In The Name Of Almighty

ALLAH
The Most GRACIOUS
The Most MERCIFUL

1
 CASE STUDY OF 132KV GRID STATION
LARKANA SITE

Submitted by:
MAZOOR AHMED BROHI L-13EL-28
(GROUP LEADER)

TOUFEEQ UR RAHMAN L-13EL-30

(ASSISTANT GROUP LEADER)
ANMOL SHAHANI L-13EL-55
MUHAMMAD MUZAMIL L-13EL-21
BENAZIR RAHOOJA L-13EL-48
SOBIA SHAIKH L-13EL-56

SUPERVISED BY ENGR: SAEED AHMED SHAIKH

Department of Electrical Engineering

Quaid-e-Awam University College Of Engineering Science &
Technology Larkana
2
 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering

CERTIFICATE
Final year student of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) has completed the

compulsory requirement of project / Thesis during the session, 2016-2017. Thesis

“CASE STUDY OF 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA SITE” is submitted to

the Quaid-e-Awam University College of Engineering Science and Technology

Larkana for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical).

ENGR: SAEED AHMED SHAIKH EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Supervisor

ENGR: SAEED AHMED SHAIKH

CHAIRMAN

3
 DEDICATION
A Journey Of Thousand Miles begins with a Single step and
for that single step one has to be motivated. This humble effort
is dedicated to my

DEAREST PARENTS
AND
HONOURABLE TEACHERS

Who motivated me for that step and have been guiding me to

achieve the heights an ideal life.

4
 Acknowledgments
All praise to ALLAH, the most gracious and the most merciful. Without his
blessing our accomplishments would have never been possible.

First and foremost, we would like to express our deep gratitude to our Supervisor
ENGR: SAEED AHMED SHAIKH for his help throughout this work. We are
particularly grateful for (and impressed by) his ability to always given guidance
and support based on our interest and needs.

We also appreciate the support of 132KV Grid Station staff who supported us in
completing our thesis.

Last but certainly not the least; we would like to acknowledge the sacrifice and
support of our families, who have provided us an opportunity to contribute in the
society.

Group Leader

&

Group Members

5
 CONTENTS

Chapter No. 01 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 Grid Station 11
1.3 Need of Grid Station 12
1.4 Selection of Site 12
1.5 Requirement of Land/ Area 13
1.6 Types of Substation 13
1.7 Introduction to 132KV Grid Station Larkana site 14
1.8 Sources of power to 132KV grid station larkana site 15
1.9 Out Going Feeders From 132kv Grid Station larkana site 15
1.10 Objectives 15
1.11 Methodology for getting details of grid station 16
Chapter No. 02 POWER TRANSFORMER
2.1 Definition 17
2.2 Need of Transformer 17
2.3 Main Parts of Transformer 17
2.4 Turns Ratio Equation 23
2.5 The Universal EMF Equation 24
2.6 Use of power Transformer in larkana site 24
2.7 Types of power transformer 25
2.8 Rating of 11KVA Auxiliary Transformer at grid station larkana site 25
2.9 Rating of Auxiliary Transformer 25
2.10 Cooling Methods 26
2.10.1 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) 26
2.10.2 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) 26
2.10.3 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) 27
2.10.4 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) 27
2.11 Transformer protection 27
2.12 Conservator sand breather 27

6
2.13 Marshalling Box 28
2.14 Transformer Cooling 28
2.14.1 Buchholz Relay 28
2.14.2 Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection 29
2.10.3 Combined Leakage and Over Load Protection 30
2.10.4 Merz-price Circulating Current Protection For Transformer 31
2.15 Arcing Horns 33
2.16 Surge Arrester 33

Chapter No. 03 SWITCHGEARS & CONTROL

3.1 Switch Gears 35
3.2 Current Transformer 36
3.3 Potential Transformer 36
3.4 Isolators 37
3.5 Technical Data of line isolator/Bus isolator installed at 132KV Grid Station
Larkana site 38
3.6 Circuit Breaker 39
3.7 Types of circuit Breaker 40
3.8 Use of Circuit Breaker at larkana Grid Station Site SF6 40
3.8.1 Oil Circuit Breaker 41
3.8.1.1 Advantages 42
3.8.1.2 Disadvantages 42
3.8.2 Air Blast Circuit Breaker 42
3.8.2.1 Advantages 43
3.8.2.2 Disadvantages 44
3.8.3 Vacuum Circuit Breaker 44
3.8.3.1 Construction 45
3.8.3.2 Working 45
3.8.3.3 Advantages 46
3.8.3.4 Applications 46
3.8.4 Sulphur Hexa Fluoride (SF6) Circuit Breaker 46

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3.8.4.1 Construction 47
3.8.4.2 Advantages 47
3.8.4.3 Disadvantages 48
3.8.4.4 Applications 48
3.9 Technical Data of Circuit Breaker SF6 installed at 132KV Grid Station larkana
site 50
3.10 Station Batteries 50
3.11 Line Traps 51
3.12 Grounding System 52
3.13 shunt Capacitors 53
3.14 Single Line Diagram of 132 KV Grid Station Larkana, Site 54

Chapter No. 04 DISTRIBUTION FEEDERS

4.1 Feeder 55
4.2 Selection of Size of Feeder 55
4.3 Types of Feeder 55
4.3.1 Radial System 55
4.3.2 Parallel Feeders 56
4.3.3 Ring main or Loop Type Feeder 57
4.3.4 Primary Network Feeders 58
4.4 11KV Feeders from Grid Station Larkana, Site 59

Chapter N. 05 PROTECTIVE RELAYS

5.1 Protective Relays 61

5.2 Over Current Relay 63
5.3 Characteristics of Relay Units for Over Current Protection 63
5.4 Earthing Fault Relay 65
5.4.1 Residually Connected Earth-Fault Relay 65
5.4.2 Earth-Fault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit 66

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5.5 Differential Relay 68
5.6 Distance Relay 70
5.6.1 Impedance Relay 71
5.6.2 Admittance Relay 71
5.6.3 Reactance Relay 71

Chapter No. 06 CONCLUSION

6.1 Conclusion 74
6.2 Recommendation 75

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 larkana site Grid Station 14

Figure 2.1 Parts of transformer 18
Figure 2.2 Laminated Core 19
Figure 2.3 Breather 21
Figure 2.4 Tap Changer 22
Figure 2.5 Magnetic core of transformer 24
Figure 2.6 Earth Fault/ leakage Protection 29
Figure 2.7 Combined Leakages and Over Load Protection 31
Figure 2.8 Merz-Price circulating Current Protection for Transformer 32
Figure 2.9 Arcing Horns 33
Figure 2.10 Surge Arrester 34
Figure 3.1 Current Transformer at grid station larkana site 36
Figure 3.2 potential Transformer at 132KV Grid station larkana site 37
Figure 3.3 Isolator at 132KV Grid station larkana site 38
Figure 3.4 Circuit Breaker design 40
Figure 3.5 Circuit Breakers at 132KV Grid station larkana site 41
Figure 3.6 Oil Circuit Breaker 42
Figure 3.7 Air Blast Circuit Breaker 43
Figure 3.8 Vacuum Circuit Breakers 45

