultural
innovations as they add value and productivity in rural areas.
Cash crops are grown for direct sale in the market, rather than for family
consumption or to feed livestock. Coffee, cocoa, tea, sugarcane, cotton, and
spicesare some examples of cash crops. Food crops such as rice, wheat, and
corn are also grown as cash crops to meet the global food demand.

QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION

What is seed?
In broad sense, seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration
purpose. However scientifically, Seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered
with seed coat is called seed or it is a propagating material i.e., part of agriculture,
sericulture, silviculture and horticultural plants used for sowing or planting purpose.
Seed may be defined as Structurally a true seed is a fertilized matured ovule,
consisting of an embryonic plant, a store of food and a protective seed coat, a store
of food consists of cotyledons and endospermâ.

Definition of seed
However, from the seed technological point of view seed may be sexually produced
matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with
protective covering (seed coat). It also refers to propagating materials of healthy
seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, setts, slips, all types of grafts and
vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose.

Thus seed is the most vital and crucial input for crop production, one of the ways to
increase the productivity without adding appreciably to the extent of land now under
cultivation by planting quality seed.

Characteristics/Attributes of Quality Seed:

1. It must be genetically pure:

Breeder/nucleus: 100%

Foundation seed: 99.5%

Certified seed variety: 98%

Certified hybrid seeds: 95%

Certified hybrid cotton: 90%

Certified hybrid castor: 85%

2. It should have required level of physical purity:

All crops: 98%

Carrot: 95%

Ragi: 97%
 1. Free form other crop seeds (number/kg): designated inseparable crop
seeds are the plants seeds cultivated crops found in the seed fields and
whose seeds are so similar to crop seed that is difficult to separate them
economically by mechanical means, cause physical admixtures with the crop
seeds only when these crop mature approximately at the same time when
seed crop matures. Ex. In barley: oats and wheat seeds
2. Free from objectionable weed seeds: these are seeds of weed species
which are harmful in one or more of the following ways;
o The size and shape of weed seeds are similar to the crop seed and
difficult to separate them by mechanical means
o Weeds growth habit is determinate type and compete with the crop for
all resources
o Weed plant parts are poisonous or injurious to human and animals
o Weed plants also serves as alternative hosts for pests and diseases
3. Free from designated diseases: it refers to the diseases specified for the
seed certification which may cause contamination of seed lot

High germination and vigour

4. Optimum moisture content
Cereals: 10-12 %
Pulses: 7-9%
Oilseeds:6-7%
Vegetables: 5-6%
The importance of quality seeds has been recognized from the time immemorial. The
old scripture, Manu Smriti says Subeejam Sukshetre Jayate Sampadyathe• i.e.,
Good seed in good soil yields abundantly. Seed quality has been treated as sacred,
being an important factor in the improvement of agriculture and agrarian societies.
The Rigveda, 2000 BC indicate the importance accorded to seed and the mother
earth. 5th century Kautilya Artha Shasthra, surapalas vrikshayurveda mentioned
importance of seed and mentioned about seed treatments to ensure good
germination. Seed dressing with milk, vidanga, cowdung, honey to protect the seed
during germination.

Although the importance of seed was recognized in ancient agriculture, the need for
organized seed production was identified only at the beginning of 20th century when
Royal commission of Agriculture (1925) recommended spread of improved varieties
and seed distribution.
Importance of Quality Seed:
1. Seed is a vital input in crop production;
o It is the cheapest input in crop production and key to agriculture
progress.
o Crop status largely depends on the seed materials used for sowing
o Response of other inputs in crop production depends on seed material
used
2. The seed required for raising crop is quite small and its cost is so less
compared to other inputs
3. This emphasis the need for increasing the areas under quality seed
production
4. It is estimated that good quality seeds to improved varieties can
contribute about 20-25% increase in yield.
The advent of modern plant breeding methods and biotechnological advances in
seed industry plays a significant role in developing of high yielding varieties and
hybrids.

Role Of Improved Seeds:

1. Carrier of new technology
2. Basic tool for a secure food supply
3. The principle means to obtain crop yields in less favourable production area
4. Medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture after natural disasters.

BenBenefits of Using Quality Seeds

1. They are genetically pure (true to type).
2. The good quality seed has high return per unit area as the genetic potentiality of
the crop can be fully exploited.
3. Less infestation of land with weed seed/other crop seeds.
4. Less disease and insect problem.
5. Minimization of seed/seedling rate i.e., fast and uniform emergence of seedling.
6. They are vigorous, free from pests and disease.
7. They can be adopted themselves for extreme climatic condition and cropping
system of the location.
8. The quality seed respond well to the applied fertilizers and nutrients.
9. Uniform in plant population and maturity. Crop raised with quality seed are
aesthetically pleasing.
10. Good seed prolongs life of a variety.
 11. Yield prediction is very easy.
12. Handling in post-harvest operation will be easy.
13. Preparations of finished products are also better.
14. High produce value and their marketability.

QUALITY SEED PRODUCTION IN A FLOW CHART

PARAMETERS OF GOOD SEED:

 Higher genetically purity:

 Higher physical purity for certification.
 Possession of good shape, size, colour, etc., according to specifications of variety.
 Higher physical soundness and weight.
 Higher germination ( 90 to 35 % depending on the crop)
 Higher physiological vigour and stamina.

PLANT PROTECTION MEASURES

WHEAT
A. Cultural Practices:

 Deep summer ploughing followed by fallowing helps in exposing resting

stages of pests.
 Crop rotation with pulses groundnut, cotton be adopted.
 Use of resistance varieties viz, Ganga 11, DHM 103, DHM-105, Trishulata,
Pusa Makka-1,
 Gujarat Makka-1, HIM-129, Paras Navjot, Kargil 9001.
 Timely sowing help in minimizing the pest population.
 Regular and proper irrigation at flowering onwards reduces wilting situation in
case of stalk rots.
 Two manual weeding 2-3 & 6 weeks after sowing.
 Plant spacing 75 cm x 18 cm in Kharif and 60 cm x 18 cm in Rabi.
 Balance used of fertilizers and micronutrients (NPK 120:60:40).
 Proper drainage of water management practices.

B. Mechanical Practices:

 Remove infected plants.

 Use pheromone traps @5/ha for monitoring.
 Use bird scarer for the control of birds.
 Collect mechanically and destroy white grub beetles during adult emergence
period to reduce the pest population.

C. Biological Control Practices:

1. Conservation

 Conserve bio-control agent like Trichogramma, Apanteles, Eriborus,

Carabids,Coccinellids, Chrysopa, spiders and wasps etc.

2. Augmentation.

 Seed treatment with Trichoderma viridae and Trichoderma harzianum @ 4

gm/kg seed against soil borne diseases.
 Release of Trichogramma chilonis @ 1, 00,000/ha/week synchronizing with
appearance of eggs (2 releases).

D. Botanical pesticides:

 Use of neem cake @ 200 kg/ha for control of nematodes.

E. Chemical Control Measures:

Need based, judicious and safe application of pesticides are the most vital tripartite
segments of chemical control measures under the ambit of IPM. The use of chemical
pesticides should be adopted as a last resort.

 Spray of Endosulfan 35 EC 0.1 % to control borer and shoot fly at 10-15 DAG.
  Granular application of Carbofuran 3g @ 15 kg/ha controls borer and shoot fly
on 10-15 DAG.
 Application of Mancozeb @ 2-2.5 kg/ha/1000 litre of water twice at 10-15 days
interval controls charcoal rots and head smut.

F. Weed Management Practices:

 Summer ploughing for destroying stubbles and perennial weeds.

 Timely sowing of crop to minimize crop weed competition.
 Proper spacing to facilitate inter-weeding operation.
 Two manual weeding 2-3 and 6 weeks after sowing.
 Pre- emergence application of atrazine at 0.5 kg/ha followed by one manual
weeding for controlling grassy and broad leaved weeds.

G. Nematodes Management Practices:

 Deep ploughing followed by fallowing in summer.

 Rotation of crop with non-host crops.
 Destruction of crop stubbles and residues.
 Soil treatment with Carbofuran granules.

H. Rodent Management Practices:

 Bund trimming to minimize rodent harbourage.

 Demolished the existing rodent burrows.
 Use of indigenous traps.

Apply 2.5% (1:40) Zinc phosphide bait preceded by one day pre-baiting.

POTATO

Diseases

Potato crop suffers from different pathological maladies resulting in considerable loss in
control measures are given below.

Late Blight

This disease is caused by a fungus called Phytophthora infestans. The disease may at
foliage. Initially, the lower leaves are infected. They show water-soaked lesions especia
and temperature are available. In humid atmosphere, the growth of the fungus can b
growth. The spots turn black as the affected leaves start rotting. Similar symptoms may
an offensive odour. The tubers under the ground also decay before harvest. On tubers g
Control Measures

1. Use potato tubers for seed from disease free areas to ensure that the pathogen is
2. The infected plant material in the field should be properly destroyed.
3. Grow resistant varieties like Kufri Navtal.
4. Fungicidal sprays can be effective, if given properly and timely. Sprays should sta
the disease or on the appearance of initial symptoms. Cool humid atmosphere fav
indication of disease in a short time ahead. Spraying should be done with Dithane
hectare). Spraying should be repeated at 10-12 days interval.

Early Blight

This disease is caused by a fungus called Alternaria solani. Early blight is more common
The spots of this disease on the leaves are brown to black with concentric rings. Their nu
Heavily infected leaves fall off after drying. Spots also appear on stems.

Control Measures

1. Crop debris should invariably be destroyed by burning after harvest.

2. Sprays recommended in case of late blight also serve to control this disease.

Black Scurf

This disease is caused by a fungus called Rhizoctonia solani. This disease is of common
two phases of the disease. In stem canker phase, the sprouts are killed before they eme
yield. The cankers may cause wilting of the plants also. The black scurf is recognized by
their acceptability to the consumers.

Control Measures

1. Plant only healthy tubers.

2. The seed tubers should be dipped in 0.5 per cent suspension of Aretan or Agallol
3. Soil can be treated with Brassicol at the rate of 20-30 kg per hectare. Combination
disease.

Bacterial Wilt and Brown rot

This disease is caused by pseudomonas solanacearum. This dreaded disease of potato

The most common symptom of the disease is sudden wilting of the plant. Affected plants
turn bronze and die. There is unusual browning of vascular bundles in the stem and tube
blackened.
Control Measures

1. Certified seed free from brown rot disease should be planted.

2. In case cut potato tubers are being used, they should be kept at 12º C for four day
be treated with the solution of Aretan or Agallol.
3. The crop debris should be collected and burnt.

Wart Disease

This disease is caused by fungus Synchutrium endobioticum. This disease is found in Da

The disease is recognized by appearance of tumours or warts on tubers, stems and stolo
converted into a distorted mass.

Control Measures

1. Wart affected tubers should not be planted.

2. Grow wart immune varieties.

Mosaic

There are different types of mosaic diseases that attack potato. The leaves show green a
faint yellowing in patches on the leaves. The plants remain stunted and sick. Size and nu
leaves are the main source of disease in the field. The disease is spread in the field by in
ones.

Control Measures

1. Seed tubers should be healthy and certified. Do not plant very small sized tubers
2. Inspect the field regularly and destroy the plants showing the initial symptoms.
3. Spray the crop with Metasystox or Rogor at the rate of 600-700 milliliter dissolved
interval to check the insects that spread this disease.

Leaf Roll

This disease is very common in plains. Leaves show upward rolling of the margins progr
involved. The leaves assume a rigid, leathery texture having a characteristic rattle when
plant and their size is greatly reduced.

Control Measures: The control measures recommended for mosaic disease are effectiv

Insect – Pests Management

Potato crop is attacked by a number of insect pests which either reduce the yield or spoi
nature of damage and measures to control them are given below:

Epilachna Beetle

The grubs and adults both are the damaging stages of this insect. It is one of the serious
grubs scrap away the chlorophyll from the leaves leaving only veins. The grubs or larvae
while feeding on leaves. These are yellowish in colour with erect spines on their body. A
yield.

Control Measures

1. Spraying with 0.2 percent Sevin 50 WP at the rate of 1000 litres of water has been
2. Dusting of 10 percent Sevin dust at the rate of 30 kg per hectare may also control

Cutworms

The damage is caused by the caterpillars by cutting off the growing potato plants. They m
soil surface. They do more harm by cutting the plants than by actual feeding. The full gro
time they remain hiding in the soil and in the night damage the crop. In the later stage, th
value.