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Figure 3.9 SF6 Circuit Breakers 47
Figure 3.10 SF6 Circuit Breakers at 132KV Grid station larkana site 49
Figure 3.11 Battery Room at 132KV Grid station larkana site 51
Figure 3.12 Line Trap 52
Figure 3.13 Shunt Capacitor Bank Installed at 132KV Grid station larkana
Site 53
Figure 3.14 Single Line Diagram of 132KV Grid station larkana site 54
Figure 4.1 Radial Feeder 56
Figure 4.2 Parallel Feeder 57
Figure 4.3 Ring main/ Loop type Feeder 58
Figure 4.4 11KV Feeder Panels installed at 132KV Grid station larkana
Site 60
Figure 4.5 Under Ground Cables at 132KV Grid station larkana site 60
Figure 5.1 Protective Relay 62
Figure 5.2 Relay Panels installed at 132KV Grid station larkana site 62
Figure 5.3 Schematic Diagram Of Over Current Relay 65
Figure 5.4 Residually Connected Earth Fault Relay 66
Figure 5.5 Earth Fault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth 67
Figure 5.6 Over Current and Earth Fault Relay Installed at
132KV Grid station larkana, Site 68
Figure 5.7 Connections of Differential Relay 69
Figure 5.8 Differential Relay located at 132KV Grid station larkana site 70
Figure 5.9 Reactance Relay 72
Figure 5.10 Control Panel Installed at 132KV Grid station larkana site 73
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1.1 Requirement of land For Installing Grid Station 13
Table 3.1 Technical Data of line Isolator 39
Table 4.1 Different Outgoing Feeders from Larkana Site Grid Station 59
Table 5.1 Combined Over Current and Earth Fault Relay Data 68
REFERENCES 76

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 CHAPTER NO: 01
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:

Electricity is considered to be life line of any economy and most vital instrument of
social economic development of a country. Electricity is pivotal in running machinery in
factories and industrial units, for lighting our cities and powering our vehicles. The
challenge of ensuring electricity access for industries and providing increased access to
the away parts of the population it is the key issue for any Government. How electricity is
conveyed to common man or consumer, it through interested link, that is grid station.
Before the Grid station, the supply of electricity was in the hands of large number of
private companies, each supplying a comparatively small area from small local
generating stations. So generally the supply was small, inefficient and uneconomical. In
1921-26, a committee of engineers recommended to construct the grid stations which
consist of high voltage transmission lines inter-connecting a number of generating
stations situated at ideal sites where cheep fuel is available and then supply it to
consumers. The grid system was completed in 1936 with a transmission system operating
at 132kv in USSR (KONAKOVO-MOSCOW line), in Canada.

1.2 Grid station:

A grid station is a substation -i.e. a compound or building containing transformers, circuit

breakers, bus bar systems, and protection system. A substation transfers power from the
transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly
connect electricity consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large
amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local
distribution.

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1.3 Need of Grid Station:

 Improvement of Reliability

 Improvement of economics

 Improvement of efficiency

 Improvement of power quality

 Improvement of security & safety

 Controller of entire power system

1.4 SELECTION OF SITE:

Selection of site for construction of a Grid Sub Station is the first and important activity.
This needs meticulous planning, fore-sight, skillful observation and handling so that the
selected site is technically, environmentally, economically and socially optimal and is the
best suited to the requirements

The site should be:

 As near the load centre as possible.

 Easily accessible to the public road to facilitate transport of material

 Above highest flood level (HFL) so that there is no water logging.

 Sufficiently away from areas where police and military rifle practices are held.

 Free from master plans / layouts or future development activities to have free line

 They should be far away from Airport

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1.5 REQUIREMENT OF LAND / AREA:
The site should have sufficient area to properly accommodate the Sub Station buildings,
structures, equipments, etc. and should have the sufficient area for future extension of the
buildings and / or switchyard.
The requirement of land for construction of Sub Station including staff colony is as
under:

S.No Voltage Class of Required Area

GSS(KV)
1 400 20.0 Hectare

2 220 6.0 Hectare

3 132 3.5 Hectare

Table No. 1.1 Requirement of Land for Installing Grid Station

1.6 TYPES OF SUBSTATION:

The Grid Station can be classified in several ways as following:

1. Classification based on Voltage levels

e.g. AC Grid station: EHV, HV, MV, LV

HVDC.

2. Classification based on Indoor and Outdoor

▪ Outdoor Grid station is under the open sky.

▪ Indoor Grid station is inside the building.

3. Classification based on the configuration

▪ Conventional air insulated outdoor substation or

▪ SF6 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)

▪ Composite substations having combination of the above two

13
 4. Classification based on application
▪ Step up Substation: Associated with generating station as the generating voltage
is low.

▪ Distribution Substation: Created where the transmission line voltage is Step

Down to supply voltage.

▪ Mobile Substation: Temporary requirement.

1.7 INTRODUCTION TO 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA

SITE

132kv Grid Station Larkana Site is located at airport road larkana at about of 6KM away
from (QUCEST) Quaid-E-Awam University College Of Engineering Science And
Technology Larkana

Fig 1.1 Larkana Site Grid Station

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1.8 SOURCES OF POWER TO 132 KV GRID STATION LARKANA
SITE:
There are two incoming transmission line of rating 132kv Nasirabad (NSA-1) and other
larkana new (LKN-2) both are coming to join this grid station, and energizes the 132 KV
busbar further fed to the transformer.

1.9 OUTGOING FEEDERS FROM 132 KV GRID STATION

LARKANA SITE :
THERE ARE SEVEN OUTGOING FEEDERS ACCORDING TO THE CAPACITY OF SINGLE

TRANSFORMER OF 20/26 MVA. NAMELY GIVEN BELOW :

(i) Atta Turk

(ii) Murad

(iii) T/Well

(iv) Bakrani

(v) Allah Abad

(vi) Farid Abad

(vii) Auxiliary (For Grid Station)

(viii) VIP Road

(ix) Express

1.10 OBJECTIVES

Study of power transformers

Detailed study of switch yard

1: Study of one line diagram

2: Study of protection relays and feeders

15
1.11 MATHODLOGY FOR GETTING DETAILS OF GRID STATION:

Continued visits to the grid station

Meetings with Assistant Manager Grid Station

Studying single line diagram of the grid station

Referring different related books and broachers

Referring internet sources

16
 Chapter: 02
POWER TRANSFORMER
2.1 Definition:
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another
without changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer. Since there is
no rotating or moving part so transformer is a static device. Transformer operates on ac
supply. Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.

2.2 Need of transformer:

Generation of electrical power in low voltage level is very much cost effective.
Theoretically, this low voltage level power can be transmitted to the receiving end. This
low voltage power if transmitted results in greater line current which indeed causes more
line losses, But if the voltage level of a power is increased, the current of the power is
reduced which causes reduction in ohmic or I2R losses in the system, reduction in cross
sectional area of the conductor i.e. reduction in capital cost of the system and it also
improves the voltage regulation of the system. Because of these, low level power must be
stepped up for efficient electrical power transmission. This is done by step up transformer
at the sending side of the power system network. As this high voltage power may not be
distributed to the consumers directly, this must be stepped down to the desired level at the
receiving end with the help of step down transformer. Electrical power transformer thus
plays a vital role in power transmission.

2.3 Main parts of transformer:

The following are the basic parts of a transformer.

1. Laminated core
2. Windings
3. Insulating Materials
4. Transformer oil
5. Tap changer

17
 6. Conservator
7. Breather
8. Cooling tubes
9. Buchholz Relay
10. Explosion vent

Of the above mentioned, first four can be seen in almost all the transformers whereas the
rest can be found only in transformers more than 50KVA.

Figure 2.1 Parts of Transformer

1. Laminated Core:
Core is used to support the windings in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance
path to the flow of magnetic flux. It is made up of laminated soft iron core in order to
reduce eddy current loss and Hysteresis loss. The composition of a transformer core
depends on such factors as voltage, current, and frequency. Diameter of the transformer
core is directly proportional to copper loss and is inversely proportion to the iron loss. If
diameter of the core is decreased, the weight of the steel in the core is reduced which

18
leads to less core loss of transformer and the copper loss increase. The vice versa happen
when the diameter is increased.