Control Measures

1. Flooding of field reduces the activity of the caterpillars.

2. Use of Temik 10 G at the rate of 8-10 kg per hectare at the time of sowing has be
3. Use of Carbafuran 3 G at the rate of 30 kg per hectare at the time of sowing has a

Aphids

These are small insects, either pale yellow or dark in colour. Both nymph and adult dama
tender shoots and stem. The leaves of attacked plants become yellowish and they loose
leaves on which black mould develops. This interferes in the photosynthesis. The winged

Control Measures: Spray Metasystox 25 EC or Rogor 30 EC at the rate of 600 milliliter

Leaf Hoppers

The nymphs and adults of these insects have piercing and sucking type of mouth parts. T
yellowish and plants lose their vitality. Besides, the direct losses due to their feeding, lea
the yield of the crop.

Control Measures: Application of Carbafuran 3 G, Temik 10 G or Thimet 10 G at the tim

pests.

White Grub

The damage is done mainly by the grubs which remain in the soil. They damage the plan
stems and tubers. The grub in the early stage feed on the roots with the result the plants
cut holes in the tubers. The market value of such tubers is very much reduced.

Control Measures

Apply Heptachlor 3 percent dust or Aldrin 5 percent dust at the rate of 45-60 kg per hecta

1. Use Carbofuran 3 G or Thimet 10 G at the rate of 30 kg or Temik10 G at the rate

Potato Tuber Moth

This is mainly a pest of stored potato but it causes damage in the standing crop also. Th
The damage done by the caterpillars to potato in stores is much more serious. The cater
caterpillars are filled with excreta. Such tubers generally become unfit for human consum

Control Measures

1. Only healthy potatoes should be kept in the store.

2. Potatoes should be stored in cold stores. In case they are to be kept in ordinary st
should be kept below and above the heap of the potato.
3. Seed potato should be protected by spraying 5 percent BHC dust or 1 percent Ma

Diseases

MUSTARD

A number of diseases have been recorded on these crops. Of these, Alternaria blight, d
diseases which take a heavy toll of the crop.

Alternaria Blight: The disease is caused by a fungus, Alternaria brassicae. The pathog
(refuse) in the soil. The disease is characterized by the appearance of concentric black
outbreak, pods turn black in colour and may also rot. Such pods contain shriveled, unde

Control Measures

Use of healthy seeds for sowing should be preferred.

Spray Duter or Difolatan or Dithane M-45 at the rate of 2 kg in 1000 litres of water per h
appearing on the plants.

Collect and burn the affected plant portions after the harvest of the crop.

Downy Mildew: This disease is caused by a fungus, Peronospora brassicae. In the dise
the upper surface of the leaves and white growth is visible on the under surface opposite
affected. The affected inflorescence is malformed, twisted and covered with a white pow

Control Measures

Use healthy seeds for sowing.

Spray the crop with 0.2% Zineb or 0.1% Karathane as soon as the symptoms are notice
interval.

White Blister: This disease is caused by the fungus, Albugo candida. This disease can
mildew. The disease is characterized by white raised blisters on leaves, stem, petiole an
powder. There is much deformity of the floral parts. Flowers get malformed and become
Control Measures

Use healthy seeds for sowing.

Spray the crop with 0.2% Zineb or Difolatan as soon as the symptoms are noticed and r

Keep the field free from weeds.

Insects Pests

These crops are subjected to the attack of insect pests’ right from the seedling stage to
follows:

Mustard Sawfly: This is the most important seedling pest of rape seed and mustard. Th
female has saw-like ovipositor, it is called as sawfly. The larvae of this pest feed on the
Sometimes they eat up entire lamina of leaf leaving behind the midribs. It is a sporadic p
plants are defoliated completely. It appears in the month of October and its peak season
suddenly on the onset of winter.

Control Measures: Dusting with 5 or 10% BHC at the rate of 20-25 kg per hectare cont

Mustard Aphid: It is a very serious pest and is the main limiting factor in the production
the sap of the tender leaves, twigs, stem, inflorescence and pods by means of piercing a
small insects about 2 millimeters in size. The affected leaves usually curl and in case of
attack on the inflorescence, the pod formation is adversely affected. The aphids also se
mould adversely affects the normal physiological activities of the plants.

Control Measures

As the cold and cloudy weather favours the pest multiplication, sowing the crop earlier th

Spraying of crop with Dimecron 100 at the rate of 250 millilitre per hectare or Metasysto
EC at the rate of one litre per hectare in 1000 litres of water are quite effective in control

Painted Bug of Mustard: The full grown bug is a small insect about 6 mm in length, bla
the body. Both nymph and adult suck the sap of leaves and tender stems resulting in po
stage, the insects suck the sap of the pods with the result both quantity and quality of se

Control Measures

The nymphs can be very effectively controlled with 5 percent BHC dust at the rate of 20

Use of systemic insecticides like Dimecron, Rogor or Metasystox has been found very e

Cabbage Butterfly

The full grown larvae of this pest are 3 to 4 cm in length with bright yellowish-green colo
pest feed voraciously on the leaves, branches and pods of the crop. The plants are defo
up plants suffer in growth and yield.
Control Measures

The caterpillars in early stage should be controlled by hand picking and killing.

Spraying with Malathion 50 EC at the rate of 1 litre per hectare controls the pest. In case
EC at the rate of 1 litre per hectare in 1000 litres of water has been found very effective.

Bihar Hairy Caterpillar: This is a polyphagous pest and causes severe damage to rape
The newly hatched caterpillars remain in clusters on the lower surface of the leaves and
and feed in isolation. They eat away entire leaf tissues leaving only the midribs. If the at
tissues of the pods are eaten up resulting in pre-mature shriveling and drying of the see

Control Measures

Clipping and destruction of eggs should be followed.

Early instars can be controlled by BHC 10% dust at the rate of 20 kg per hectare.

Grown up caterpillars can be controlled by the spray of Malathion 50 EC, Thiodan 35 EC

liters of water per hectare

RICE
A. Cultural Practices

Summer ploughing, trimming of bunds and destruction of crop residues.

Selection of healthy seeds or resistant/ tolerant varieties.

Seed treatment (for diseases)

Early and timely planting/ sowing.

Raising of healthy nursery.

Seedling root dip/ nursery treatment in gall midge/ stem borer endemic areas

Destruction of left over nurseries, removal of weeds from field and cleaning of bunds.

Normal spacing with 45 hills/sq.m

Thirty (30) cm alley formations at every 2-3 m distance in plant hopper and sheath bligh

10. Proper water management (alternate wetting and drying to avoid water stagnation) i
Harvest close to ground level.

B. Mechanical Practices

Collection of egg masses and larvae of pest and their placement in bamboo cages for c

Removal and destruction of diseased/pest infested parts of the plants.