Figure 2.2 Laminated Core

2. Windings of Transformer:
There are two windings wound over the transformer core which are insulated from each
other. Windings consists of several turns of copper coils bundled together an each
bundles are connected in series to form a winding.
Windings can be classified in two different ways.
a) Based on the input and output supply
b) Based on the voltage range
Based on the supply
Based on the supply the windings are classified into
a) Primary windings
It is the winding to which the input voltage is applied.
b) And secondary windings.
It is the winding to which the output voltage is applied.
Based on the voltage range
Based on the voltage the windings can be classified as follows
a) High voltage winding

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High voltage windings are made up of copper coil. The number of turns in it is the
multiple of the number of turns in the low voltage windings. It has copper coils thinner
than that of the low voltage windings.
b) Low voltage windings
Low voltage winding has lesser number of turns than that of the high voltage windings. It
is made up of the thick copper conductors. This is because the current in the low voltage
windings is higher than that of high voltage windings.
Transformer can be supplied from either LV or HV windings based on the requirement.

3. Insulating materials:
Insulating papers and card boards are used in transformers of to isolate primary and
secondary winding from each other and from transformer core. Transformer oil is also an
insulating material.

4. Transformer oil:
Transformer oil performs two important functions of insulation as well as cooling for the
core and coil assembly. Core and windings of the transformer must be completely
immersed in the oil. Normally hydrocarbon mineral oils are used as transformer oil. Oil
contamination is a serious problem because it robs its dielectric properties and renders it
useless as an insulating medium.

5. Conservator:
Conservator conserves the transformer oil. It is an airtight metallic cylindrical drum
which is fitted above the transformer. The conservator tank is vented to the atmosphere at
the top and the normal oil level is approximately in the middle of the conservator to allow
expansion and contraction of oil during the temperature variations. It is connected to the
main tank inside the transformer which is completely filled with transformer oil through a
pipeline.

6. Breather:
The insulating oil of transformer is provided for cooling and insulating purpose.
Expansion and contraction of oil during the temperature variations cause pressure change

20
inside the conservator. This change in pressure is balanced by the flow of atmospheric air
into and out of the conservator. Transformer breather is a cylindrical container which is
filled with silica gel. Insulating oil reacts with moisture can affect the paper insulation or
may even lead to some internal faults. So it is necessary that the air entering the tank is
moisture free. For this purpose breather is used. Breather consists of silica gel contained
in a chamber. When the atmospheric air passes through the silica gel breather the
moisture contents are absorbed by the silica crystals. Silica gel breather is acts like an air
filter for the transformer and controls the moisture level inside a transformer. It is
connected to the end of breather pipe.

Figure 2.3 Breather

7. Tap changer:
The output voltage may vary according to the input voltage and the load. During loaded
conditions the voltage on the output terminal fall and during off load conditions the
output voltage increases. In order to balance the voltage variations tap changers are used.
Tap changers can be either on load tap changer or off load tap changer. In on load tap
changers the tapping can be changed without isolating the transformer from the supply
and in off load tap changers it is done after disconnecting the transformer. Automatic tap
changers are also available.

21
 Figure 2.4 Tap Changer

8. Cooling tubes:
Cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The transformer oil is circulated
through the cooling tubes. The circulation of the oil may either be natural or forced
circulation. In natural circulation, when the temperature of the oil raises the hot oil
naturally moves to the top and the cold oil moves downwards. Thus the oil keeps on
circulating through the tubes. In forced circulation, an external pump is used for
circulating the oil.

9. Buchholz Relay:
It is a protective device container housed over the connecting pipe from main tank to
conservator tank. It is used to sense the faults occurring inside the transformer. It is a
simple relay which is operated by the gases emitted due to the decomposition of
transformer oil during internal faults. It helps in sensing and protecting the transformer
from internal faults.

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 10. Explosion Ventilator:

Explosion vent is used to expel the boiling oil in the transformer during heavy internal
faults in order to avoid the explosion of the transformer. During heavy faults the oil
rushes out of the vent. The level of the explosion vent is normally maintained above the
level of the conservatory tank.

2.4 Turns ratio equation

A simple transformer consists of two electrical conductors called the primary

winding and the secondary winding. If a time-varying voltage is applied to the
primary winding of turns, a current will flow in it producing a magneto motive force
(MMF). Just as an electromotive force (EMF) drives current around an electric circuit, so
MMF drives magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. The primary MMF produces a
varying magnetic flux in the core (shaded grey), and induces a back
electromotive (EMF) in opposition to . In accordance with Faraday's Law, the voltage
induced across the primary winding is proportional to the rate of change of flux:

Similarly, the voltage induced across the secondary winding is:

With perfect flux coupling, the flux in the secondary winding will be equal to that in the

primary winding, and so we can equate and . It thus follows that:

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2.5 The Universal EMF equation

If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its number
of turns, voltage, magnetic flux density and core cross-sectional area is given by the
universal emf equation:

Where E is the sinusoidal root mean square voltage of the winding, F is the frequency in
hertz, N is the number of turns of wire, α is the cross-sectional area of the core and B is
the peak magnetic flux density in tesla. The value 4.44 collects a number of constants
required by the system units.

Figure 2.5 Magnetic core of transformer

2.6 USE OF POWER TRANSFORMER IN GRID STATION

LARKANA SITE

The power transformer used in grid station Larkana Site has the voltage capacity 132/11
KV. Single power transformers (Tl) is used for step down transformer in grid station
larkana site.

POWER TRANSFORMER T1

Capacity 20/26 MVA

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Manufactured by Siemens

Incoming Lines: NSA1 and LKN2

Feeders: Atta Turk, Murad, T/Well, Bakrani, Farid Abad, Allah Abad, Auxillary for
Larkana Site Grid Station.

2.7 TYPES OF POWER TRANSFORMER:

There are three types of power transformer on the basis of number of windings:

1: Auto transformer (Single winding transformer)

2: Two windings transformer (Primary and Secondary)

3: Three windings transformer (Primary, Secondary and Tertiary windings)

2.8 RATTING OF 11KVA AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER AT GRID

STATION LARKANA SITE:

A 100 KVA pad mounted auxiliary transformer is installed at Grid station whose input
11KV feeder from 11kV control room (11KV switch room) and gives an output of 240.

The main purpose of auxiliary transformer is to provide a 240V supply to A.C auxiliary
panel which is placed in control room.

2.9 RATING OF AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER

PEL

Pak Electron Limited Lahore Pakistan

Transformer ------IBD1031I Type of cooling ON

KVA ---------- -> 100 Frequency 50 Hz

Volt HV 11500 Impedance volt V 4.15

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L.V 415 Oil I EC 296 Lit 200

Ampere H.V. 5.02 Weight of oil Kgs 176

L.V. 139.12 Core and windings Kgs 335

Phases H.V. 3 Total weight Kgs 754

Diagram drawing No. PEL SI 14 Year of man: 1972

Vector Symbols Dy 11 WAPDA P.O. No. 218

2.10 COOLING METHODS:

As the size and capacity of the transformer increased, the associated cooling arrangement
become more powerful and sophisticated. So, by definition, the transformer cooling
system is such arrangement for power transformers, which limits the generated heat into a
safe value by means of proper dissipation of generated heat. Different cooling system is
used for different types of transformers, and they are discussed as follows:

2.10.1 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN):

This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in
the core and winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection,
the heated oil flows in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is
filled up by cooled oil from the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the
atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil in
transformer keeps circulating due to natural convection and dissipating heat in
atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be used for transformers upto
about 30 MVA.

2.10.2 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF):

The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating
surface. Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method,
fans are mounted near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic starting

26
arrangement, which turns on when temperature increases beyond certain value. This
transformer cooling method is generally used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.

2.10.3 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF):

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced
through the heat exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger
with the help of fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted separately from the
transformer tank and connected through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure.
This type of cooling is provided for higher rating transformers at substations or power
stations.

2.10.4 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF):

This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate
hear from the heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with
the help of a pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow.
The heated water is taken away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in
very large transformers having rating of several hundred MVAs.

2.11 Transformer Protection

Transformers are totally enclosed static devices and generally oil immersed. Therefore
chances of fault occurring on them are very rare, however the consequences of even a
rare fault may be very serious unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the
system. This provides adequate automatic protection for transformers against possible
faults.

2.12 Conservator and Breather:

When the oil expands or contacts by the change in the temperature, the oil level goes
either up or down in main tank. A conservator is used to maintain the oil level up to
predetermined value in the transformer main tank by placing it above the level of the top
of the tank.

27
 Breather is connected to conservator tank for the purpose of extracting moisture
as it spoils the insulating properties of the oil. During the contraction and expansion of oil
air is drawn in or out through breather silica gel crystals impregnated with cobalt
chloride. Silica gel is checked regularly and dried and replaced when necessary.

2.13 Marshalling box:

It has two meter which indicate the temperature of the oil and winding of main
tank. If temperature of oil or winding exceeds than specified value, relay operates to
sound an alarm. If there is further increase in temperature then relay completes the trip
circuit to open the circuit breaker controlling the transformer.

2.14 Transformer cooling:

When the transformer is in operation heat is generated due to iron losses the
removal of heat is called cooling.

The principle relays and systems used for transformer protection are,

1. Buchholz relay
2. Earth fault relay.
3. Over current relay.
4. Differential system.

Complete protection of transformer usually requires the combination of these systems.

2.14.1 Buchholz Relay

Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformers for
protection against all kinds of internal faults.

It is used to give alarm in case of incipient faults i.e ( slow developing faults) in the
transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event as severe
internal faults i.e( insulation failure of winding, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky
joints.)

28
It is usually installed in the pipe connecting the conservator to main tank.

Buchholz relays is used on oil immersed transformers having ratings in excess of 750
KVA

2.14.2 Earth-Fault or leakage protection

An earth fault relay is essentially an over current relay of low setting and operates as soon
as an earth fault or leak develops.

An earth fault usually involves a partial breakdown of winding insulation to earth.

One method of protection against earth faults in a transformer is the core-balance leakage
protection shown in below fig.

Fig:2.6 Earth-Fault or leakage protection

Operation

Under normal operating condition the vector sum of the three phase currents is zero and
there is no resultant flux in the core of current transformer.

29
However on the occurrence of earth fault, the vector sum of three phase currents is no
longer zero.

The resultant current sets up flux in the core of the CT which induces emf in the
secondary winding.

This energizes the relay to trip the circuit breaker and disconnect the faulty transformer
from the system

2.14.3 Combined leakage and over load protection

The core balance protection suffer from the drawback that it cannot provide protection
against over loads.

It is usually practice to provide combined leakage and over load protection for
transformers.

The earth relay has low current setting and operate under earth or leakage faults only.

The over load relays have high current setting and are arranged to operate against faults
between the phases

Operation

In this system of protection, two over load relays and one earth or leakage relay are
connected as shown in fig.

The two over load relays are sufficient to protect against phase to phase faults.

30
 Fig:2.7 Combined leakage and over load protection

The trip contacts of over load relays and earth fault relay are connected in parallel.

Therefore with the energizing of either over load relay or earth relay, circuit breaker will
be operated.

2.14.4 Merz-price circulating current protection for transformer

Merz-price circulating current principle is commonly used for the protection of power
transformer against earth and phase faults.

Fig shows a merz-price scheme for the protection of a three phase delta/delta power
transformer against phase to ground and phase to phase faults.

31
 Fig: 2.8 Merz-price circulating current protection for transformer

Note that CTs on the two sides of transformer are connected in star.

This compensate for the phase difference between the power transformer primary and
secondary.

The CTs on the two sides are connected by pilot wires and one relay is used for each pair
of CTs

Operation

During normal operating condition, the secondaries of CTs carry identical current.
Therefore the currents entering and leaving the pilot wires at both ends are the same and
no current flows through the relay.

If ground or phase to phase fault occurs, the currents in the secondaries of CTs will no
longer be the same and the differential current flowing through the relay circuit will clear
the breaker on both sides of the transformer.

32
The protected zone is limited to the region between CTs on the high voltage side and the
CTs on the low voltage side of the power transformer.

2.15 ARCING HORNS

Arcing horns (sometimes arc-horns) are projecting conductors used to

protect insulators on high voltage electric power transmission systems from damage
during flashover. Over voltages on transmission lines, due to electricity, lightning strikes,
or electrical faults, can cause arcs across insulators (flashovers) that can damage them.
The horns encourage the flashover to occur between them rather than across of the
surface of the insulator they protect. Horns are normally paired on either side of the
insulator, one connected to the high voltage part and the other to ground, They are
frequently to be seen on insulator strings on overhead lines, or
protecting transformer bushings.

Figure 2.6: Arcing horn

Figure 2.9 Arcing Horn

2.16 SURGE ARRESTER

Surge arresters are devices that help prevent damage to apparatus due to high voltages.
The arrester provides a low-impedance path to ground for the current from a lightning
strike or transient voltage and then restores to a normal operating conditions.
A surge arrester may be compared to a relief valve on a boiler or hot water heater. It will
release high pressure until a normal operating condition is reached. When the pressure is
returned to normal, the safety valve is ready for the next operation.

33
When a high voltage (greater than the normal line voltage) exists on the line, the arrester
immediately furnishes a path to ground and thus limits and drains off the excess voltage.
The arrester must provide this relief and then prevent any further flow of current to
ground as shown in figure 2.8. The arrester has two functions; it must provide a point in
the circuit at which an over-voltage pulse can pass to ground and
second, to prevent any follow-up current from flowing to ground.

Figure 2.10 Surge Arrester

34
 Chapter: 03
SWITCHGEARS & CONTROL

3.1 SWITCHGEARS:
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnecting
switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done
and to clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability
of the electricity supply. Typically, switchgears in substations are located on both the
high- and low-voltage sides of large power transformers. The switchgear on the low-
voltage side of the transformers may be located in a building, with medium-voltage
circuit breakers for distribution circuits, along with metering, control, and protection
equipment. For industrial applications, a transformer and switchgear line-up may be
combined in one house, called a unitized substation (USS).

 Earth switches
 Current transformer
 Potential transformers
 Isolators
 Circuit breakers
 Load break switches
 Relays

Switchgear protection plays a vital role in modern power system network, right from
generation through transmission to distribution end. The current interruption device or
switching device is called circuit breaker in switchgear protection system. The circuit
breaker can be operated manually as when required and it is also operated during over
current and short circuit or any other faults in the system by sensing the abnormality of
system. The circuit breaker senses the faulty condition of system through protection relay
and this relay is again actuated by faulty signal normally comes from current transformer
or voltage transformer.

35
3.2 Current transformer:
A current transformer (CT) is a transformer that is used to produce an alternating current
(AC) in its secondary which is proportional to the AC current in its primary. Current
transformers, together with voltage transformers (VTs) or potential transformers (PTs),
which are designed for measurement, are known as instrument transformers.

Current transformers can reduce or “step-down” current levels from

thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1
Amp for normal operation. Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can
be used with CT’s because they are insulated away from any high-voltage power lines.
There is a variety of metering applications and uses for current transformers such as with
Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-hour meters, protective relays, or as trip coils in
magnetic circuit breakers, or MCB’s.