Clipping of rice seedlings tips.

Use of coir rope in rice crop for dislodging case worm and leaf folder larvae etc.

C. Biological Control Practices

1. Conservation:

Bio-control agent viz. spiders, drynids, water bugs, mired bugs, damsel flies, dragon flie
coccinellids, Apanteles, Tetrastchus, Telenomus, Trichogramma, Bracon, Platygaster et

Root dip treatment of rice seedlings with chlorpyriphos is safe for the natural enemies i.e

As an alternate to seedling root dip, apply 1.5 kg ai/ha of carbofuran or phorate granules
control of insect pests in early transplanted crop.

Collection of egg masses of borers and putting them in a bamboo cage-cum-percher till
and trap and kill the hatchint larvae. Besides, these would allow perching of predatory b

2. Augmentation: Augmentative release of Trichogramma japonica or T. chilonis @ 50

days of transplanting for control of stem borer and leaf folder respectively.

3. Pest defender ratio: 2:1 ratio may be useful to avoid application of pesticides.

D. Behavioural Control

Mass trapping of yellow stem borer male moths by installing pheromone traps at the rate
containing 5mg pheromone should be replaced 3 times during crop season.

E. Chemical Control Measures

Need based, judicious and safe application of pesticides are the most vital tripartite segm
IPM. It involves developing IPM skills to play safe with environment by proper crop healt
control potential before deciding in favour of use of chemical pesticides as a large resort

F. Weed Management Practices

1. In Direct Sown Rice

1.1) The problem of weeds under direct sown rice growing condition is far more serious
crop is sown by broadcasting. Major weeds of these situations are Panicum sp. Echinoc
Cyperus difformis, Commelina benghalenes, Eclipta alba, Ischaemum rug sum, Eleusin
1.2 Weed Management

By ensuring thorough land preparation, the weed can be minimized. Summer ploughing
management as well as weed control. Rain water conservation, preparation of seed bed
and levelling after the land preparation minimizes weeds. The fields should be given sum
bed should be prepared by thorough seed bed preparation.

Timely sowing of crop may be encouraged to minimize crop weed competition.

The crop should be sown in lines at recommended spacing to facilitate inter weeding op
should be practiced after 2-3 weeks and second time if necessary after 4-6 weeks of so

Apply Cyhalohop-Butyl @ 75-80g a.i. /ha at 18-20 days after sowing in grassy weeds in
after 4-6 weeks has been observed effective.

2. Under Low land Rice

2.1) Major weeds under these situations are Echinochloa colonum, Echinochloa crus
indica, Digitaria sanguinalis, Ischaemum rug sum, and Fimbristylis littoralis.

2.2) Weed Management

Bunds and irrigation channels should be kept free from weeds.

Summer ploughing should be practiced wherever possible to destroy perennial weed ve

Stale seedbed should be prepared wherever possible .Pudding should be done immedia

As far as possible, rice seedling should be free from weed seedlings at the time of trans

Optimum plant population and application of recommended rate of nutrients application

population which could minimize the competition from weeds.

Maintain a thin layer of water on the soil surface to minimize weed growth under such co

Early weeding 3-4 weeks after transplanting in case where mechanical methods are to b

One hand weeding may be given 4-6 weeks after transplanting, if necessary.

Apply Butachlor @ 0.5 to 0.75 kg a.i/ha, or Loxadiargyl @ 100 a.i/ha or Chlomuron ethy
after transplanting.

Apply Metsulfuron methyl+ Chlorifuran methyl @ 4-6 g a.i/ ha or Anilophos + 2-4 D @ 3

G. Nematode Management Practices

Nematode Management Practices are essential for obtaining the desired yield potential
management approaches are as under:-

1. White tip nematode (Aphelenchoides hesseyi)

Hot water treatment of seed at 52OC for 10 minutes after a pre - soaks for 6 hours.

Sun drying seeds for 6 hours for 4 days.

Burning of stubbles to prevent any carries over infection.

Pre sowing of nursery bed treatment with Carbofuran 3G granules @ 33 kg/ha.

Pre- soaking seed for 6 hours in 0.2% solution of Mancozeb and Monocrotophos.

Growing resistance varieties like Ratna, Triveni, TMK, TMK9, Surya, Kaveri, and Indira.

2. Rice Root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae)

Application of neem cake at 100-120 kg/ha.

Grow resistance varieties like TMK 9, Annapurna in endemic areas.

Pre- sowing treatment of nursery bed with Carbofuran 3G granules @ 33 kg/ha.

Seed soaking with 0.2% solution of monocrotophos for 6 hours.

Soil application of Carbofuran 3G @ 33 kg/ha.

Growing Sesbania rostrata as intercrop.

Growing potato or groundnut as rotation crops.

3. Root Knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola)

Rotation with the crop like sweet potato, castor, sunflower, cowpea, sesamum, onion.

Growing resistance varieties like TKM-6, Hamsa, IR64 and Ramakrishna in endemic are

Soil application of Carbofuran 3G.

H. Rodent Management Practices (Working Index (ETL: Fifteen live burrows per hecta

Bund trimming specially to minimize rodent harbourage.

Weed management to reduce alternate source of food.

Employment of indigenous traps preferably one month after transplantation.

Six weeks after transplantation application of bromodiolone (0,005% a.i.) in baits.

The residual live burrows may be treated with second application of bromodiolone (0,00

The above control operations with rodenticides except Zinc phosphide (as rodent develo
population exceeds working index.

Important:
Optimum period for undertaking control operation in six weeks after transplantation.

Zinc phosphide (2.5%) in baits may be applied in rodent outbreak situation.

For getting effective control, it is recommended that zinc phosphide with ISI mark in 10 g
be procured.

GRAM

Gram pod borer

Biology

It is a polyphagous pest, infesting gram, lablab, safflower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, c

Egg: Spherical, yellowish eggs are laid singly on tender parts and buds of plants. The e

Larva: Caterpillars are of varying colour, initially brown and later turn greenish with dark
with radiating hairs. When full grown, they measure 3.7 to 5 cm in length. The larval per
pupates in the soil.

Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the soil in an earthen cell. Pupal stage lasts 7-15 day

Adult: Moth is stout, medium sized with brownish/greyish forewings with a dark cross ba
margins, with a wing expanse of 3.7cm.