Figure No. 3.1 CTs at 132KV Grid Larkana Site

Figure 3.1 Current Transformer at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site
3.3 Potential transformer:

Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT), are a parallel
connected type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to
the supply being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to
enable accurate secondary connected metering.

Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical power system for
stepping down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters
36
and relays. Commercially available relays and meters used for protection and metering,
are designed for low voltage.

Figure 3.2 PTs at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

3.4 Isolators:

Isolators are disconnecting switches and are oil less high voltage circuit opening device.
Isolators are used to disconnect the bus-bars as well as to make a change over in main
connection, that involves no need to interrupt a load current. They operate breaking
capacity or current making capacity. In some cases isolators are used for breaking
charging current of transmission line. Isolators are used in addition to circuit breakers
while opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first then isolator while closing a
circuit the isolator is closed first then circuit breaker. Sometimes an isolator is used
instead of a circuit breaker as a primary means of opening and closing a circuit where it
is not to be economical or necessary to provide a relay protection or other automatic
devices. In such cases, however special measure (i.e. interlocks) is incorporated to guard
against any protection of the isolator.

Apart from the uses described above an isolator also serves as switching device between
primary circuits, lightning arresters, capacitors, electrical ash precipitators and voltage
transformers i.e. equipment that only draws small current.

37
 Figure 3.3 Isolators at 132 KV grid station larkana site

3.5 TECHNICAL DATA OF LINE ISOLATOR / BUS ISOLATOR

INSTALLED AT 132KV GIRD STATION LARKANA SITE:
The main technical data of the disconnections are given in table:

38
* The peak withstand current and short time withstand current of the earthing switches
are as some as that of the disconnectors. "D" stand for "with earthing switch" and "W"
for "Extended creep age distance.

(b) Hated voltage of type DSWM1 electromagnetic interlock for type CS17-G
manual operating mechanism.

(c) The technical data of type CJ2 - XG motor operating mechanism as shown in
Table below

Table No. 3.1 Technical Data for Line Isolator

3.6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device, designed to open or close a circuit
under the specified abnormal or normal conditions. In Abnormal such as over load, over
current, insulation failure, an earth fault, over voltage or under voltage. A reverse power
flows in case of parallel feeders without injury to itself.

For a low voltage circuit, the fuses may be used to isolate the faulty circuits but for the
higher voltages isolation is achieved by a circuit breaker.

A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can,

i. Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal

conditions.
ii. Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions,
iii. Make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault

39
 3.7 TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER

Following are the main types of circuit breaker detailed as:

1. Oil Circuit breaker (O.C.B)

2. Air blast circuit breaker (A.B.C. B)
3. Vacuum Circuit breaker- (V.C.B)
4. Sulplur hexa Flouride (S.F6 C.B)

3.8 Use of C.B at Grid Station larkana site

In Larkana Site Grid Station, SF6 C.B. is used, for the protection of power T/f T1.

Figure 3.4 Circuit Breaker Design

40
 Figure 3.5 Circuit Breakers at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site
3.8.1 Oil Circuit Breaker

In such a circuit breaker some insulating oil (e.g transformer oil) is used as an arc
quenching medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them.
The heat of an arc evaporates the surface of oil and dissociates it into a substantial
volume of the gaseous hydrogen at a high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume
about one thousand times that of the oil decomposed. The oil is therefore pushed away
from the arc and an expanding hydrogen gas bubbles surrounds the region and the
adjacent portions of the contacts as shown in Fig. 3.6. An arc extinction is facilitated
mainly by the two processes firstly the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cool,
the arc, thus aiding the deionization in the medium between the contacts. Secondly the
gas setup the turbulence in oil and forces into the space between the contacts, thus
eliminating the arcing medium from the arc path. The result is that the arc is extinguished
and the circuit current is interrupted.

41
 Figure 3.6 Oil Circuit Breaker

3.8.1.1 Advantages

i. It absorbs an arc energy to decompose oil into a gas, which has an excellent
cooling properties.

ii. The surrounding oil provides the cooling surface in close proximity to an arc.

iii. It acts as an insulator and permits the smaller clearance between the live
conductors and earthed components.

3.8.1.2 Disadvantages
i. It is inflammable and there is a risk of fire,

ii. It may form an explosive mixture with air

iii. The arcing products (e.g. carbon) remain in the oil and its quality deteriorates
with successive operations, It requires periodic checking and replacement of oil.

3.8.2 Air Blast Circuit Breaker

These breakers employ a high pressure air blast as an arc quenching medium. These
contacts are opened in the flow of Air-blast established by the opening of blast valve.
An air blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere.
This rapidly increase the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts and
prevents from re-establishing an arc. Consequently an arc is extinguished and flow of
a current is interrupted.

42
 Figure 3.7 Air Blast Circuit Breaker

3.8.2.1 Advantages
1. Due to lesser arc energy air blast circuit breakers are very suitable for
conditions, where the frequent operation is required.

2. The arcing products arc completely removed by the blast so the expense of a
regular oil replacement is avoided.

3. The risk of fire is eliminated.

4. The arcing time is very small due to rapid build-up of dielectric strength
between the contacts.

5. The energy supplied for an arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air
and is independent of the current to be interrupted.

6. The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final contact gap needed for
arc extinction is very small. This reduces the size of the device.

7. Every time Air is used for Arc extension is fresh air from atmosphere

43
3.8.2.2 Disadvantages
1. A considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant which
supplies
the air blast.

2. The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing properties.

3. The air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variation in the rate of
rise of restriking voltage.

4. Air leaks at the fittings of the pipelines.

5. Additional cost of compressor plant is required

6. Current chopping

3.8.3 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

In such breaker vacuum being in the range from 107 to105 torr is used as the arc-
quenching medium. Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength, it has
superior arc quenching property than other. When the contacts of the breaker are
opened in vacuum (10-7 to 10-5 torr) an arc is produced between the contacts by the
ionization of metal vapors of contacts. However, the arc is quickly extinguished
because metallic vapors electrons and ions produced during arc rapidly condense on
the surface of C.B contacts resulting in quick recovery of dielectric strength. As soon
as the arc is produced in vacuum it is quickly extinguished due to the fast rate of
recovery of dielectric strength in vacuum.

44
 Figure 3.8 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

3.8.3.1 Construction
Fig. 3.8 shows the parts of a typical vacuum circuit breaker. It consists of a fixed
contact, moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The
moveable member is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows.
A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body. The arc shield
prevents the deterioration of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic
vapours falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating cover.

3.8.3.2 Working
When the breaker operates, the moving contact separates from the fixed contact and
an arc is struck between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the ionization of
metal ions and depends very much upon the material of contacts. The arc is quickly
extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced during arc are
diffused in a short time and seized by the surfaces of moving and fixed members and
shields. Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength the arc
extinction in vacuum breaker occurs with a short contact separation (say 0.625 cm).

45
3.8.3.3 Advantages
1. They are compact reliable and have longer life.

2. There are no fire hazards.

3. There is no generation of gas during and after operation.

4. They require little maintenance and are quiet in operation

5 They can successfully withstands lightning surges.

6 They have low arc energy

7 They have low inertia and hence require smaller power for control mechanism.

3.8.3.4 Applications

For a country like India, where distance are quite large and accessibility to remote
areas is difficult the installation of such outdoor, maintenance free C.Bs should prove
a definite advantage. Vacuum circuit breakers are being employed for outdoor
applications ranging from 22 kV to 66 kV.