Damage symptoms

Young larva feeds on the leaves for some time and then attacks fruits. Internal tissues a
feeding the caterpillar thrust its head inside leaving the rest of the body outside.

Bored fruits with round holes.

Fed leaves, shoots and buds.

The activity of Helicoverpa starts on Greengram, summer vegetables and maize and co
synchronizing with main crop.

Favourable conditions

Warm weather conditions followed by light rains and dry spells are favourable for multip

Natural enemies of gram pod borer

Parasitoids: Trichogramma spp., Tetrastichus spp., Chelonus spp., Telenomus spp., B

spp.
Predators: Lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider, red ant, dragon fly, robber fly, reduviid bu
common mynah, big-eyed bug (Geocoris sp), earwig, ground beetle, pentatomid bug etc

Spotted pod borer

Biology

It is a polyphagous, infesting gram, lablab, safflower, chillies, groundnut, tobacco, cotton

Egg: Eggs are laid on the under surface of leaves, terminal shoots and flower buds. The
outline, dorsoventrally flattened and glued to the surface.

Larva: Greenish white with brown head. Larval duration is15 –20 days.

Pupa: Pupates in dry leaves and debris

Adult: Brown forewings and white hind wings

Damage symptoms

Bore holes on the buds, flower or pods

Infested pods and flowers are webbed together

Natural enemies of spotted pod borer

Parasitoids: Trichogramma spp., Tetrastichus spp., Chelonus spp., Telenomus spp., B

Predators: Lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider, red ant, dragon fl y, robber fl y, reduviid b

Spiny pod borer

Biology

Larva: Greenish initially, turns pink before pupation. It has 5 black spots on the prothora

Adult: Brownish grey moth. Prothorax – orange in colour. Fore wing has a white stripe a

Damage symptom

Dropping of flowers and young pods

Older pods marked with a brown spot where a larva has entered

Red spider mite

Biology

Egg: Hyaline, globular laid in mass

Nymph: Yellowish in colour

Adult: Red coloured small size

Damage symptoms

Affected leaves become reddish brown and bronzy

In severe infestation silken webbing on the leaves

Leaves wither and dry

Flower and fruit formation affected

Natural enemies of red spider mite:

Predators: Predatory mite, predatory thrips, oligota spp., orius spp., hover fly, mirid bug

Bihar hairy caterpillar

Biology

This pest occurs during October to December and of late it is also occurring from July. In
groundnut also.

Egg: Female lays eggs in masses on leaves.

Larva: The larvae are pale yellow coloured with yellow hair over the body. They are pol
defoliation. In severe cases only stems are left behind. In defoliated crops it also feeds o

Pupa: Pupates in leaf litter close to the plants.

Adult: Adult moth is reddish brown with black spots. Both the wings are pinkish and pos
year.

Damage symptoms

Young larvae feed gregariously mostly on the under surface of the leaves.

Caterpillars feed on leaves and in severe infestation the whole crop is defoliated.

Drying up of infected leaves is the main symptom.

Natural enemies of Bihar hairy caterpillar

Parasitoids: Trichogramma spp., Bracon spp.

Predators: Lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider, red ant, dragon fly, praying mantis, groun

Aphid

Biology

Egg: Eggs are very tiny, shiny-black, and are found in the crevices of bud, stems, and b
parts of the world.

Nymph: Nymphs are young aphids they look like the wingless adults but are smaller. T

Adult: Adults are small, back to dark brownish colour, 1 to 4 mm long, soft-bodied insec
aphids have two short cornicles (horns) towards the rear of the body.

Damage symptoms

In addition, plants may become contaminated by honeydew produced by aphids and so

Blackgram contaminated with honeydew and / or sooty moulds are not marketable.

Aphids are also vectors of diseases, including the bean common mosaic virus.

The black bean aphid is a widely distributed pest of beans. The black legume aphid usu

Natural enemies of aphid

Parasitoid: Aphidius colemani, Aphelinus sp

Predators: Syrphid larva, lacewing, ladybird beetle, spider etc.,

Stem fly

Biology

Egg: The stem fly inserts eggs on the underside of young leaves. Ovi positing sites pres
held up to the light.

Larva: The larvae are whitish, torpedo-shaped maggots that reach little more than 2mm
takes place inside the stem, the larva makes an exit hole for the emergence of the adult

Pupa: Pupae are smooth, light brown to pale brown, cylindrical in shape with rounded e

Adult: Adult flies are shiny black and about 2mm long with a pair of clear wings of wings

Damage symptoms

Infected stems are often red inside (sometimes pale) and a dis tinct zig-zag tunnel may
from the exit holes, the plants will initially appear healthy on the outside.

Large infestations (3 or more mag gots per plant) may cause wilting and may even caus
dam age occurs in the plant’s hypocotyl (basal stem) region.

Natural enemies of stem fly

Parasitoids: Tiny wasps

Whitefly
Biology

Egg: Pear shaped, light yellowish.

Nymph: On hatching - Oval, scale-like, greenish white.

Adult: White, tiny, scale-like adult.

Natural enemies of whitefly

Parasitoids: Encarsia formosa, Eretmocerus sp

Predators: Ladybird beetle, spider, lacewing, mirid bug, reduviid bug etc.

Thrips

Biology

Egg: Eggs are white or yellow in colour and are microscopic and almost impossible to s
plant tissue. Only one end of the egg will be near the surface of the tissue to allow the im
leaf, cotyledon, or flower tissues.

Nymph: Very small. Thrips pupae appear as an intermediate form between the immatur
buds are visible but short and not functional. Pale yellow to brown in the base of the plan

Adult: Adults measure up to 2 mm. Adults have fully developed wings. The wings are v
longitudinal vein in which there is several hairs connected perpendicular to the vein. The
wings are folded along the back of the insect. Pale yellow to dark brown the same as im
pupae because they can fly. They are attracted to yellow and white colors. They often w

Damage symptoms

The appearance of the damage is silvery patches or streaks on the leaves that shine in
can occupy most of the surface of the leaf and the plant cannot adequately photosynthe
the damaged tissues and plant pathogens penetrate the injured plant easily.

Natural enemies of thrips

Parsitoid: Ceranisus menes

Predators: Predatory mite, predatory thrips, Oligota spp., Orius spp., hover fly, mirid bug

Blister beetle

The beetles are found to occur throughout the year in red gram, cowpea, green gram an
during September, causing a maximum flower damage of 95 per cent. Adults feed on th
fewer pods. In locations where pigeon pea is grown over large areas, blister beetles cau
flowering stage during the period of peak adult activity (August-October in southern Indi
crop losses may be substantial. The adults are medium to large (2.5 cm in length), usua
the abdomen, which sometimes changes into yellow spots. The antennae are orange or
plants. They live in the soil and eat grasshopper eggs, and are therefore beneficial.