3.8.4 Sulphur Hexa Flouride (SF6) Circuit Breaker

Sulphur Hexa Flouride (SF6) gas is used as an arc-quenching medium. The SF6 is an
electro negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. When the
contacts of the circuit breakers are opened, an arc is struck between them, then high
pressure of SF6 gas is used to overcome the problem of arc. . The SF6 circuit breakers
have been found to be very effective for high power and high voltage service.

46
 Figure 3.9 SF6 Circuit Breaker

3.8.4.1 Construction
A given figure 3.9 shows the parts of a typical SF6 circuit breaker. It consists of fixed
and moving contacts enclosed in a chamber (called arc interruption chamber)
containing the SF6 gas when the contacts of breaker are opened the valve mechanism
permits a high pressure SF6 gas from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption
chamber. The fixed contact in a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with
an arc horn. The moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in
the sides to permit the SF6 gas. The tips of fixed contact, moving contact and arcing
horn are coated with copper tungsten arc resistant material. Since SF6 gas is costly, it
is reconditioned and reclaimed by suitable auxiliary system after each operation of the
breaker.

Working in the closed position of the breaker, the contacts remains surrounded by SF6
gas at a pressure of about 2.8kg/ cm2. When the breaker operates then the moving
contact is pulled apart and an arc is struck between the contacts. The moving contact
is synchronized with the opening of a valve, which permits SF6 gas at 14-kg/ cm2
pressure from the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber. The high-pressure flow of
SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form immobile negative ions,
which are ineffective as the charge carriers. The result is that the contacts quickly
builds-up high dielectric strength and causes the extinction of the arc. After the
breaker operation the valve is closed by the action of a set of springs.

3.8.4.2 Advantages:

1. SF6, gas is inflammable and there is no risk of fire.

2. SF6, breaker has the low maintenance cost, light foundation requirements and

47
 minimum auxiliary equipment as compared to ABCB and MOCB.

3. There are no carbon deposits so that the tracking and insulation problems are
eliminated.

4. Due to the superior arc quenching property of SF6 gas such circuit breakers
have very short arcing time.

5. It gives noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit and no

exhaust to atmosphere.

6. Due to close enclosure there is no moisture problem.

7. Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such circuit
breakers can interrupt much larger currents.

8. Same gases is recirculated in the circuit breaker hence requirement of SF6

Gases is small.
9. No over voltage problem.

3.8.4.3 Disadvantages:

1. For the reconditioning of SF6 gas additional equipment is required for this
purpose.
2. The SF6 circuit breaker arc costly due to high cost of SF6 gas (Sulphur hexa
Fluoride gas).

3. Sealing problem arise due to imperfect joints this leads to leakage of gas.

4. Arced SF6 Gas will be poisonous and should not be inhaled or let-out to the
atmosphere

3.8.4.4 Applications
A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units each capable of dealing with
currents up to 60KV and voltage in range of 50-80KV. SF6 gas breakers have been
developed for voltages 115KV to 230KV. Power rating 10MVA to 20MVA and
interrupting time less than 3 cycles.

Typical SF6 circuit breaker installed at 132/11KV Gird Station

48
 Figure 3.10 SF6 Circuit Breakers at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

49
3.9 Technical Data Of The Circuit Breaker SF6 Installed At 132KV
Grid Station Larkana Site

3.10 STATION BATTRIES

The heart of a substation is the battery bank. If this were to fail, an electric utility
could expose all feeders associated with the station to a condition where they could
not ever trip in a fault. Not only that, but any backup devices, such as the main
breaker on the low-voltage side or the high-voltage side protection of the power
transformer, would all be inoperative, leaving the transmission grid protection as the
only possible backup.

There are two major types of battery banks used for substation applications; lead acid
and nickel cadmium. The nickel cadmium battery banks are about twice the cost of

50
lead acid for the same size bank. Total 55 batteries are installed at 132 KV Grid
station Larkana site as shown in picture 3.10, each having two volt rating. And total
output dc voltage of batteries is 110V.

Figure 3.11 Battery Room at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

3.11 LINE TRAPS

Line traps are used in transmission and distribution networks. They are a key
component in PLC (Power Line Carrier) systems used for remote control signals,
voice communication, remote metering and control between substations in the
electrical T&D network. A line trap (high-frequency stopper) is a maintenance-free
parallel resonant circuit, mounted inline on high voltage AC transmission power lines
to prevent undue loss of carrier signal of high frequency (40 kHz to 1000 kHz) under
all power system conditions. Line trap is a parallel LC circuit as shown in figure 3.12.

51
 Figure 3.12 line trap

3.12 GROUNDING SYSTEM

The sole purpose of substation grounding/earthing is:1)

To protect the equipment from surges and lightning strikes and2)

To protect the operating persons in the substation

The substation earthing system is necessary for connecting neutral points of

transformers and generators to ground and also for connecting the non current
carrying metal parts such as structures, overhead shielding wires, tanks, frames, etc to
earth. Earthing of surge arresters is through the earthing system. The function of
substation earthing system is to provide a grounding mat below the earth surface in
and around the substation which will have uniformly zero potential with respect to
ground and lower earth resistance to ensure that; To provide discharge path for
lightning over voltages coming via rod-gaps, surge arresters, and shielding wires etc.
To ensure safety of the operating staff by limiting voltage gradient at ground level in
the substation. To provide low resistance path to the earthling switch earthed
terminals, so as to discharge the trapped charge (Due to charging currents even the
line is dead still charge remains which causes dangerous shocks) to earth prior to
maintenance and repairs.

52
3.13 SHUNT CAPACITORS

Shunt capacitors are used for compensating reactive power of lagging power factor.
Shunt Capacitors are used for improving the power factor. It is also used for voltage
control during heavy lagging power factor loads. Shunt Capacitors are located at the
receiving stations and distribution substations as shown in Figure 3.13. Shunt
Capacitors are switched in during heavy loads and switched – off during low loads.

Figure 3.13 Shunt Capacitor Bank Installed at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

53
Figure 3.14 Single Line Diagram Of 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

54
 CHAPTER: 04

DISTRIBUTION FEEDERS
4.1 Feeder
A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station to the area where power is to
be distributed. It operates at the primary distribution voltage and delivers power to
assigned area. Together the feeders emitting from a substation which serve all the
loads and cover all the area assign to that particular substation. This area should be an
approximate circle, polygon or hexagon and the substation should be located
approximately at the central point in cases where the load is more or less uniform
some times, A feeder consist of single route living the substation which branches
with spurs. This splits the power flow into the smaller capacity tee-offs for delivery
as power flows from the substation to the consumer. Feeders are planned by starting
from the substation with the main trunk portion of the largest economical conductor
and generally follow streets, Roads, highways and Property Boundaries. No tapings
are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same throughout. The main
consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity. Feeder must
be capable in carrying the amount of current required by the load, and also any
current that may be required in the future.

4.2 Selection of the size of Feeder

The selection of the size of a feeder depends upon the size and nature of the known
load as computed from the branch circuits, and also depends upon the unknown but
anticipated future loads and the voltage drop.

4.3 Types of Feeder

1. Radial
2. Parallel feeders
3. Ring main or loop type
4. Primary network feeders

4.3.1 Radial System

Radial feeders are the simplest, most common and least expensive, both to construct
and for their protection system. The main primary feeder branches into many primary
55
laterals which separate into sub laterals to serve all the distribution transformers.
This advantage however is offset by the difficulty of maintaining supply in the event
of a fault occurring in the feeder.

A fault would result in the loss of supply to a number of customers until the fault is
located and cleared from the source by a disconnecting device such as Fuse,
Sectionalizes, Disconnecting Switch or Reclose.

Figure 4.1 Radial Feeder

4.3.2 Parallel Feeders

A greater level of reliability at a higher cost is achieved with a parallel feeder. A

typical parallel feeder system is shown schematically.