Root-knot nematode

Biology

Most species of plant parasitic nematodes have a relatively simple life cycle consisting o
female.

Development of the first stage larvae occurs within the egg where the first molt occurs. S
plant roots or in some cases foliar tissues.

Under suitable environmental conditions, the eggs hatch and new larvae emerge to com
temperature.

Nematode development is generally most rapid within an optimal soil temperature range

Damage symptoms

Infected plants in patches in the field

Formation of galls on host root system is the primary symptom

Roots branch profusely starting from the gall tissue causing a ‘beard root’ symptom

Infected roots become knobby and knotty

In severely infected plants the root system is reduced and the rootlets are almost compl
function of uptake and transport of water and nutrients

Plants wilt during the hot part of day, especially under dry conditions and are often stunt

Nematode infection predisposes plants to fungal and bacterial root pathogens

Survival and spread

Primary: Egg masses in infected plant debris and soil or collateral and other hosts like S
act as sources of inoculum.

Secondary: Autonomous second stage juveniles that may also be water dispersed.

Favourable conditions

Loamy light soils.

SUGARCANE

Crop stage / period Target insect pest Control measur

Selection of seed crop Borers, mealy bug and scale insect Seed material sh
healthy crop. No
having pest incid

Selection of seed pieces Borers, mealy bug and scale insect Borer infested se
planting

Pre-planting (seed treatment ) Borers, mealy bug and scale insect Heat therapy fol
Aretan/Agallol (0

Scale insect and mealy bug Rubbing of setts

Malathion (0.1%

Scale insect and mealy bug Dipping setts in

(0.06% solution.

White grubs Two to three ext

for predation in e

At planting Termites and shoot borers Application of En

cane setts in 160

Pre-monsoon (March-June) Shoot, root and top borers Removal of egg-

ground level. Co
Avoid irrigation a
emergence durin

Shoot borer Release of Sturm

females/ha. Spra
107 inclusion bodi
India).

Top borer (i.) Soil applicatio

or phorate 10G@
(June last week

(ii.) Release of Is
and fourth brood

Black bug Whorl applicatio

a.i./ha or Endosu
 Pyrilla 1. Removal and
bearing egg-mas

2. Release of 40
eggs of Epirican
July-August. Cro
sprayed with En
kg ai per hectare

Scales and aphids Spraying of the c

1.0 percent Mala

White grubs 1. Collection of a

2. Picking of gru

3. Collection and
host trees imme

Trips Spraying the cro

monocroptophos

Mites Spraying the cro

monocroptophos

Monsoon and Post-monsoon (July- Internode borer Field release of

January) 50,000/ha or 3.5
fortnightly interva
activity until a m

Stalk borer, internode borer, pyrilla, Detrashing the c

scale insect, mealy bug, white flies monthly intervals

Pyrilla Dusting with Ma

Endosulfan@1.5

Scale insect Malathion spray

White flies 1. Avoid rationin

Spraying with m
a.i./ha or Endosu

Stalk borer Two sprayings o

 at monthly interv
after detrashing

Gurdaspur borer Regular collectio

from July till Oct

At harvest Application to most of the pests Harvesting the c

Removal of late

Burning trash an
after harvesting

MECHANIZATION IN AGRICULTURE
Meaning of Mechanization of Agriculture:

In G. D. Aggarwal’s words, “Farm mechanization is a term used in a very broad’ sense. It not on
small or large, run by power and used for tillage operations, harvesting and thrashing but also in
produce, processing machines, dairy appliances for cream separating, butter making, oil pressin
home appliances like radios, irons, washing machines, vacuum cleaners and hot plates.”

According to Dr. Bhattacharjee, “Mechanization of agriculture and farming process connote

performed by bullocks, horses and other draught animals or by human labour.”

ADVERTISEMENTS:

According to Dr. C. B. Memoria, “It (mechanization) chiefly consists in either replacing, or assist
farming by mechanical power wherever possible.”

“Mechanization may be either partial or complete. It is partial when only a part of the farm work
completely dispensed with by power supplying machines, it is termed as complete.”

“Broadly speaking mechanization of agriculture has two forms mobile mechanization and the sta
replace animal power on which agriculture has been based for very many centuries; while the la
have to be performed cither by human labour or by a combined effort of human beings and anim

Benefits of Mechanization of Agriculture:

(1) It Increases Production:

Mechanization increases the rapidity and speed of work with which farming operations can be p
his three-horse am controlled three- horse; power, when given a medium-sized crawler tractor c
fore, went up in the ratio of about 8: 1.”

According to B. K. S. Jain, “In the U.S.A. a labourer who formerly ploughed one acre of land with
with a gasoline-driven tractor. By this quickening of agricultural practices the human labour requ
study revealed that one-third increase was due to the use of chemicals: another one third due to
was due to improved farm machinery.”

According to Roy D Laird, “A more recent and more spectacular development in mechanization
times the agricultural output became that of 1913 and grain production alone increased by 70 pe
electrification and more machinery were supposed to induce a 100% increase in the efficiency o

(2) It Increases Efficiency and Per Man Productivity:

Mechanization raises the efficiency of labour and enhances the farm production per worker. By
a unit of output. In the U.S.A., “the amount of human labour used to produce 100 bushels of whe
1900; by 1940 a new series of improvements has reduced labour requirements to 47 hours.” (Bu

According to Hecht and Barton, “Before the World War I. it took, about 35 man hrs. to grow and
15.7 hrs. for an acre of oat. In 1945-48, the labour requirements were 23.7, 6.1 and 8.1 man hou
more bushels per acre has resulted in more than halving labour requirements per unit of produc
bushels of corn was 135, of wheat 106 and of oat 58; in 1945- 48, the corresponding figures we

“It is estimated that productivity per man on farms in U.S.A. is about four and a half times that in
production has raised labour productivity to a high level compared with the pre- revolutionary da
(Anisimov)

(3) Mechanization Increases the Yield of Land Per Unit of Area:

S.E. Johnson holds that “of 28 per cent increase in farm output in U.S.A., above the average of
probably less than 15 per cent has resulted from expansion of crop, land acreage and the rest, a
the improvements in crops, live stocks and machinery. Increase in the yield of crops, due to mec
in the case of maize; 15 to 20 per cent in Bajra and Paddy; 30 to 40 per cent in Jowar, Groundn

(4) Mechanization Results in Lower Cost of Work.

It has been accepted by all that one of the methods of reducing unit costs is to enlarge the size
that the cost of production and the yields can be adjusted properly if mechanization is resorted t

(5) It Contracts the Demand for Work Animals for ploughing water lifting, harvesting, tran

In actual operation, costs amount to little when machines are idle, whereas the cost of maintena
of working and idleness, because animals have to be fed whether they are doing work or not. It
has to be done in a short time.

(6) It Brings in other Improvements in Agricultural Technique:

In its training come improvements in the sphere of irrigation, land reclamation and the preventio
monsoon as the only irrigation of crops in India can be obtained by a more scientific approach.

Besides, ploughing by tractor reclaims more land and thereby extends the cultivated area as the
and eradicate deeps-rooted weeds. It also prevents soil erosion. Besides mechanical fertilization
methods with the help of self-propelled graders and terraces.

(7) It Modifies Social Structure in Rural Areas

It results in a significant modification of the social structure in rural areas. It frees the farmers fro
The pressure on land decreases and the status of the farmers improves.
(8) It Leads to Commercial Agriculture:

Mechanisation results in a shift from ‘subsistence farming’ to ‘commercial agriculture. This shift
associated with farmer in order to reap the full technological benefits.

This in its turn gives rise two tendencies:

(i) Gradual replacement of domestic or family by commercial methods, and

(ii) Search for international markets for agricultural produce.

(9) It Solves the Problem of Labour Shortage:

In countries where human labour falls short of requirements in agriculture, use of machines can

(10) It Releases Manpower for Non-Agricultural Purposes:

Since the mechanisation of agriculture results in the employment of lesser number of persons o
economic activities.

(11) It Results in Better Use of Land:

Mechanisation also results in better utilization of agricultural land for “the substitution of gasoline
machine energy, therefore, leads to good agricultural production, to trade many crops or saleab
system of land utilization in which cultivator rests on a different and infinitely more complex basi

(12) It Increases Farm Income:

With the introduction of mechanisation the farm income as well as the individual income goes up
national income and with it the standard of living, it builds cities, it raises an ever loftier superstru
turns loose economic agglomerates into social economies to closely knit by a thousand lines of
which modern economic progress is largely based. It constitutes, the lion’s share to the public fu
short, not only do machine industry, and mechanisation and science render agriculture efficient,
can sell its bountiful crops.”

(13) It Reduces Fodder Area and Enlarges Food Area:

“With the introduction of mechanisation in agriculture the surplus animal power would be reduce
it can be utilised for producing food for human consumption. The remaining cattle population wo
agriculture, for new and nourishing varieties of feeding stuff would be grown in cultural (waste la

STATE AREA(Million hectare) Production(million

for maize tonnes) for maize
Karnataka 1.24 3.01
Andhra Pradesh 0.78 2.76
Maharashtra 0.79 1.83
Bihar 0.63 1.48
Rajasthan 1.10 1.15
Tamil Nadu 0.24 1.14
Madhya Pradesh 0.83 1.05
U.P 0.71 1.04
Himachal Pradesh 0.30 0.54
Gujarat 0.50 0.53
J&K 0.31 0.49
Punjab 0.14 0.48
West Bengal 0.10 0.39
Jharkhand 0.16 0.19

SORGHUM:
STATE Area(million hectare) Production
Maharashtra 4.18 3.57
Karnataka 1.37 1.41
Madhya Pradesh 0.45 0.56
Andhra Pradesh 0.37 0.44
Tamil Nadu 0.24 0.22
Gujarat 0.16 0.17
U.P 0.19 0.17
Rajasthan 0.72 0.10
Haryana 0.07 0.04
Orissa 0.01 0.01
PEARL MILLET:

STATE AREA(MILLION PRODUCTION(M

HECTARE) TONNES)
Rajasthan 5.17 2.03
U.P 0.85 1.39
Haryana 0.59 0.93
Gujarat 0.67 0.83
Maharashtra 0.03 0.77
Madhya Pradesh 0.17 0.26
Karnataka 0.31 0.15
Tamil Nadu 0.05 0.08
Andhra Pradesh 0.05 0.05

PULSES: (Area &Production)

Gram (Chickpea)
STATE AREA(Million hectare) PRODUCTION
tonnes )
Madhya Pradesh 3.11 2.69
Maharashtra 1.44 1.30
Rajasthan 1.78 1.60
Karnataka 0.96 0.63
U.P 0.57 0.53
Andhra Pradesh 0.58 0.72
Gujarat 0.18 0.20
Chhattisgarh 0.25 0.24
Karnataka 0.05 0.63
ARHAR: (PIGEAON PEA) (2017-2018)

STATE AREA (Million hectare) PRODUCTION (M

Tonnes)
Maharashtra 12.29 10.59

Karnataka 8.85 8.39

Madhya Pradesh 6.47 7.29

U.P 3.31 7.25

Andhra Pradesh 2.82 1.18

Gujarat 2.71 7.68

Jharkhand 1.94 2.22

Odisha 1.38 1.28

Chattisgarh 0.86 1.47

GREEN GRAM:

STATE AREA (Miliion hectare) PRODUCTION (M

tonnes)
Andhra Pradesh 4.40 2.17
Gujarat 2.30 1.21

Karnataka 5.28 1.08

Maharashtra 6.71 3.71

U.P 0.72 0.40

Rajasthan 10.60 4.16

Tamil Nadu 1.71 0.55

LENTIL:

STATE AREA(million hectare) PRODUCTION (Milli

tonnes)
Madhya Pradesh 5.64 2.87

U.P 6.08 4.35

Bihar 1.62 1.14

BLACK GRAM :

STATE AREA (Lakh Hectare) PRODUCTION(Lakh

tonnes)
Andhra Pradesh 5.03 2.59
Karnataka 1.26 0.64

Madhya Pradesh 4.72 1.66

Maharashtra 5.75 3.21

U.P 3.91 1.72

Rajasthan 1.45 0.60

Area and Production of major Oilseeds (2017-2018)