In the event of a line fault only one of the feeder sets of cables will be affected,
thus allowing the remaining parallel feeder to continue to supply the load.To
improve the reliability factor it may be possible to have the separate sets of cables
follow different routes. In this case the capital cost is double that of a radial
feeder but there is a greater reliability factor for the line. This may be justified if

56
 the load is higher, more customers are being supplied, or there are loads such as
hospitals which require high levels of reliability.

Parallel feeders are more common in urban areas or for feeders to large single
customers, where load shedding in an emergency may be possible.

Figure 4.2 Parallel Feeder

4.3.3 Ring main or loop type Feeder

The start and finish ends of the ring are at the same location, power is delivered by
both pathways of the ring into substations located around the ring. The size of
conductor is kept same throughout Loop. It is selected to carry its normal load and
also the load of the other half of the loop. This arrangement provides two parallel
paths from the

substation to the load when the loop is operated with normally open tie breakers or
disconnects switches.

If a fault occur on a feeder cable at any point around the ring the faulty section may be
isolated by the operation of the protecting circuit breakers, at the same time
maintaining supply to all substations on the ring. Current practice is to use distribution

57
automation, where operation and supply restoration in the feeder rings is done
automatically by centrally controlled supervisory systems.

Figure 4.3 Ring main or loop type feeder

4.3.4 Primary Network Feeders

A primary network is a system of inter connected feeders supplied by a number of
substation. The radial primary feeders can be trapped off the interconnecting tie
feeders. They can also be served directly from the substation. Each tie feeder has two
associated circuit breakers at each end in order to have fewer loads interrupted due to
a tie feeder fault.

This system supplies a load from several directions. Proper location of transformer to
heavy load centres and regulation of the feeders at the substation buses provide for
adequate voltage at utilization points. In general, the losses in a primary network are
lower than those in a comparable radial system due to load division. However, it is re
difficult to design and operate then the radial or loop systems. Radially and the quality
of service of the primary network arrangement is much higher than the radial and loop
arrangements.

58
4.4 11 KV FEEDERS FROM GRID STATION LARKANA, SITE.

All the 11KV feeders coming out from larkana grid station are radial type.

*There are total 11 feeders installed in grid station.

*One Feeder is supply electricity into the Grid station use itself.

*One Feeder is Incoming From lodrah –daddu of 132 KV.

*There are NINE Feeders which are outgoing from “132KV GRID STATION
LARKANA, SITE”and some information about11KV Feeders is given below in
Table 4.1.

FEEDERS OUTGOING TOTAL CAPACITY RUNNING LOAD IN COMPANY

OF LOAD IN Amps Amps

ALIABAD 400Amps 60Ampsupto 390 PEMPAK

Faredabad 400Amps 20Amp upto 390 PEL

Allahabad 400Amps 120Ampupto 390 PEL

BAKRANI 400Amps 10Ampupto 390 PEL

T/WELL 2 400Amps 20Ampsupto 390 PEL

MURADWAN 400Amps 140Ampsupto 390 PEL

ATTATURK 400Amps 90Ampsupto 390 PEL

VIP ROAD 400Amps 40Ampsupto 390 SIEMENS

EXPRESS 400Amps 40AMPupto 390 SIEMENS

Table 4.1 Different Feeders Outgoing from Larkana Site Grid Station

59
Figure 4.4 11KV Feeder Panels Installed at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

Figure 4.5 Underground Cables Installed at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

60
 CHAPTER: 05
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
5.1 PROTECTIVE RELAYS
The protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
The relay detects the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault
conditions. The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are
voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Through the changes in one or more of
these quantities, the faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective
relays. Having detected the fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the
breaker shown in figure 5.1. This results in the opening of breaker and disconnection
of the faulty circuit.
A typical relay circuit is shown in below figure. This diagram shows one phase of 3-
phase system for simplicity. The relay circuit connections can be divided into three
parts.
i) First part is the primary winding of a current transformer which is connected
in series with the line to be protected.
ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of current transformer and the relay
operating coil.

iii) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either A.C or D.C. it consists of
a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing in
the line increases to an enormous value, this results in a heavy current flow through
the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes
the trip circuit of the

Breaker, making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest
of the system. In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from
damage and normal working of healthy portion of the system.

61
 Figure 5.1 protective relay

Figure 5.2 Relay Panels Installed at 132KV grid station Larkana Site

62
5.2 OVER CURRENT RELAY

As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than load
current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value and
therefore a fault is accompanied by large current. Over-current protection is that
protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the
pickup level.

The basic element in Over-current protection is an Over-current relay.

The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CT's.
Over-current relaying has following types:
1. High speed Over-current protection.
2. Definite time Over-current protection.
3. Inverse minimum time Over-current protection.
4. Directional Over-current protection (of above types).
Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely
used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment generally) means the
machine is taking more current than its rated current. Hence with overloading, there is
an associated temperature rise. Over-current protection includes short-circuit
protection. Short circuits may be phase faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short-
circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault
clearance is always desirable on short-circuits. When a machine is protected by
differential protection, the over-current is provided in addition as a back-up and in
some cases to protect the machine from sustained through fault.
Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these include:
1. Fuses
2. Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-current relays.
3. Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
4. Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.

5.3 Characteristics of relay units for over current protection

There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their type and
characteristics. The major characteristic includes:
1. Definite characteristic

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 2. Inverse characteristic
3. Extremely Inverse
4. Very Inverse
In definite characteristic, the time of operation is almost definite i.e.
I0 * T = K
Where:
I = Current in relay coil
T = Relay time
K = Constant.
In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e.

I1 * T = K
In more inverse characteristic

In * T = K
Where n can be between 2 to 8 the choice depends on discrimination desired.
Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag sod which operate
in less than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As suck they are not
instantaneous in real sense.
The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such relays are
provided with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss. bellows, escape
mechanisms, back-stop arrangement, etc.
The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating quantity
can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer.
An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the magnitude of
the actuating quantity is increased. However for higher magnitudes of actuating
quantity the time is constant. Definite time curve is one in which operating time is
little affected by magnitude of actuating current. However even definite time relay has
a characteristic which is slightly inverse. The characteristic with definite minimum
time and of inverse type is also called Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
characteristics. Referring to the three current transformers and relay coils connected in
star and the star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the
secondary current of CT's increases. These current flows through relay coils and the
relay picks-up, the relay contacts close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit
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breaker-operates The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays
(Fig. 2) responds to phase faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth fault.
Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to phase
and phase to earth faults are likely to occur. For proper functioning of over-current and
earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and polarity connections should be correct.

Figure 5.3 Schematic Diagram Of Over Current Relay

5.4 EARTHING FAULT RELAY

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth
Fault. Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth
faults are relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most cases. When
separate earth fault protection is not economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault
currents. However such protection lacks sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault
protection is generally provided. Earth fault protection senses earth fault current.
Following are the method of earth fault protection. Connections of CT's for Earth-
fault Protection

5.4.1 Residually connected Earth-fault Relay

Referring to Fig 5.4. In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line currents
is zero. Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.