Groundnut:
Area and Production
STATE AREA (000’Ha) PRODUCTION (000’ tonn

Andhra Pradesh 1841 1639

Gujarat 2000 1886

Karnataka 969 742

Maharashtra 447 502

Madhya Pradesh 209 242

Tamil Nadu 615 1005

Orrisa 231 351

Rajasthan 287 446

SUNFLOWER:
STATE AREA (000’ha) PRODUCTION (000’ tonn

Karnataka 367 208

Andhra Pradesh 58.67 43.67

Maharashtra 61 27.67

Orrisa 20.86 24.97

Telangana 16.67 19.67

Bihar 12.63 17.88

FOOD GRAIN PRODUCTION OF LAST 5 YEARS

2011-2012

Kharif – 131.3 (m.t)

Rabi -128.0 (m.t)
Total-259.3 (m.t)
2012-2013

Kharif-128.1(m.t)
Rabi-129.1 (m.t)
Total-257.1 (m.t)

2013-2014

Kharif -128.7 (m.t)

Rabi-136.3
Total-265.0 (m.t)

2014-2015

Kharif – 128.1
Rabi -124.0
Total – 252.0

2015-2016

Kharif -125.1
Rabi -126.5
Total – 251.6

2016-2017

Kharif – 137.5
Rabi -134.5
Total -272.0

Crop burning: New machines don’t solve, but add to menace

CASE STUDY:

Hamir Singh, 53, who holds a 14-acre farm in Kalajhar village in Sangrur district of Punja
followed the ban on crop residue burning and tried using new technology like the rotavat
small pieces and then it spreads it inside the soil.

On October 5, he took a rotavator from Kalajhar village cooperative society on rent and p

diesel, Rs 300 on servicing the machine and hired a high-power tractor. Singh used the
land. But, now he is in trouble.

“I am afraid that all my efforts will go in vain because it seems like the straw will not disp
while pointing at the straw that was visible even when it had been six days since he use
to grow wheat on time. I should have burned the residue instead of investing Rs 4,500,”

How effective are the machines

This raises a big question: While the government has banned stubble burning, has it not

The effectiveness of the machines made available to farmers, like chopper, happy seede
rotavator, is questionable. “A 25-day window is not enough to decompose the straws,” s

While explaining the matter, Chand says that happy seeder has the potential of causing
“This machine just sows wheat without cutting paddy straw and this invites rats and term

When it comes to super-SMS, farmers may have to bear loss of produce and the quality
quintals of our paddy and the quality also dips as it spreads paddy along with the straw d

Not affordable

If a farmer buys all the machines at subsidised rates, he will have to spend Rs 3 lakh. An

horse power (BHP) tractors, which cost much higher than all these machines. “All these
BHP tractors to run them. It costs around Rs 10 lakh,” says Shamser Singh, village head

The cooperative society, which serves nine villages that have holdings of around 50,000

happy seeders, super-SMS, zero till drills and others to rent out interested farmers. This

of these machines. “The cost of a rotavator was Rs 80,000 earlier, but it has now jumped

farmer leader in Nabha village in Punjab’s Patiala. “We were thinking of buying it at a 50
to cough up Rs 65,000,” he adds.

Even the cost of happy seeder machines has almost doubled from Rs 95,000 to Rs 1.7 l

subsidy 4 months later. “I already took a loan from the bank to buy the rotavator machine

says Harjinder Singh, a farmer in Kalajhar village. Like Harjinder, six other farmers in the
received any subsidy yet.

The farmers also complain that they are being forced to spend so much money to use th
other use of the machines except for this one month. So making this investment is not p
COST OF CULTIVATION:

PADDY:
Sl.No. Particulars (Rs./ha.)
I. Operational Cost 66941
Human Labour 36327
Animal Labour 584
Machine Power 10871
Seed 7844
Fertilizers and Manures 8180
Plant Protection Charges 1788
Irrigation charges 199
Interest on working capital 1148
II. Fixed Cost 9135
Sub Total (I+II) 76076
Managerial cost @ 10% 7607
III. Total Cost 83683
Yield (Qtl) 54
IV. Cost of Production (Rs./Qtl) 1549

MAIZE:
Sl.No. Particulars (Rs./ha.)
I. Operational Cost 58545
Human Labour 27079
Animal Labour 943
Machine Power 9266
Seed 5074
Fertilizers and Manures 13527
Plant Protection Charges 1274
Irrigation Charges 363
Interest on working capital 1019
II. Fixed Cost 4815
Sub Total (I+II) 63360
Managerial cost @ 10% 6336
III. Total Cost 69696
Yield (Qtl) 54
IV. Cost of Production (Rs./Qtl) 1291

SUGARCANE:
Sl.No. Particulars (Rs./ha.)
I. Operational Cost 192259
Human Labour 120942
 Animal Labour 1158
Machine Power 7461
Seed 28790
Fertilizers and Manures 19276
Plant Protection Charges 1682
Irrigation Charges 624
Interest on working capital 12596
II. Fixed Cost 21348
Sub Total (I+II) 212877
Managerial cost @ 10% 21288
III. Total Cost 244165
Yield (Qtl) 993
IV. Cost of Production (Rs./Qtl) 245
 JOB ASSIGNMENT

TOPIC: Agronomy and its significance, area and

production of major cereal, pulses and oilseeds,
protection measures, cash crops, mechanization in
agriculture, food grain production in last 5 years,
cost of cultivation
SUBJECT: Agro industrial and Marketing Training
programme under RAWE.
SUBMITTED TO: MR. L.R Jangra, chief manager
(Mktg.) at NFL,R&D Farm / STL,Naya nangal.
SUBMITTED BY: urvashi sikka
Regd. No: 11500130
University: DAV University,Jalandhar
 JOB ASSIGNMENT

TOPIC: Agronomy and its significance, area and

production of major cereal, pulses and oilseeds,
protection measures, cash crops, mechanization in
agriculture, food grain production in last 5 years,
cost of cultivation
SUBJECT: Agro industrial and Marketing Training
programme under RAWE.
SUBMITTED TO: MR. L.R Jangra ,Chief Manager
(Mktg.) NFL,R&D Farm / STL,Naya nangal.
SUBMITTED BY: Chandan Guleria
Regd. No: 11500029
University: DAV University,Jalandhar
 REFERANCE

https://agriinfo.in/agronomy/

http://agricoop.nic.in/sites/default/files/Annual_rpt_201617_E.pdf

https://www.nfsm.gov.in/ReadyReckoner/CU4/CU4_APY2018.pdf

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/agronomy.htm

https://www.agronomy.org/about-agronomy

http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in/