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IR+ I Y +I B =0

The sum (IR+ I Y +I B ) is called residual current

The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it in the
absence of earth-fault,
Therefore, the re sidually connected earth-fault relay does not operate. However, in
presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and (IR+ I Y +I B ) is no more zero. Hence
flows through the earth-fault relay. If the residual current is above the pick-up value, the
earth-fault relay operates. In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or
away from the location of CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protected
Zone is not definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection

Figure 5.4 Residually Connected Earth Fault Relay

5.4.2 Earth-fault relay connected in neutral to earth circuit

Another method of connecting an earth-fault relay is illustrated in Fig 5. The relay is
connected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth
connection. Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting
earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth connection of that voltage level. The fault
current finds the return path through the earth and then flows through the neutral-to-
earth connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent on type of earthing
(resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault. In this type of protection, The
zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The protected area is not restricted to

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the transformer/generator winding alone. The relay senses the earth faults
beyond the transformer/generator winding hence such protection is called unrestricted
earth-fault protection. The earth-fault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit
depends upon the type of neutral Earthing. In case of large generators, voltage
transformer is connected between neutral a

Figure 5.5 Earth Fault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth

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Figure 5.6 Over Current & Earth Fault Relay Installed at 132KV Grid Station
Larkana Site

DETAIL OF COMBINED OVERCURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAYS

LOCATED AT 132 KV GRID STATION LARKANA

LOCATION TYPE TRANSFORMERS

RATING (KV)
T1 CDG (GEC.UK) 132

Table 5.1: Combined Over Current and Earth Fault Relay Data

5.5 DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or more
similar quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the current entering a section of
the system with the current leaving the section. Under normal operating conditions,
the two currents are equal but as soon as fault occurs, this condition no longer applies.
The difference between the incoming ant out going currents is arranged to flow
through the operating coil of the relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater

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than the pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the
faulty section.
It may be noted that almost any type of relay when connected in a particular way can
be made to operate as a differential relay. In other words, it is not so much the relay
construction as the way the relay is connected in a circuit that makes it a differential
relay. There are two fundamental system of differential or balanced protection

Figure 5.7 Connections of Differential Relay

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 Figure 5.8 Differential Relay Located at 132 KV Grid Station Larkana Site

5.6 DISTANCE RELAY

Distance relays respond to the voltage and current, i.e., the impedance, at the relay
location. The impedance per mile is fairly constant so these relays respond to the
distance between the relay location and the fault location.
As the power systems become more complex and the fault current varies with changes
in generation and system configuration, directional over current relays become
difficult to apply and to set for all contingencies, whereas the distance relay setting is
constant for a wide variety of changes external to the protected line.
There are three general distance relay types as shown in Fig 5.5 Each is distinguished
by its application and its operating characteristic.

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5.6.1 Impedance Relay
The impedance relay has a circular characteristic cantered at the origin of the R-X
diagram. It is non directional and is used primarily as a fault detector.

5.6.2 Admittance Relay

The admittance relay is the most commonly used distance relay. It is the tripping relay
in pilot schemes and as the backup relay in step distance schemes. Its characteristic
passes through the origin of the R-X diagram and is therefore directional. In the
electromechanical design it is circular, and in the solid state design, it can be shaped
to correspond to the transmission line impedance.

5.6.3 Reactance Relay

The reactance relay is a straight-line characteristic that responds only to the reactance
of the protected line. It is no directional and is used to supplement the admittance
relay as a tripping relay to make the overall protection independent of resistance. It is
particularly useful on short lines where the fault arc resistance is the same order of
magnitude as the line length.

Figure 5.9 shows a three-zone step distance relaying scheme that provides
instantaneous protection over 80–90% of the protected line section (Zone 1) and time-
delayed protection over the remainder of the line (Zone 2) plus backup protection
over the adjacent line section. Zone 3 also provides backup protection for adjacent
lines sections. In a three-phase power system, 10 types of faults are possible: three
single phase-to-ground, three phase-to-phase, three double phase-to-ground, and one
three-phase fault.

It is essential that the relays provided have the same setting regardless of the type of
fault. This is possible if the relays are connected to respond to delta voltages and
currents. The delta quantities are defined as the difference between any two phase
quantities, for example, Ea – Eb is the delta quantity between phases a and b. In
general, for a multiphase fault between phases x and y,

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 Figure 5.9 Reactance Relay

Three-zone step distance relaying to protect 100% of a line and backup the
neighboring line.

Where x and y can be a, b, or c and Z1 is the positive sequence impedance between

the relay location and the fault. For ground distance relays, the faulted phase voltage,
and a compensated faulted phase current must be used.

Where m is a constant depending on the line impedances, and I0 is the zero sequence
current in the transmission line. A full complement of relays consists of three phase
distance relays and three ground distance relays. This is the preferred protective
scheme for high voltage and extra high voltage systems.

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 Figure 5.10 Control Panel Installed at 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site

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 CHAPTER: 06
CONCLUSION

6.1 CONCLUSION

132KV Grid Station Larkana Site is located near Otha Chowk, in chapter one, we
studied the general introduction of grid stations, types, area and introduction of
132KV Grid Station Larkana site. In chapter two, the power transformer, types of
power transformer, parts of power transformer and cooling methods of transformer,
protection of transformer and the transformer used in the 132KV Grid Station Larkana
Site and also specification of auxiliary transformer used in Grid Station Larkana Site
are studied. In chapter three, we have discussed the switchgear, CTs, PTs, isolators,
circuit breakers & its types, station batteries, single line diagram, technical data of bus
bar used in 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site and also protection of them. In chapter
four, we learnt and observed the feeders, section of size of feeders, types of feeders &
also 11KV feeders outgoing from 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site. In the last and
Chapter Five, we gained about protective relays, over current relays and
characteristics of relay units, earthing fault relay, differential relay, distance relay and
also relays used in 132KV Grid Station Larkana Site. It is very important grid station
for rural areas & urban areas of Larkana. Eleven feeders are taken out from this grid
station, from which one feeder is specially taken out for tube wells and two feeders to
supply to VIP line of Larkana, one feeder is used by grid station for its auxiliaries &
other feeders to supply rural areas of Larkana. This shows its importance therefore, it
is very important to replace single bus single breaker with double bus double breaker
scheme. Current rating of each feeder is 400 A. SF6 circuit breaker is connected on
132KV high voltage side. Installed capacity of 132KV capacitor is 24 MVAR. Present
installed capacity of 11KV capacitor bank of Transformer (20/26 MVA) is 2.4
MVAR.

6.2 RECOMMENDATION

There is only one Transformer which feeds eleven feeders and is over loaded, load
should be reduced and instead of eleven feeders only eight or seven feeders should be
taken out from it, for other three or four feeders another transformer must be installed.
Bus bar should be replaced by conductor with rating of 1000A. SF6 circuit breakers
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are best due to their operation but another circuit should be added to meet load
demand and keep the continuity of supply in case of shutdown.

Another 132KV/11KV transformer should be installed to meet future increasing load

demand. The one transformer is not sufficient to supply all the eleven feeders. The
MVAR capacity of 132KV circuit breakers should be increased to at least 32 MVAR
by adding (26 new cells) each of rating 40 KVAR.

MVAR capacity of 11KV capacitor bank of Transformer (20/26MVA) should be

increased to at least 4.8 MVAR by adding (24 new cells) each of rating 200KVAR.

To decrease thermal degradation in the summer another pumped air forced cooling
system must be installed and temporary cooling system must be installed for
transformer installed at 132KV Grid station Larkana, because transformer is running
above 80% load.

Dehydration of transformer’s oil must be done to eliminate carbonization. 11KV bus

couplers must be installed for continuity of supply in case of shutdown on any feeder

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REFERENCES

 Principle of power system by V.K Mehta and Remit Mehta

 Fundamentals of power system protection by Y.G Paithankar, S.R Bhide
 Electrical power system by C.L Wadhwa
 Electrical technology by B.L Theraja
 www.Wikipedia.com
 Mr. Hussain Bux Pirzado in charge 132KV grid station Larkana Site
 www.sayedsaad.com
 Practical Power System Protection by L.G. Hewitson,
 Power System Protection: Static Relays by T. S. Madhava Rao
 Power System Protection by the Electricity Training Association
 Power System Protection by PM Anderson

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